1.
Clockwork
–
Clockwork refers to the inner workings of either a mechanical clock or other mechanism that works similarly, with a complex series of gears. Clockworks are often powered by a clockwork motor consisting of a mainspring, energy is stored in the mainspring manually by winding it up, turning a key attached to a ratchet which twists the mainspring tighter. Then the force of the turns the clockworks gears, until the stored energy is used up. The adjectives wind-up and spring-powered refer to mainspring-powered clockwork devices, which clocks and watches, kitchen timers, music boxes. Clockwork finally recovered the equivalent of pre-Roman technological levels in the 14th century, as in Greek mythology, there are ambitious automation claims in the legends of other cultures. Its also said that when King Solomon stepped upon the throne, as soon as he stepped upon the first step, a golden ox and a golden lion each stretched out one foot to support him and help him rise to the next step. On each side, the animals helped the King up until he was seated upon the throne. In ancient China, an account of automation is found in the Lie Zi text. Within it there is a description of an earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an artificer. The latter proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork and it walked with rapid strides, moving its head up and down, so that anyone would have taken it for a live human being. The artificer touched its chin, and it began singing, perfectly in tune and he touched its hand, and it began posturing, keeping perfect time. And, indeed, it turned out to be only a construction of leather, wood, glue and lacquer, variously coloured white, black, red, other notable examples include Archytass dove, mentioned by Aulus Gellius. By the 11th century, clockwork was used for both timepieces and to track events, in Europe. The clocks did not keep time very accurately by modern standards, the same timeline seems to apply in Europe, where mechanical escapements were used in clocks by that time. This became a standard technology along with weight-driven movements, in the mid-16th century, Christiaan Huygens took an idea from Galileo Galilei and developed it into the first modern pendulum mechanism. However, whereas the spring or the weight provided the motive power, the Smithsonian Institution has in its collection a clockwork monk, about 15 in high, possibly dating as early as 1560. From time to time, he brings the cross to his lips and it is believed that the monk was manufactured by Juanelo Turriano, mechanician to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Sometimes clocks and timing mechanisms are used to set off explosives, timers, alarms, the most common examples are mechanical clocks and watches
2.
Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
3.
Movie camera
–
The movie camera, film camera or cine-camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or on a film. In contrast to a camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time. This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism, the frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate. While viewing at a frame rate, a persons eyes. Since 2010s, film-based movie cameras have been replaced by digital movie cameras. An interesting forerunner to the camera was the machine invented by Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory in 1845. A photosensitive surface was drawn slowly past the diaphragm of the camera by a clockwork mechanism to enable continuous recording over a 12- or 24-hour period. Ronalds applied his cameras to trace the ongoing variations of scientific instruments, the very first patented film camera was the one devised by Wordsworth Donisthorpe in 1876. Another film camera was designed in England by Frenchman Louis Le Prince in 1888 and he built and patented an earlier 16 lens camera in 1887 at his workshop in Leeds. The first 8 lenses would be triggered in rapid succession by an electromagnetic shutter on the sensitive film, according to Adolphe Le Prince, who assisted his father at Leeds, Roundhay Garden was shot at 12 frame/s and Leeds Bridge at 20 frame/s. His camera still exists with the National Media Museum in Bradford and he shot the film on celluloid with 1¾ inch width. Another early pioneer was the British inventor William Friese-Greene and he began to experiment with the use of oiled paper as a medium for displaying motion pictures in 1885 and by 1887 he was experimenting with the use of celluloid. In 1889, Friese-Greene took out a patent for a chronophotographic camera and this was capable of taking up to ten photographs per second using perforated celluloid film. A report on the camera was published in the British Photographic News on February 28,1890 and he gave a public demonstration in 1890 of his device, but the low frame rate combined with the devices apparent unreliability made an unfavourable impression. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, the camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. The Lumière Domitor camera was created by Charles Moisson, the mechanic at the Lumière works in Lyon in 1894. The camera used paper film of 35 millimeter width, but in 1895 the Lumière brothers shifted to celluloid film and this they covered with their own Etiquette-bleue emulsion, had it cut into strips and perforated. In 1894 the Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński constructed a projector and camera in one, due to the work of Le Prince, Friese-Greene, Edison and the Lumière brothers, the movie camera had become a practical reality by the mid 1890s
4.
