1.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
2.
Harvey Hancock
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Hancock was born in Mendon, Cache County, Utah on January 2,1900, to Joseph William Hancock and Agnes Richards. Hancock enlisted in the infantry in World War I, in 1925, he graduated from the University of Utah, where he had been a member of the fraternity Sigma Chi, editor of the Utah Humbug, and the varsity football captain. Hancock worked as a reporter in Salt Lake City. After ten years of news, Hancock changed careers from journalism to the industry by taking a management position with United Airlines. In his promotional role with the Pan American, Hancock became acquainted with people all over California. He attracted attention from Republican Party stalwarts and was asked in 1949 to help manage Nixons senatorial campaign, Hancock and Dinkelspiel ran the northern half of California, while Bernard Brennan and Murray Chotiner covered the south. Hancock estimated that his half of the campaign would cost $34,050, Hancock set up Nixon-for-Senator committees in counties and large cities. Hancock arranged for radio spots, billboard coverage and newspaper articles, in concert with Chotiners efforts, when Chotiner produced the infamous pink sheet, which implied that Helen Gahagan Douglas had Communist sympathies, Hancock refused to distribute it in Northern California. Nixon won the race in 1950, and Hancock was picked to manage the 1952 presidential campaign for Eisenhower and Nixon, Eisenhower and Nixon won the race. In the 1970s, Hancock lived in Carmel-by-the-Sea, Hancock died on January 8,1996 in Monterey, California
3.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
4.
Glenn T. Seaborg
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Glenn Theodore Seaborg was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His work in this also led to his development of the actinide concept. He advised ten US Presidents – from Harry S, throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and he was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards, the list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid. He was an author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles. He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Whos Who in America, Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19,1912, the son of Herman Theodore and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger and his family spoke Swedish at home. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate. About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn, Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid. Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor of degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles. He worked his way through school as a stevedore and an assistant at Firestone. Seaborg was a member of the chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, for several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley
5.
Monte Rio, California
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Monte Rio is a census-designated place in Sonoma County, California along the Russian River near the Pacific Ocean. The town of Guerneville lies east of Monte Rio, and Jenner is slightly north-west, the population was 1,152 at the 2010 census, up from 1,104 at the 2000 census. Bohemian Grove is located in Monte Rio, starting in the 1870s, Monte Rio was a stop on the North Pacific Coast Railroad connecting Cazadero to the Sausalito, California ferry. Redwood lumber from local sawmills was shipped to build San Francisco, after the sawmills left, the area became known as Vacation Wonderland with trains transporting San Franciscans to summer cabins and even a seven story hotel downtown. Portions of the 1942 Academy Award-winning film Holiday Inn were filmed at the Village Inn Resort in Monte Rio, the trains no longer run, and the area now is mainly inhabited by full year residents. The club purchased dozens of other parcels in the area, and now owns 2,712 acres, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.0 square miles. 1.9 square miles of it is land and 0.07 square miles of it is water, the 2010 United States Census reported that Monte Rio had a population of 1,152. The population density was 582.9 people per square mile, the racial makeup of Monte Rio was 1,047 White,10 African American,6 Native American,11 Asian,1 Pacific Islander,16 from other races, and 61 from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 79 persons, the Census reported that 93. 6% of the population lived in households and 6. 4% lived in non-institutionalized group quarters. There were 42 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 37 same-sex married couples or partnerships,247 households were made up of individuals and 61 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.87, there were 226 families, the average family size was 2.54. The median age was 50.7 years, for every 100 females there were 119.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 125.2 males, there were 930 housing units at an average density of 470.5 per square mile, of which 56. 9% were owner-occupied and 43. 1% were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 3. 7%, the vacancy rate was 9. 1%. 57. 0% of the lived in owner-occupied housing units and 36. 5% lived in rental housing units. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,104 people,549 households, the population density was 753.5 per square mile. There were 807 housing units at a density of 550.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 91. 76% White,0. 72% African American,0. 54% Native American,0. 72% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander,1. 99% from other races, and 4. 17% from two or more races
6.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Bohemian Club
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Today, the club has a diverse membership of many local and global leaders, ranging from artists and musicians to businessmen. The Bohemian Club has two locations, the City Club and the Bohemian Grove, the clubhouse contains dining rooms, meeting rooms, a bar, a library, an art gallery, a theater, and guestrooms. In addition to that ceremony, devised by co-founder James F. Bowman in 1881, the more elaborate of the two is the Grove Play, or High Jinks, the more ribald is called Low Jinks. More often than not, the productions are original creations of the Associate members, during the war, reporters began to assume the title bohemian, and newspapermen in general took up the moniker. Bohemian became synonymous with newspaper writer, california journalist Bret Harte first wrote as The Bohemian in The Golden Era in 1861, with this persona taking part in many satirical doings. Harte described San Francisco as a sort of Bohemia of the West, mark Twain called himself and poet Charles Warren Stoddard bohemians in 1867. The Bohemian Club was originally formed in April 1872 by and for journalists who wished to promote a connection among men who enjoyed the arts. The boys wanted a place where they could get together after work and that was the start of the Bohemian Club, and it was not an unmixed blessing for the Chronicle because the boys would go there sometimes when they should have reported at the office. Very often when Dan OConnell sat down to a dinner there he would forget that he had a pocketful of notes for an important story. Journalists were to be members, artists and musicians were to be honorary members. The group quickly relaxed its rules for membership to permit people to join who had little artistic talent. Eventually, the original members were in the minority and the wealthy. Club member and poet George Sterling responded to this redefinition, Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a Bohemian, but that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism, the first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the Seven Arts, the other is poverty. Despite his purist views, Sterling associated very closely with the Bohemian Club, oscar Wilde, upon visiting the club in 1882, is reported to have said I never saw so many well-dressed, well-fed, business-looking Bohemians in my life. A number of past membership lists are in public domain, some prominent figures have been given honorary membership, such as Richard Nixon and William Randolph Hearst. Members have included some U. S. presidents, many cabinet officials, major military contractors, oil companies, banks, utilities, and national media have high-ranking officials as club members or guests. Many members are, or have been, on the board of directors of several of these corporations, however, artists, the clubs bylaws require ten percent of the membership be accomplished artists of all types
9.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
10.
Gentlemen's club
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Today, some clubs are more accommodating about the gender and social status of their members. The original clubs were established in the West End of London, today, the area of St Jamess is still sometimes called clubland. Clubs took over parts of the role occupied by coffee houses in 18th century London. The first clubs, such as Whites, Brookss and Boodles, were aristocratic in flavour, and provided an environment for gambling, the 19th century brought an explosion in the popularity of clubs, particularly around the 1880s. At their height, London had over 400 such establishments and this expansion can be explained in part by the large extensions of the franchise in the Reform Acts of 1832,1867, and 1885. Each time, hundreds of more men were qualified to vote. Each of the three great Reform Acts corresponded with an expansion of clubs, as did a further extension of the franchise in 1918. Many of these new, more inclusive clubs proved just as reluctant as their forebears to admit new members when the franchise was further extended. Club Life in London, an 1866 book, begins, The Club in the general acceptation of the term, may be regarded as one of the earliest offshoots of mans habitual gregariousness and social inclination. An increasing number of clubs were characterised by their members interest in politics, literature, sport, art, automobiles, travel, particular countries, or some other pursuit. In other cases, the connection between the members was membership of the branch of the armed forces, or the same school or university. Thus the growth of clubs provides an indicator as to what was considered a part of the Establishment at the time. This came to include professionals who had to earn their income, most gentlemen had only one club, which closely corresponded with the trade or social / political identity he felt most defined him, but a few people belonged to several. Members of the aristocracy and politicians were likely to have several clubs, the record number of memberships is believed to have been with Earl Mountbatten, who had nineteen in the 1960s. Public entertainments, such as performances and the like, were not a feature of this sort of club. The clubs were, in effect, second homes in the centre of London where men could relax, mix with their friends, play games, get a meal. Expatriates, when staying in England, could use their clubs, as the East India Club or the Oriental Club and they allowed upper- and upper-middle-class men with modest incomes to spend their time in grand surroundings. The richer clubs were built by the architects as the finest country houses of the time
11.
Official
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An official is someone who holds an office in an organization or government and participates in the exercise of authority. A government official or functionary is an official who is involved in administration or government, through either election, appointment, selection. A bureaucrat or civil servant is a member of the bureaucracy, an elected official is a person who is an official by virtue of an election. Officials may also be appointed ex officio, some official positions may be inherited. A person who holds an office is referred to as an incumbent. The word official as a noun has been recorded since the Middle English period and it comes from the Old French official, from the Latin officialis, the noun use of the original adjective officialis from officium. The meaning person in charge of public work or duty was first recorded in 1555. The adjective is first attested in English in 1533 via the Old French oficial, the informal term officialese, the jargon of officialdom, was first recorded in 1884. An officialis was the term for any member of the officium of a high dignitary such as a governor. The 1983 Code of Canon Law gives precedence to the title Judicial Vicar, the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches uses only the title Judicial Vicar. The title of principal, together with that of vicar-general, has in Anglicanism been merged in that of Diocesan chancellor of a diocese. The term officer is close to being a synonym, a functionary is someone who carries out a particular role within an organization, this again is quite a close synonym for official, as a noun, but with connotations closer to bureaucrat. Any such person acts in their capacity, in carrying out the duties of their office, they are also said to officiate. A public official is an official of central or local government, some examples, An official holiday is a public holiday, having national recognition. An official language is a recognised by a government, for its own use in administration. An official spokesperson is an individual empowered to speak for the government, or some part of it such as a ministry, on a range of issues and on the record for the media. An official statement is an issued by an organisation as an expression of its position or opinion. Official policy is policy publicly acknowledged and defended by an organisation, in these cases unofficial is an antonym, and variously may mean informal, unrecognised, personal or unacknowledged
12.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
13.
Herbert Hoover
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Herbert Clark Hoover was an American politician who served as the 31st President of the United States from 1929 to 1933 during the Great Depression. He was defeated in a landslide in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D, a lifelong Quaker, he became a successful mining engineer around the globe and retired in 1912. In the First World War he built a reputation as a humanitarian by leading relief efforts in Belgium during the war. He headed the U. S. Food Administration during World War I and his reputation as a Progressive businessman fighting for efficiency and elimination of waste was built as the Secretary of Commerce 1921-28. Hoover was a leader in the Efficiency Movement, which held that every institution public and they all could be improved by experts who could identify the problems and solve them. He also believed in the importance of volunteerism and of the role of individuals in society, in the presidential election of 1928, Hoover easily won the Republican nomination, despite having no elected-office experience. Although Hoover never raised the issue, some of his supporters did in mobilizing anti-Catholic sentiment against his opponent Al Smith. He reluctantly approved the Smoot–Hawley Tariff of 1930, which sent foreign trade spiralling down and he believed it was essential to balance the budget despite falling tax revenue, so he raised the tax rates. The economy kept falling, and the unemployment rate rose to 25%, with industry, mining. This downward spiral, plus his support for policies that had lost favor, set the stage for Hoovers overwhelming defeat in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. Most historians agree that Hoovers defeat in the 1932 election was caused primarily by the downward economic spiral, Hoover became a conservative spokesman for opposition to the domestic and foreign policies of the New Deal. He opposed entry into the Second World War and was not given any role to play, in 1946, President Harry S. Truman liked Hoover and appointed him to survey war-torn Germany which produced a number of reports that changed U. S. occupation policy. In 1947, Truman appointed Hoover to head the Hoover Commission, by the time of his death, he had rehabilitated his image. Nevertheless, Hoover is often ranked by historians as one of the worst U. S. presidents. Herbert Hoover was born on August 10,1874, in West Branch, Iowa, he would become the only President so far born in that state and the first born west of the Mississippi River. His father, Jesse Hoover, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner, of German, German-Swiss, Jesse Hoover and his father Eli had moved to Iowa from Ohio twenty years previously. Hoovers mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was born in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, both of his parents were Quakers. At about age two he contracted the croup and he was so ill that he was momentarily thought to have died, until he was resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn
14.
Waldorf Astoria New York
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The Waldorf Astoria New York is a luxury hotel in Manhattan, New York City. The hotel has housed in two historic landmark buildings in New York. The first, bearing the name, was built in two stages, as the Waldorf Hotel and the Astor Hotel, which accounts for its dual name. That original site was situated on Astor family properties along Fifth Avenue, opened in 1893 and it was demolished in 1929 to make way for the construction of the Empire State Building. The current hotel was the worlds tallest hotel from 1931 until 1963, an icon of glamour and luxury, the current Waldorf Astoria is one of the worlds most prestigious and best known hotels. Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts is a division of Hilton Hotels, on July 1,2016, Anbang announced that it would convert some of the Waldorfs hotel rooms into condominiums, closing the hotel for a three-year renovation on March 1,2017. The Waldorf Astoria and Towers has a total of 1,413 hotel rooms as of 2014, the most expensive room, the Presidential Suite, is designed with Georgian-style furniture to emulate that of the White House. It was the residence of Herbert Hoover from his retirement for over 30 years, the hotel has three main restaurants, Peacock Alley, The Bull and Bear Steak House, and La Chine, a new Chinese restaurant that replaced Oscars Brasserie in late 2015. Sir Harrys Bar, named after British explorer Sir Harry Johnston, is the home of the Rob Roy, the name of the hotel is ultimately derived from the town of Walldorf in Germany, the ancestral home of the prominent German-American Astor family that originated there. The hotel was known as The Waldorf-Astoria with a single hyphen, as recalled by a popular expression and song. The sign was changed to a hyphen, looking similar to an equals sign. The double hyphen visually represents Peacock Alley, the hallway between the two hotels that once stood where the Empire State building now stands today. The use of the hyphen was discontinued by parent company Hilton in 2009. The hotel has since known as the Waldorf Astoria New York, without any hyphen. The original hotel started as two hotels on Fifth Avenue built by feuding relatives, the original hotel stood 225 feet high, with a frontage of about 100 feet on Fifth Avenue, with an area of 69,475 square feet. William Astor, motivated in part by a dispute with his aunt Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor, had built the Waldorf Hotel next door to her house, on the site of his fathers mansion. Boldt was described as Mild mannered, undignified, unassuming, resembling a typical German professor with his close-cropped beard which he kept fastidiously trimmed, and his pince-nez glasses on a black silk cord. Boldt continued to own the Bellevue even after his relationship with the Astors blossomed, at first, the Waldorf appeared destined for failure
15.
Manhattan Project
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The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
16.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
17.
Ernest Lawrence
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Ernest Orlando Lawrence was a pioneering American nuclear scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron. A graduate of the University of South Dakota and University of Minnesota, in 1928, he was hired as an associate professor of physics at the University of California, becoming the youngest full professor there two years later. In its library one evening, Lawrence was intrigued by a diagram of an accelerator that produced high-energy particles and he contemplated how it could be made compact, and came up with an idea for a circular accelerating chamber between the poles of an electromagnet. The result was the first cyclotron, Lawrence went on to build a series of ever larger and more expensive cyclotrons. His Radiation Laboratory became a department of the University of California in 1936. In addition to the use of the cyclotron for physics, Lawrence also supported its use in research into medical uses of radioisotopes, during World War II, Lawrence developed electromagnetic isotope separation at the Radiation Laboratory. It used devices known as calutrons, a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer, a huge electromagnetic separation plant was built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which came to be called Y-12. The process was inefficient, but it worked, Lawrence strongly backed Edward Tellers campaign for a second nuclear weapons laboratory, which Lawrence located in Livermore, California. After his death, the Regents of the University of California renamed the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, chemical element number 103 was named lawrencium in his honor after its discovery at Berkeley in 1961. Ernest Orlando Lawrence was born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8,1901 and he had a younger brother, John H. Lawrence, who would become a physician, and was a pioneer in the field of nuclear medicine. Growing up, his best friend was Merle Tuve, who would go on to become a highly accomplished nuclear physicist. Lawrence attended the schools of Canton and Pierre, then enrolled at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. He completed his bachelors degree in chemistry in 1922, and his Master of Arts degree in physics from the University of Minnesota in 1923 under the supervision of William Francis Gray Swann. For his masters thesis, Lawrence built an apparatus that rotated an ellipsoid through a magnetic field. He was elected a member of Sigma Xi, and, on Swanns recommendation, instead of using it to travel to Europe, as was customary at the time, he remained at Yale University with Swann as a researcher. With Jesse Beams from the University of Virginia, Lawrence continued to research the photoelectric effect and they showed that photoelectrons appeared within 2 x 10−9 seconds of the photons striking the photoelectric surface—close to the limit of measurement at the time. Reducing the emission time by switching the light source on and off rapidly made the spectrum of energy emitted broader, in conformance with Werner Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. In 1926 and 1927, Lawrence received offers of assistant professorships from the University of Washington in Seattle, Yale promptly matched the offer of the assistant professorship, but at a salary of $3,000
18.
J. Robert Oppenheimer
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Julius Robert Oppenheimer was an American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. After the war, Oppenheimer became chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the newly created United States Atomic Energy Commission and he used that position to lobby for international control of nuclear power to avert nuclear proliferation and a nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union. Nine years later, President John F. Kennedy awarded him with the Enrico Fermi Award as a gesture of political rehabilitation. As a teacher and promoter of science, he is remembered as a father of the American school of theoretical physics that gained world prominence in the 1930s. After World War II, he director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. Julius came to America with no money, no baccalaureate studies and he got a job in a textile company and within a decade was an executive with the company. The Oppenheimers were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, in 1912 the family moved to an apartment on the 11th floor of 155 Riverside Drive, near West 88th Street, Manhattan, an area known for luxurious mansions and townhouses. Their art collection included works by Pablo Picasso and Édouard Vuillard, Robert had a younger brother, Frank, who also became a physicist. Oppenheimer was initially educated at Alcuin Preparatory School, and in 1911 he entered the Ethical Culture Society School and this had been founded by Felix Adler to promote a form of ethical training based on the Ethical Culture movement, whose motto was Deed before Creed. His father had been a member of the Society for many years, Oppenheimer was a versatile scholar, interested in English and French literature, and particularly in mineralogy. He completed the third and fourth grades in one year, during his final year, he became interested in chemistry. He entered Harvard College a year late, at age 18, Oppenheimer majored in chemistry, but Harvard required science students to also study history, literature, and philosophy or mathematics. He compensated for his start by taking six courses each term and was admitted to the undergraduate honor society Phi Beta Kappa. He was attracted to physics by a course on thermodynamics that was taught by Percy Bridgman. He graduated summa cum laude in three years, in 1924 Oppenheimer was informed that he had been accepted into Christs College, Cambridge. He wrote to Ernest Rutherford requesting permission to work at the Cavendish Laboratory, Bridgman provided Oppenheimer with a recommendation, which conceded that Oppenheimers clumsiness in the laboratory made it apparent his forte was not experimental but rather theoretical physics. Rutherford was unimpressed, but Oppenheimer went to Cambridge in the hope of landing another offer and he was ultimately accepted by J. J. Thomson on condition that he complete a basic laboratory course. He developed a relationship with his tutor, Patrick Blackett
19.
S-1 Executive Committee
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It laid the groundwork for the Manhattan Project by initiating and coordinating the early research efforts in the United States, and liaising with the Tube Alloys Project in Britain. The results were corroborated by experimental physicists, most notably Fermi. The possibility that Nazi Germany might develop nuclear weapons was particularly alarming to scientists from Germany, two of them, Leo Szilard and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter to U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. At this time the United States was still neutral in the war and this letter was signed by Albert Einstein on August 2,1939, but its delivery was delayed because of the outbreak of World War II in Europe with the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. The letter was eventually hand-delivered to Roosevelt by the economist Alexander Sachs on October 11,1939. On that date he met with the President, the Presidents secretary, Brigadier General Edwin Pa Watson, Roosevelt summed up the conversation as, Alex, what you are after is to see that the Nazis dont blow us up. He told Watson, This requires action, as a result of the letter Roosevelt asked Lyman J. Briggs, the director of the National Bureau of Standards, to organize an Advisory Committee on Uranium. Federal advisory committees had been a feature of the government since 1794. Most are short-lived, terminating after a couple of years, with their membership changing when a new president takes office, the committee consisted of Briggs, Adamson and Hoover. Its first meeting was held on October 21,1939, at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, Einstein was invited but declined to attend. The Advisory Committee on Uranium reported to the President on November 1,1939, the committee recommended that the government purchase 50 short tons of uranium oxide and 4 short tons of graphite for chain reaction experiments. It also recommended that Einstein, Karl Compton, George B, Pegram, and Sachs be added to the committee. When he read the report, Sachs felt that it was too academic, experiments with the fission of uranium were already proceeding at universities and research institutes in the United States. Alfred Lee Loomis was supporting Ernest Lawrence at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, Vannevar Bush was also doing similar research at the Carnegie Institution. Nier from the University of Minnesota prepare samples of uranium enriched in uranium-234, uranium-235 and these were ready in February 1940, and Dunning, Eugene T. Booth and Aristid von Grosse then carried out a series of experiments, Pegram forwarded the results to Briggs on March 11,1940, they were subsequently published to the Physical Reviews March 15 and April 15,1940 issues. The New York Times reported that conferees argued the probability of some scientist blowing up a portion of the earth with a tiny bit of uranium. The Advisory Committee on Uranium met again at the National Bureau of Standards on April 27,1940
20.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
21.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
22.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
23.
Standard Oil
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Standard Oil Co. Inc. was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company. Established in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller as a corporation in Ohio and its controversial history as one of the worlds first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly. The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, trust-busting critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened other businesses. John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder and its successors such as ExxonMobil, BP, and Chevron are still counted among the companies with the largest income worldwide. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold, after 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, Standard Oils name came from the companys manufacturing standards, which preceded todays ASTM standards. In 1870 Rockefeller incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio, of the initial 10,000 shares, John D. In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine and he quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy formation to a system of committees, but always remained the largest shareholder. Authority was centralized in the main office in Cleveland. In response to state trying to limit the scale of companies, Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of organizing. On January 2,1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across dozens of states and this organization proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this trust form. The company grew by increasing sales and also through acquisitions, after purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. Smaller companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not producing enough oil to qualify for discounts, in 1872, Rockefeller joined the South Improvement Co. which would have allowed him to receive rebates for shipping and receive drawbacks on oil his competitors shipped. But when this became known, competitors convinced the Pennsylvania Legislature to revoke South Improvements charter. No oil was shipped under this arrangement. Standards actions and secret transport deals helped its kerosene price to drop from 58 to 26 cents from 1865 to 1870, competitors disliked the companys business practices, but consumers liked the lower prices. Standard Oil, being formed well before the discovery of the Spindletop oil field, the company was perceived to own and control all aspects of the trade. In 1885, Standard Oil of Ohio moved its headquarters from Cleveland to its permanent headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York City
24.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
25.
Bohemian Grove
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Bohemian Grove is a 2, 700-acre campground located at 20601 Bohemian Avenue, in Monte Rio, California, belonging to a private San Francisco-based mens art club known as the Bohemian Club. In mid-July each year, Bohemian Grove hosts a two-week, three-weekend encampment of some of the most prominent men in the world, members may invite guests to the Grove. Guests may be invited to the Grove for either the Spring Jinks in June or the main July encampment. m, after 40 years of membership, the men earn Old Guard status, giving them reserved seating at the Groves daily talks, as well as other perquisites. Former U. S. president Herbert Hoover was inducted into the Old Guard on March 19,1953, Redwood branches from the Grove were flown to the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City, where they were used to decorate a banquet room for the celebration. In his acceptance speech, Hoover compared the honor of the Old Guard status to his frequent role as veteran counselor to later presidents, the Club motto is Weaving Spiders Come Not Here, which implies that outside concerns and business deals are to be left outside. When gathered in groups, Bohemians usually adhere to the injunction, important political and business deals have been developed at the Grove. The Grove is particularly famous for a Manhattan Project planning meeting took place there in September 1942. Those attending this meeting included Ernest Lawrence, U. C, Berkeley colleague J. Robert Oppenheimer, and various military officials. The S-1 Executive Committee heads, such as the presidents of Harvard, Yale, at the time, Oppenheimer was not an S-1 member, although Lawrence and Oppenheimer hosted the meeting. Grove members take pride in this event and often relate the story to new attendees. However, other behavior at this famous campground has led to numerous exaggerations, one such documented example was former president, Richard Nixons comments from a May 13,1971 recording that, The Bohemian Grove, which I attend from time to time. It is the most faggy goddamned thing you could ever imagine, the tradition of a summer encampment was established six years after the Bohemian Club was formed in 1872. Henry Harry Edwards, an actor and founding member, announced that he was relocating to New York City to further his career. On June 29,1878, somewhat fewer than 100 Bohemians gathered in the Redwoods in Marin County near Taylorville for an evening party in Edwards honor. Freely flowing liquor and some Japanese lanterns put a glow on the festivities and this festive gathering was repeated the next year without Edwards, and became the clubs yearly encampment. From 1893 Bohemians rented the current location, and in 1899 purchased it from Melvin Cyrus Meeker who had developed a logging operation in the area. Gradually over the decades, members of the Club purchased land surrounding the original location to the perimeter of the basin in which it resides. Writer and journalist William Henry Irwin said of the Grove, You come upon it suddenly, one step and its glory is over you
26.
Henry Edwards (entomologist)
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Henry Edwards, known as Harry, was an English stage actor, writer and entomologist who gained fame in Australia, San Francisco and New York City for his theater work. Edwards was drawn to the early in life, and he appeared in amateur productions in London. After sailing to Australia, Edwards appeared professionally in Shakespearean plays and light comedies primarily in Melbourne and Sydney. In San Francisco, Edwards was a member of the Bohemian Club. As well, Edwards cemented his reputation as a preeminent stage actor, after writing a series of influential studies on Pacific Coast butterflies and moths he was elected life member of the California Academy of Sciences. Relocating to the East Coast, Edwards spent a time in Boston theater. This led to a connection to Wallacks Theatre and further renown in New York City, there, Edwards edited three volumes of the journal Papilio and published a major work about the life of the butterfly. His large collection of insect specimens served as the foundation of the American Museum of Natural Historys butterfly, Edwards wide-ranging studies and observations of insects brought him into contact with specimens not yet classified. Upon discovering previously unknown insects he would give them names, which led to a number of butterfly, moth, from his theater interests to entomology, Edwards carried forward an appreciation of Shakespeare—in the designation of new insect species he favored female character names from Shakespeares plays. Henry Edwards was born to Hannah and Thomas Edwards at Brook House in Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire, England, on August 27,1827, from his older brother William, he picked up an interest in examining insects. He collected butterflies as a hobby, and studied them under the tutelage of Edward Doubleday. His solicitor father intended a law career for his son, but after a period of unsuccessful study, Edwards took a position at a counting house in London. He then journeyed to join his brother William who had settled in Australia, nine miles north-west of Melbourne along the bank of Merri Creek, a location then called Merrivale. Aboard the sailing ship Ganges from March to June 1853, he wrote descriptions of such as the albatross that he encountered for the first time. After arriving in Melbourne, Edwards began collecting and cataloging the insects he found on his brothers land, within two years, he had gathered 1,676 species of insects, shot and mounted 200 birds, and pressed some 200 botanical specimens. This collection and that of William Kershaw were purchased by Frederick McCoy to form the nucleus of the new National Museum of Victoria, the first Australian stage appearance by Edwards was with George Selth Coppins company at the Queens Theatre in Melbourne. Later, he joined Gustavus Vaughan Brookes theatrical group, in December that year Brooke retired from management, yielding the reins of his company to the team of Edwards and George Fawcett Rowe, English actor and playwright. As a twist to pique public interest, Edwards and Brooke exchanged roles after two weeks run, the renowned entomologist and collector William Sharp Macleay was sought out by Edwards whenever his stage appearances took him to Sydney
27.
California Theatre (San Francisco)
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The California Theatre, was located at 414 Bush Street, San Francisco. It was built in 1869 by William Ralston, at time the treasurer of the Bank of California. Bugbee & Son were the architects and the theatre cost $250,000 to build, the original theatre was demolished and rebuilt in 1889. It was destroyed in the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, the former site is now a California Historical Landmark, with a historical marker commemorating the theatre and its artists. He was right, for the theatre was successful beyond his expectations and it opened on January 18,1869 with a performance of Bulwer-Lyttons play Money. It was the theatre in the city until its demolition in 1888. There were elaborate murals of San Francisco painted by local artist G. J, denny and a panoramic view of San Francisco Bay on the drop curtain. The theatre claimed to be the first on the West Coast to use calcium light with parabolic reflectors, aimed from the house, to light up the stage. On the first anniversary of the opening, a Scandinavian bandleader had the following to say. In spite of the success, the Bank of California. Soon thereafter, Ralston went swimming and drowned, leading to speculation that he might have committed suicide, the theatre then went into a decline. In addition to plays, the theatre was also host to opera, the new theatre was the first on the West Coast to be lighted exclusively with electricity. The periodical, The Electrical World, had the following to say about the new theatre and it is perfectly fire-proof, and has 19 exits. The main entrance, on Bush street, is formed by a Roman arch of massive proportions, the vestibule is rectangular in shape, is finished in antique oak panelling, with pilasters and arabesques, and is lighted by thirty-two 16 candle-power lamps and an electrolier of eight 82s. In the beautiful foyer is another large electrolier, the ceiling consists of three concave divisions extending from wall to wall parallel with the front of the stage, gradually rising upward, and separated by narrow panels or chords. It is crossed by four bands of color, in which, as well as in the chords. All the electroliers were specially designed by J. M. Wood, of Chicago, for producing winter and moonlight effects, and as a substitute for calcium light, six movable bunch lights, with silvered reflectors, are provided. The rheostats, which all the lamps in the house, are of novel design
28.
Entomology
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Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use, Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture, but scientific study began only as recently as the 16th century. William Kirby is widely considered as the father of Entomology, in collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subjects foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world, earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular. Most insects can easily be recognized to such as Hymenoptera or Coleoptera. However, insects other than Lepidoptera are typically identifiable to genus or species only through the use of Identification keys and Monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a large number of species and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA, in 1994 the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called The Associate Certified Entomologist. To qualify as a true entomologist an individual would require an advanced degree. Trichopterology - caddis flies Vespology - Social wasps Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, there are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. C. Y. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas University of Minnesota, big Fleas Have Little Fleas, How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson,208 pages, ISBN 0-8165-2544-7. Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson, borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. — a classic textbook in North America, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Capinera, JL.2008. Iowa State Entomology Index of Internet Resources, archived from the original on 2006-11-14. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06, archived from the original on 2007-02-07. Compendium of References on Flies and Disease, archived from the original on 2006-10-15. USDA Collecting methods. Detailed instructions Arthropa Extensive photo album sorted by topic, Tereshkin Scientific illustration in entomology Tereshkin, A.2008, Methodology of a scientific drawings preparation in entomology on example of ichneumon flies
29.
California Academy of Sciences
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The California Academy of Sciences is a natural history museum in San Francisco, California, that is among the largest museums of natural history in the world, housing over 26 million specimens. Completely rebuilt in 2008, the building covers 400,000 square feet and is among the newest natural history museums in the United States, the primary building in Golden Gate Park reopened on September 27,2008. The Academy Fellows are, in turn, ominated by their colleagues, underlying these operations is a staff of hundreds of employees who operate the day-to-day functions without which the Academy could not offer its programs. The operations branch of the Academy is divided into three departments, Building Operations, Guest Operations, and IT Services, in fact, unbeknownst to most patrons, research and administrative facilities occupy nearly 50% of the Academys physical structure. Prior to being replaced, the old Academy building attracted approximately half a million each year. As has been the case from the start, the main thrust of the exhibits is natural history, Morrison Planetarium - features the worlds largest completely digital planetarium dome measuring in at 27. There also is an emphasis on environmental concerns, with all the various departments collaborating closely to focus on systematic biology. Academy researchers study life around the world, a 2011 expedition to the Philippines discovered an estimated 300 species new to science, the Academy publishes the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, as well as Occasional Papers, Memoirs, and Special Publications. The California Academy of Natural Sciences was founded in 1853, only three years after California joined the United States, becoming the first society of its kind in the Western US. Its stated aim was to undertake a systematic survey of every portion of the State. It was renamed as the more inclusive California Academy of Sciences in 1868, in 1892, Alice Eastwood, a botanist, was hired by the Academy and worked there until she retired in 1949. Fortunately, the 1905-1906 scientific collecting expedition to the Galápagos Islands already was underway, in 1916, the Academy moved to the North American Hall of Birds and Mammals in Golden Gate Park, the first building on the site that was to become its permanent home. In 1923, the Steinhart Aquarium was added, followed in 1934 by the Simson African Hall, the post-war years saw a flurry of new construction on the site, the Science Hall was added in 1951, followed by the Morrison Planetarium in 1952. The Morrison Planetarium was the seventh major planetarium to open in the United States and featured a one-of-a-kind star projector, the Academy Projector produced a remarkably natural-looking star field. It projected irregularly shaped stars, rather than the circular stars projected by many optical star projectors, the irregular shapes were created by placing variously sized grains of silicon carbide onto the glass star plates by hand, then aluminizing the plates, and brushing away the silicon carbide grains. In 1959, the Malliard Library, Eastwood Hall of Botany, in 1969, another new building, Cowell Hall, was added to the site. In 1976, several new galleries were opened, and the year, in 1977. Prior to the old building being torn down in 2005, there was a Life through Time gallery, housing a display on evolution
30.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
31.
Sequoia sempervirens
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Sequoia sempervirens /sᵻˈkɔɪ. ə sɛmpərˈvaɪrənz/ is the sole living species of the genus Sequoia in the cypress family Cupressaceae. Common names include coast redwood, coastal redwood and California redwood and it is an evergreen, long-lived, monoecious tree living 1, 200–1,800 years or more. This species includes the tallest living trees on Earth, reaching up to 379 feet in height and these trees are also among the oldest living things on Earth. The name sequoia sometimes refers to the subfamily Sequoioideae, which includes S. sempervirens along with Sequoiadendron, here, the term redwood on its own refers to the species covered in this article, and not to the other two species. Scottish botanist David Don described the redwood as the evergreen taxodium in his colleague Aylmer Bourke Lamberts 1824 work A description of the genus Pinus, austrian botanist Stephan Endlicher erected the genus Sequoia in his 1847 work Synopsis coniferarum, giving the redwood its current binomial name of Sequoia sempervirens. The redwood is one of three living species, each in its own genus, in the subfamily Sequoioideae, molecular studies have shown the three to be each others closest relatives, generally with the redwood and giant sequoia as each others closest relatives. However, Yang and colleagues in 2010 queried the polyploid state of the redwood, further analysis strongly supported the hypothesis that Sequoia was the result of a hybridization event involving Metasequoia and Sequoiadendron. Thus, Yang and colleagues hypothesize that the inconsistent relationships among Metasequoia, Sequoia, the coast redwood can reach 115 m tall with a trunk diameter of 9 m. It has a crown, with horizontal to slightly drooping branches. The bark can be thick, up to 1-foot, and quite soft and fibrous, with a bright red-brown color when freshly exposed. The root system is composed of shallow, wide-spreading lateral roots, the leaves are variable, being 15–25 mm long and flat on young trees and shaded shoots in the lower crown of old trees. On the other hand, they are scale-like, 5–10 mm long on shoots in full sun in the crown of older trees. They are dark green above and have two blue-white stomatal bands below, leaf arrangement is spiral, but the larger shade leaves are twisted at the base to lie in a flat plane for maximum light capture. The species is monoecious, with pollen and seed cones on the same plant, the seed cones are ovoid, 15–32 millimetres long, with 15–25 spirally arranged scales, pollination is in late winter with maturation about 8–9 months after. Each cone scale bears three to seven seeds, each seed 3–4 millimetres long and 0.5 millimetres broad, the seeds are released when the cone scales dry out and open at maturity. The pollen cones are ovular and 4–6 millimetres long and its genetic makeup is unusual among conifers, being a hexaploid and possibly allopolyploid. Both the mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes of the redwood are paternally inherited, the prevailing elevation range is 98–2,460 ft above sea level, occasionally down to 0 and up to 3,000 ft. They usually grow in the mountains where precipitation from the incoming moisture off the ocean is greater, the tallest and oldest trees are found in deep valleys and gullies, where year-round streams can flow, and fog drip is regular
32.
Marin County, California
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Marin County /məˈrɪn/ is a county located in the San Francisco Bay Area of the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 252,409 and its county seat is San Rafael. Marin County is included in the San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area across the Golden Gate Bridge from San Francisco, Marin County is one of the wealthiest localities in the United States, known for its affluence. In May 2009, Marin County had the fifth highest income per capita in the United States at about $91,480, the county is governed by the Marin County Board of Supervisors. The county is well known for its natural beauty and liberal politics. San Quentin Prison is located in the county, as is George Lucas Skywalker Ranch, autodesk, the publisher of AutoCAD, is also located there, as well as numerous other high-tech companies. The Marin County Civic Center was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and draws thousands of visitors a year to guided tours of its arch, in 1994, a new county jail facility was embedded into the hillside nearby. Marin Countys natural sites include the Muir Woods redwood forest, the Marin Headlands, Stinson Beach, the Point Reyes National Seashore, the United States oldest cross country running event, the Dipsea Race, takes place annually in Marin County, attracting thousands of athletes. Mountain biking was invented on the slopes of Mount Tamalpais in Marin, According to General Mariano Vallejo, who headed an 1850 committee to name Californias counties, the county was named for Marin, great chief of the tribe Licatiut. Marin had been named Huicmuse until he was baptized as Marino at about age 20, Marin / Marino was born into the Huimen people, a Coast Miwok tribe of Native Americans who inhabited the San Rafael area. Vallejo believed that Chief Marin had waged several fierce battles against the Spanish, starting in 1817, he served as an alcalde at the San Rafael Mission, where he lived from 1817 off and on until his death. The Coast Miwok Indians were hunters and gatherers whose ancestors had occupied the area for thousands of years, about 600 village sites have been identified in the county. The Coast Miwok numbered in the thousands, today, there are few left and even fewer with any knowledge of their Coast Miwok lineage. Efforts are being made so that they are not forgotten, francis Drake and the crew of the Golden Hind was thought to have landed on the Marin coast in 1579 claiming the land as Nova Albion. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drakes claim to the new lands and this so-called Drakes Plate of Brass was revealed as a hoax in 2003. In 1595, Sebastian Cermeno lost his ship, the San Agustin, the Spanish explorer Vizcaíno landed about twenty years after Drake in what is now called Drakes Bay. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 828 square miles. It is the fourth-smallest county in California by land area
33.
Samuel P. Taylor State Park
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Samuel P. Taylor State Park is a state park located in Marin County, California. It contains approximately 2,700 acres of redwood and grassland, the park contains about 600 acres of old-growth forest, some of which can be seen along the Pioneer Tree Trail. The park is named for Samuel Penfield Taylor, who found gold during the California Gold Rush, in 1856, Taylor built the Pioneer Paper Mill, the first paper mill on the Pacific Coast. In the 1870s, the North Pacific Coast Railroad was built between Cazadero and a pier in Sausalito where passengers could transfer to a ferry to San Francisco, the railroad passed near Taylors mill, and, ever the entrepreneur, he built the Camp Taylor Resort alongside the tracks. A destination for city-weary San Franciscans, the resort offered both a hotel and tent camping, as well as swimming, boating, fishing, Taylor died on January 22,1886, and his family lost the mill and resort in the Panic of 1893. However, a 1910 newspaper advertisement for the Camp Taylor Resort, touting its dance pavilion and on-site grocery and butcher, the mill burned down in 1916, and in 1945 the State of California took possession of the property for non-payment of taxes. Due to the budget deficit, Taylor Park is one of many state parks that are at risk of closing due to lack of funding. Currently efforts are being made to find funding to keep Samuel P. Taylor, the San Francisco Chronicle on October 7,2011 reported that the National Park Service has agreed to take over security and operations of Samuel P. Taylor Park. San Francisco Wiki - Samuel P. Taylor State Park Maps, hiking trails, winter run coho salmon Trailspotting, Hiking Mount Barnabe GPS/mapping data, hike description & photos
34.
Sonoma County, California
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Sonoma County is a county in the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 United States Census, its population was 483,878 and its county seat and largest city is Santa Rosa. It is located to the north of Marin County and the south of Mendocino County and it is west of Napa County and Lake County. Sonoma County comprises the Santa Rosa, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is the northwestern county in the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area region. Sonoma is the county and largest producer of California’s Wine Country region, which also includes Napa, Mendocino. It possesses thirteen approved American Viticultural Areas and over 250 wineries, in 2002, Sonoma County ranked as the 32nd county in the United States in agricultural production. More than 7.4 million tourists each year, spending more than $1 billion in 2006. Sonoma County is the home of Sonoma State University and Santa Rosa Junior College, Sonoma County is home to several Native American tribes. By the 1830s, European settlement had set a new direction that would prove to radically alter the course of land use, Sonoma County has rich agricultural land, albeit largely divided between two nearly monocultural uses as of 2007, grapes and pasturage. The voters have twice approved open space initiatives that have provided funding for public acquisition of natural areas, preserving forested areas, coastal habitat, and other open space. The Pomo, Coast Miwok and Wappo peoples were the earliest human settlers of Sonoma County, spaniards, Russians, and other Europeans claimed and settled in the county from the late 16th to mid-19th century, seeking timber, fur, and farmland. The Russians were the first newcomers to establish a permanent foothold in Sonoma County and this settlement and its outlying Russian settlements came to include a population of several hundred Russian and Aleut settlers and a stockaded fort with artillery. However, the Russians abandoned it in 1841 and sold the fort to John Sutter, settler and Mexican land grantee of Sacramento. The Mission San Francisco Solano, founded in 1823 as the last and northernmost of 21 California missions, is in the present City of Sonoma, El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks, was established in 1836 by Comandante General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo. The City of Sonoma was the site of the Bear Flag Revolt in 1846, Sonoma was one of the original counties formed when California became a state in 1850, with its county seat originally the town of Sonoma. However, by the early 1850s, the town of Sonoma had declined in importance in terms of commerce and population, its county buildings were crumbling, and it was relatively remote. As a result, elements in the newer, rapidly growing towns of Petaluma, Santa Rosa, the dispute ultimately was between the bigger, richer commercial town of Petaluma and the more centrally located, growing agricultural center of Santa Rosa. Allegedly, several Santa Rosans, not caring to wait, decided to take action and, one night, rode down the Sonoma Valley to Sonoma, took the county seals and records, some of the countys land was annexed from Mendocino County between 1850 and 1860
35.
Muir Woods National Monument
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Muir Woods National Monument is a unit of the National Park Service on Mount Tamalpais near the Pacific coast, in southwestern Marin County, California. It is part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area, and is 12 miles north of San Francisco and it protects 554 acres, of which 240 acres are old growth coast redwood forests, one of a few such stands remaining in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Muir Woods National Monument is an old-growth coastal redwood forest, due to its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, the forest is regularly shrouded in a coastal marine layer fog, contributing to a wet environment that encourages vigorous plant growth. The fog is also vital for the growth of the redwoods as they use moisture from the fog during droughty seasons, the monument is cool and moist year round with average daytime temperatures between 40 and 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Rainfall is heavy during the winter and summers are almost completely dry with the exception of fog drip caused by the fog passing through the trees. Annual precipitation in the ranges from 39.4 inches in the lower valley to 47.2 inches higher up in the mountain slopes. The redwoods grow on brown humus-rich loam which may be gravelly and this soil has been assigned to the Centissima series, which is always found on sloping ground. It is well drained, moderately deep, and slightly to moderately acidic and it has developed from a mélange in the Franciscan Formation. More open areas of the park have shallow gravelly loam of the Barnabe series, one hundred and fifty million years ago ancestors of redwood and sequoia trees grew throughout the United States. Today, the Sequoia sempervirens can be only in a narrow, cool coastal belt from Monterey, California. Before the logging industry came to California, there were an estimated 2 million acres of old growth forest containing redwoods growing in a strip along the coast. By the early 20th century, most of these forests had been cut down, just north of the San Francisco Bay, one valley named Redwood Canyon remained uncut, mainly due to its relative inaccessibility. He and his wife, Elizabeth Thacher Kent, purchased 611 acres of land from the Tamalpais Land and Water Company for $45,000 with the goal of protecting the redwoods and the mountain above them. In 1907, a company in nearby Sausalito planned to dam Redwood Creek. When Kent objected to the plan, the company threatened to use eminent domain. Kent sidestepped the water companys plot by donating 295 acres of the redwood forest to the federal government, on January 9,1908, President Theodore Roosevelt declared the land a National Monument, the first to be created from land donated by a private individual. President Roosevelt agreed, writing back, MY DEAR MR, and, responding to some photographs of Muir Woods that Mr. Kent had sent him, Those are awfully good photos. Kent and Muir had become friends over shared views of wilderness preservation, in December 1928, the Kent Memorial was erected at the Kent Tree in Fern Canyon
36.
Duncans Mills, California
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Duncans Mills is an unincorporated community located in Sonoma County, California. Duncans Mills was once part of the Rancho Muniz Mexican land grant, in 1877, Alexander Duncan established a sawmill in what is today Duncans Mills. The mills sent lumber to the city of San Francisco. The town was founded in the 1870s and it featured two hotels, a general store, a saloon, a meat market, blacksmith, livery stable, and a notion shop. Starting in the 1870s, the narrow-gauge North Pacific Coast Railroad ran through Duncans Mills on its way from Cazadero, after being sold several times, the railroad ceased operation in the 1930s. The town slowly faded, until a 1976 restoration project, associated with the celebration of the U. S. Bicentennial, brought about a period of building restoration, today, Duncans Mills resembles the way it was originally built. It has an authentic Northwestern Pacific Railroad Depot and several cars from the old railroad line. A California State Park Ranger Station is located in one of the old buildings as the California State Park Store with a selection of books. The Blue Heron Restaurant has served as the entertainment center of the town for decades. Duncans Mills is located on the Russian River about 4 mi from the Pacific Ocean, the record high was 113 °F on July 14,1972, and the record low was 14 °F on December 23,1990. According to the 2000 census, about 175 people live in Duncans Mills, there are around 42 family households and 31 non-family households. Each household has an average of 2-3 people, in Duncans Mills, there are 129 houses, and 56 of them are vacant and 52 of them are seasonal, recreational, of occasional use
37.
Russian River (California)
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The Russian River, a southward-flowing river, drains 1,485 square miles of Sonoma and Mendocino counties in Northern California. With an annual discharge of approximately 1,600,000 acre feet, it is the second-largest river flowing through the nine-county Greater San Francisco Bay Area. The Russian River springs from the Laughlin Range about 5 mi east of Willits in Mendocino County. It flows generally southward to Redwood Valley, then past Calpella, from there the Russian River flows south, past Ukiah and Hopland, and crosses into Sonoma County just north of Cloverdale. Closely paralleled by U. S. Route 101, it descends into the Alexander Valley and it flows south past Cloverdale, Asti, and Geyserville. East of Healdsburg, Maacama Creek joins the Russian River, after it makes a series of sweeping bends, the Healdsburg Memorial Bridge carries Old Redwood Highway over the river just upstream of U. S. Route 101s Healdsburg crossing. It receives water from Lake Sonoma via Dry Creek, the river turns westward, where it is spanned by the Wohler Bridge, and it is joined by Mark West Creek north of Forestville, followed by Green Valley Creek to the south. The river passes Rio Nido and Guerneville, in that area, State Route 116 parallels the river, bordering it past Guernewood Park and Monte Rio. Austin Creek enters from the north before the River passes through Duncans Mills, State Route 1 crosses over the river before it flows into the Pacific Ocean between Jenner and Goat Rock Beach. The Russian River estuary is recognized for protection by the California Bays, the mouth is about 60 mi north of the San Francisco Bays Golden Gate bridge. The lower Russian River is a spring, summer. It is very safe at that time for swimming and boating, the river is dangerous in the winter, with swift current and muddy water. The geographer R. S. Holway wrote of the Russian River in his paper The Russian River, originally, the Russian River was one of several rivers draining westward from the Mayacamas Mountains through the Mendocino Plateau to the sea, a region lifted up by tectonic forces. The Navarro River drained from the Cobb Mountain area, while the Russian River drained from the Mt. St. Helena area, being at a lower elevation, the Russian River began cutting north into the drainage area of the Navarro River. Eroding up a line in Alexander Valley, the Russian River intersected the Navarro River just north of Cloverdale. In one fell swoop, the Russian River took Big Sulphur Creek, the high valleys were eroded into rocky canyons for ten miles north of Cloverdale and for five miles east of Cloverdale. After establishing a connection to Clear Lake, the Russian River was beheaded from Clear Lake by a slide, now Clear Lake flows into the Sacramento River. The river incised a canyon into Fitch Mountain at an early time, the Russian River was prevented from flowing south into San Pablo Bay, due to a 113-foot high ridge at Cotati
38.
William Henry Irwin
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William Henry Will Irwin was an American author, writer and journalist who was associated with the muckrakers. Irwin was born September 14,1873 in Oneida, New York, in his early childhood the Irwin family moved to Clayville, New York, a farming and mining center south of Utica. In about 1878 his father moved to Leadville, Colorado, establishing himself in the lumber business, when his business failed Irwins father moved the family to Twin Lakes, Colorado. A hotel business there failed too, and the family moved back to Leadville, in 1889 they moved to Denver, where he graduated from high school. He cured himself of a bout of tuberculosis by roughing it for a year as a cowboy. With a loan from his school teacher Irwin entered Stanford University in September 1894. Irwin was forced to withdraw for disciplinary reasons but was readmitted and graduated on May 24,1899, in 1901 Irwin got a job as a reporter on the San Francisco Chronicle, eventually rising to Sunday editor. For the San Francisco-based Bohemian Club, he wrote the Grove Play The Hamadryads in 1904. That same year he moved to New York City to take a position at The New York Sun, then in its heyday under the editorship of Chester Lord. Also in 1904 Irwin co-authored a book of stories with Gelett Burgess titled. A new reporter on The Sun, he was assigned to work the Bellevue morgue, Irwins biggest story and the feat that made him a professional writer was his absentee coverage for the The New York Sun of the San Francisco earthquake of April 18,1906. Before the last-edition deadline on the first day, April 18,1906, and he kept writing, eight columns or more a day, for the next seven days, as fire swept the ruined city. Irwin was hired by S. S. McClure in 1906 as managing editor of McClures and he rose to the position of editor but disliked the work and then moved to Colliers, edited by Norman Hapgood. He wrote investigative stories on the movement for Prohibition and a study of fake spiritual mediums, back on the Pacific coast in 1906–1907 to research a story on anti-Japanese racism Irwin returned to San Francisco and found it flourishing. This city that was business is the old stuff, Irwins series on anti-Japanese discrimination appeared in Colliers in September–October 1907 and Pearsons in 1909. Then came the series The American Newspaper, in 1911 Irwin published one of the most famous critical analyses of American journalism. The series, titled The American Newspaper, was researched from September 23,1909, until late June 1910, Irwin continued to write articles, some in the muckraking style, until the outbreak of World War I. He sailed to Europe in August 1914 as one of the first American correspondents, according to media historians Edwin and Michael Emery, beats on the battles of Ypres and the first German use of poison gas were also printed in the Tribune
39.
Bohemianism
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Bohemianism is the practice of an unconventional lifestyle, often in the company of like-minded people, with few permanent ties, involving musical, artistic, literary or spiritual pursuits. In this context, Bohemians may or may not be wanderers, adventurers, Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or anti-establishment political or social viewpoints, which often were expressed through free love, frugality, and—in some cases—voluntary poverty. A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle is sometimes referred to as haute bohème, the term Bohemianism emerged in France in the early nineteenth century when artists and creators began to concentrate in the lower-rent, lower class, Romani neighborhoods. Literary Bohemians were associated in the French imagination with roving Romani people, outsiders apart from conventional society, the term carries a connotation of arcane enlightenment, and also carries a less frequently intended, pejorative connotation of carelessness about personal hygiene and marital fidelity. The title character in Carmen, a French opera set in the Spanish city of Seville, is referred to as a bohémienne in Meilhac and her signature aria declares love itself to be a gypsy child, going where it pleases and obeying no laws. Henri Murgers collection of short stories Scènes de la Vie de Bohème, published in 1845, was written to glorify, Murgers collection formed the basis of Giacomo Puccinis opera La bohème. In England, Bohemian in this sense initially was popularised in William Makepeace Thackerays novel, Vanity Fair, public perceptions of the alternative lifestyles supposedly led by artists were further molded by George du Mauriers highly romanticized best-selling novel of Bohemian culture Trilby. The novel outlines the fortunes of three expatriate English artists, their Irish model, and two very colorful Central European musicians, in the artist quarter of Paris. In Spanish literature, the Bohemian impulse can be seen in Ramón del Valle-Incláns play Luces de Bohemia, in his song La Bohème, Charles Aznavour described the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre. Also reflects the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre at the turn of the 20th century, in the 1850s, aesthetic bohemians began to arrive in the United States. In New York City in 1857, a group of some 15–20 young and this group gathered at a German bar on Broadway called Pffaffs beer cellar. Members included their leader Henry Clapp, Jr, walt Whitman, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, and actress Adah Isaacs Menken. Similar groups in cities were broken up as well by the Civil War. During the war, correspondents began to assume the title bohemian, Bohemian became synonymous with newspaper writer. Mark Twain included himself and Charles Warren Stoddard in the category in 1867. Club member and poet George Sterling responded to this redefinition, Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a bohemian, but that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism, the first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the Seven Arts, the other is poverty. Despite his views, Sterling associated very closely with the Bohemian Club, canadian composer Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and poet George Frederick Cameron wrote the song The Bohemian in the 1889 opera Leo, the Royal Cadet
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Bunkhouse
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A bunkhouse is a barracks-like building that historically was used to house working cowboys on ranches in North America. As most cowboys were young men, the standard bunkhouse was a large open room with narrow beds or cots for each individual. The bunkhouse of the late 19th century was usually heated by a wood stove, in the United Kingdom, a bunkhouse provides accommodation with fewer facilities than a larger, staffed youth hostel. Bunkhouses are found in areas, such as the Scottish Highlands, as well as rural areas in England and Wales
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George Sterling
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Sterling was born in Sag Harbor, Long Island, New York, the eldest of nine children. His father was Dr. George A. Sterling, a physician who determined to make a priest of one of his sons and he was instructed in English by poet John B. His mother Mary was a member of the Havens family, prominent in Sag Harbor, Havens, Sterlings uncle, went to San Francisco in the late 19th century and established himself as a prominent lawyer and real estate developer. Sterling eventually followed him to the West in 1890 and worked as a real estate broker in Oakland, newberry, Henry Lafler, Gelett Burgess, and James Hopper. A parallel colony of painters was also developing in this enclave, Carmel had been discovered by Charles Warren Stoddard and others, but Sterling made it world-famous. His aunt Mrs. Havens purchased a home for him in Carmel Pines where he lived for nine years, what attracted so much attention in the press were the stories of nude beach parties, free sex, wife swapping, opium dens, and the spate of suicides. The most notorious was the painful and prolonged suicide by poison of the popular poet Nora May French in Sterling’s own home, reports of French’s nymphomania and the numerous male lovers just prior to her death scandalized the public. The suicide of Sterling’s wife by cyanide only added fuel to the flames, Sterling’s own diaries and correspondence reveal a more sedate, but still Bohemian community. He often volunteered at Carmel’s Forest Theatre and once played a role in Mary Austin’s play The Fire. He is depicted twice in Jack Londons novels, as Russ Brissenden in the autobiographical Martin Eden, kevin Starr wrote, The uncrowned King of Bohemia, Sterling had been at the center of every artistic circle in the San Francisco Bay Area. Joseph Noel says that Sterlings poem, A Wine of Wizardry, has been classed by many authorities as the greatest poem ever written by an American author, according to Noel, Sterling sent the final draft of A Wine of Wizardry to the normally acerbic and critical Ambrose Bierce. Bierce said If I could find a flaw in it, I should quickly call your attention to it, Sterling joined the Bohemian Club and acted in their theatrical productions each summer at the Bohemian Grove. For the main Grove play in 1907, the club presented The Triumph of Bohemia, Sterling also supplied lyric for the musical numbers at the 1918 Grove play. George Sterlings poem, A Wine of Wizardry, Bierce wrote to Sterling, I hardly know how to speak of it. No poem in English of equal length has so bewildering a wealth of imagination, not Spencer himself has flung such a profusion of jewels into so small a casket. Sterling fell into drinking and his wife departed, Noel, a personal acquaintance, says that when he began the poem, Sterling was persuaded that there was another world than that we know. He repeated this to me so frequently that it became a trifle tiresome, of the means he employed to get a glimpse of that other world, I am not so sure. Despite all this, Noel makes a point of saying there is no evidence that Sterling used narcotics
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Jack London
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John Griffith Jack London was an American novelist, journalist, and social activist. Some of his most famous works include The Call of the Wild and White Fang, both set in the Klondike Gold Rush, as well as the short stories To Build a Fire, An Odyssey of the North, and Love of Life. He also wrote about the South Pacific in stories such as The Pearls of Parlay and The Heathen, London was part of the radical literary group The Crowd in San Francisco and a passionate advocate of unionization, socialism, and the rights of workers. He wrote several works dealing with these topics, such as his dystopian novel The Iron Heel, his non-fiction exposé The People of the Abyss. Jack Londons mother, Flora Wellman, was the fifth and youngest child of Pennsylvania Canal builder Marshall Wellman and his first wife, Marshall Wellman was descended from Thomas Wellman, an early Puritan settler in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Flora left Ohio and moved to the Pacific coast when her father remarried after her mother died, in San Francisco, Flora worked as a music teacher and spiritualist, claiming to channel the spirit of a Sauk chief, Black Hawk. Biographer Clarice Stasz and others believe Londons father was astrologer William Chaney, Flora Wellman was living with Chaney in San Francisco when she became pregnant. Whether Wellman and Chaney were legally married is unknown, most San Francisco civil records were destroyed by the extensive fires that followed the 1906 earthquake, nobody knows what name appeared on her sons birth certificate. Stasz notes that in his memoirs, Chaney refers to Londons mother Flora Wellman as having been his wife, according to Flora Wellmans account, as recorded in the San Francisco Chronicle of June 4,1875, Chaney demanded that she have an abortion. When she refused, he disclaimed responsibility for the child and she was not seriously wounded, but she was temporarily deranged. After giving birth, Flora turned the baby over for care to Virginia Prentiss and she was a major maternal figure throughout Londons life. Late in 1876, Flora Wellman married John London, a partially disabled Civil War veteran, the family moved around the San Francisco Bay Area before settling in Oakland, where London completed public grade school. He wrote to William Chaney, then living in Chicago, Chaney concluded by saying that he was more to be pitied than London. London was devastated by his fathers letter, in the following, he quit school at Berkeley. London was born near Third and Brannan Streets in San Francisco, the house burned down in the fire after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the California Historical Society placed a plaque at the site in 1953. Although the family was working class, it was not as impoverished as Londons later accounts claimed, in 1885, London found and read Ouidas long Victorian novel Signa. He credited this as the seed of his literary success, in 1886, he went to the Oakland Public Library and found a sympathetic librarian, Ina Coolbrith, who encouraged his learning. In 1889, London began working 12 to 18 hours a day at Hickmotts Cannery, seeking a way out, he borrowed money from his foster mother Virginia Prentiss, bought the sloop Razzle-Dazzle from an oyster pirate named French Frank, and became an oyster pirate
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Pipe organ
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The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air through organ pipes selected via a keyboard. Because each pipe produces a pitch, the pipes are provided in sets called ranks, each of which has a common timbre. Most organs have multiple ranks of pipes of differing timbre, pitch, a pipe organ has one or more keyboards played by the hands, and a pedalboard played by the feet, each keyboard has its own group of stops. The keyboard, pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organs console, the smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual, the largest may have over 20,000 pipes and seven manuals. A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. The origins of the organ can be traced back to the water organ in Ancient Greece, in the 3rd century BC. By the 6th or 7th century AD, bellows were used to supply organs with wind, beginning in the 12th century, the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres. A pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, in 757. Pepins son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, by the 17th century, most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed. From that time, the organ was the most complex man-made device - a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century. Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools and they are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls, the organ boasts a substantial repertoire, which spans over 500 years. The organ is one of the oldest instruments used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC. The word organ is derived from the Greek όργανον, a term for an instrument or a tool, via the Latin organum. The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC and he devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes. The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire, the 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the urghun as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was often used in the Hippodrome in the capital of Constantinople
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Bernard Maybeck
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Bernard Ralph Maybeck was an American architect in the Arts and Crafts Movement of the early 20th century. He was an instructor at University of California, Berkeley, most of his major buildings were in the San Francisco Bay Area. Maybeck was born in New York City, the son of a German immigrant and studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris and he moved to Berkeley, California, in 1892. In 1951, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects, while working in the office of A. Many of Maybecks buildings still stand in his home city of Berkeley. The 1910 First Church of Christ, Scientist is designated a National Historic Landmark and is considered one of Maybecks finest works, a number of his works are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1914, Maybeck oversaw the building of the Maybeck Recital Hall in Berkeley, the Palace of Fine Arts was seen as the embodiment of Maybecks elaboration of how Roman architecture could fit within a California context. One of Maybecks most interesting buildings is the home of the Family Service Agency of San Francisco. This building, constructed in 1928, is on the citys Historic Building Register, some of his larger residential projects, most notably a few in the hills of Berkeley, California, have been compared to the ultimate bungalows of the architects Greene and Greene. Maybeck had many ideas about town planning that he elaborated throughout his career, as a citizen of Berkeley from the 1890s, he was intimately involved in the Hillside Club. His associations and work there helped evolve ideas about hillside communities, Maybeck developed a number of firm beliefs in how civilization and the land should relate to each other. There were other principles he would elucidate, such as a public landscape, but these were key. Its grids, imposed in places on very steep grades, resulted in extremeley steep streets, sidewalks and urban transitions and his views reflected his wide interests and experience. A lifetime fascination with drama and the theatre can be seen in much of Maybecks work, in his spare time, he was known to create costumes, and also designed sets for the amateur productions at Berkeleys Hillside Club. Bernard Maybeck died in 1957 and is buried in the Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, notable works include, Charles Keeler House & Studio — Maybeck’s first private client, Berkeley Hills, Highland Place, North Berkeley, California. Swedenborgian Church —3200 Washington Street at Lyon Street, Pacific Heights, San Francisco, California, wyntoon, with architect Julia Morgan — private estate of Phoebe Apperson Hearst−Hearst family, rural Siskiyou County, California. Boke House — for George Henry Boke, at 23 Panoramic Way, Panoramic Hill Historic District, Berkeley, faculty Club — University of California, Berkeley campus, NRHP-listed. Grove Clubhouse−Maybeck Lodge — Bohemian Grove, the Bohemian Club campground on the Russian River, Monte Rio, howard B. Gates House — Mission Revival style, at 62 South Thirteenth Street, San Jose, California
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Cremation of Care
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In 1878, the Bohemian Club of San Francisco first took to the woods in Taylorville, California for a summer celebration that they called Midsummer High Jinks. Poems were recited, songs were sung, and dramatic readings were given, in 1881, the ceremony of the Cremation of Care was first conducted after the various individual performances, with James F. Bowman as Sire. In 1904, the prologue to William Henry Irwins Grove Play The Hamadryads included text such as Touch their world-blind eyes with fairy unguents, the play depicted the intrusion, the battles, and the symbolic death of the maleficent Spirit of Care. In these early productions, the Cremation of Care immediately followed, the end of the ceremony was signaled by a lively Jinks Band rendition of Therell Be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight, and the club members sat down to a late dinner and revelry. From 1913, the Cremation of Care was disengaged from the Grove Play, the Grove Play was set for the final weekend. A different Sire was appointed for the Cremation, and some concerns were raised in subsequent years that the Cremation of Care was growing into its own secondary Grove Play. Some Sires experimented with a treatment, or topical themes such as a patriotic World War I treatment in 1918. Care was not killed, let alone cremated, in the 1922 version, the ceremony involves the poling across a lake of a small boat containing an effigy of Care. Dark, hooded figures receive from the ferryman the effigy which is placed on an altar and this cremation symbolizes that members are banishing the dull cares of conscience. The ceremony takes place in front of the Owl Shrine, a 40-foot hollow owl statue made of concrete over steel supports, the moss- and lichen-covered statue simulates a natural rock formation, yet holds electrical and audio equipment within it. During the ceremony, a recording is used as the voice of The Owl, for many years the recorded voice was club guest Walter Cronkite. Music and pyrotechnics accompany the ritual for dramatic effect, with a hidden camera, Jones and Hanson filmed the Cremation of Care ceremony. The footage was the centerpiece of Jones documentary Dark Secrets, Inside Bohemian Grove, Jones claimed that the Cremation of Care was an ancient Canaanite, Luciferian, Babylon mystery religion ceremony. The Grove and Jones investigation were covered by Jon Ronson in Channel 4s four-part documentary Secret Rulers of the World and these people might have reached the apex of their professions but emotionally they seemed trapped in their college years. The counter ceremony was first held in 1980, organized by Mary Moore, Moore was less concerned about the Cremation of Care ceremony than with the likelihood that club members with corporate interests would gain influence in government
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Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