16 mm film
–
16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film, with other film gauges including 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for film making or for low budget motion pictures. It also existed as an amateur or home movie making format for several decades, alongside 8 mm film. In 1923, Eastman Kodak released the first 16 mm outfit consisting of a camera, projector, tripod, screen, rCA-Victor introduced a 16 mm sound movie projector in 1932 and developed an optical sound-on-film 16 mm camera, released in 1935. Eastman Kodak introduced 16 mm film in 1923 as a less expensive alternative to 35 mm film. During the 1920s, the format was often referred to as sub-standard by the professional industry, Kodak hired Willard Beech Cook from his 28 mm Pathescope of America company to create the new 16 mm Kodascope Library. In addition to making movies, people could buy or rent films from the library. Intended for amateur use,16 mm film was one of the first formats to use acetate safety film as a film base, Kodak never used nitrate film for the format because of the high flammability of the nitrate base. 35 mm nitrate was discontinued in 1952, the silent 16 mm format was initially aimed at the home enthusiast, but by the 1930s it had begun to make inroads into the educational market. The addition of sound tracks and, most notably, Kodachrome in 1935. Used extensively in WW2, there was an expansion of 16 mm professional filmmaking in the post-war years. Films for government, business, medical and industrial clients created a network of 16 mm professional filmmakers. The advent of television production also enhanced the use of 16 mm film, initially for its advantage of cost and portability over 35 mm. At first used as a format, the 16 mm format was also used to create television programming shot outside the confines of the more rigid television studio production sets. The home movie market gradually switched to the less expensive 8 mm film. 16 mm has been used for television production with light cameras in many countries before portable video cameras appeared. Replacing analog video devices, digital video has made significant inroads in television production use, nevertheless,16 mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio for low cost productions
5.
3D film
–
A three-dimensional stereoscopic film is a motion picture that enhances the illusion of depth perception, hence adding a third dimension. The most common approach to the production of 3D films is derived from stereoscopic photography, 3D films are not limited to theatrical releases, television broadcasts and direct-to-video films have also incorporated similar methods, especially since the advent of 3D television and Blu-ray 3D. 3D films became more and more throughout the 2000s, culminating in the unprecedented success of 3D presentations of Avatar in December 2009. The stereoscopic era of motion pictures began in the late 1890s when British film pioneer William Friese-Greene filed a patent for a 3D film process, in his patent, two films were projected side by side on screen. The viewer looked through a stereoscope to converge the two images, because of the obtrusive mechanics behind this method, theatrical use was not practical. Frederic Eugene Ives patented his stereo camera rig in 1900, the camera had two lenses coupled together 1¾ inches apart. On June 10,1915, Edwin S. Porter and William E. Waddell presented tests to an audience at the Astor Theater in New York City. However, according to Adolph Zukor in his 1953 autobiography The Public Is Never Wrong, My 50 Years in the Motion Picture Industry, nothing was produced in this process after these tests. The earliest confirmed 3D film shown to an audience was The Power of Love. The camera rig was a product of the producer, Harry K. Fairall. Whether Fairall used colored filters on the ports or whether he used tinted prints is unknown. After a preview for exhibitors and press in New York City, the film dropped out of sight, apparently not booked by exhibitors, and is now considered lost. Kelley then struck a deal with Samuel Roxy Rothafel to premiere the first in his series of Plasticon shorts entitled Movies of the Future at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. Also in December 1922, Laurens Hammond premiered his Teleview system, Teleview was the first alternating-frame 3D system seen by the public. Using left-eye and right-eye prints and two interlocked projectors, left and right frames were alternately projected, each pair being shown three times to suppress flicker. Viewing devices attached to the armrests of the seats had rotary shutters that operated synchronously with the projector shutters, producing a clean. The show ran for weeks, apparently doing good business as a novelty. In 1922, Frederic Eugene Ives and Jacob Leventhal began releasing their first stereoscopic shorts made over a three-year period, the first film, entitled Plastigrams, was distributed nationally by Educational Pictures in the red-and-blue anaglyph format
6.
Eumig
–
EUMIG was an Austrian company producing audio and video equipment that existed from 1919 until 1982. The name EUMIG is an acronym for the Elektrizitäts und Metallwaren Industrie Gesellschaft, or, translated, EUMIG was founded in 1919 in Vienna, Austria, by Karl Vockenhuber, the engineer Alois Handler and Adolf Halpern, who furnished the bulk of the firms initial financial resources. At its founding, the company produced lighters and cigarette cases, first located at 86 Wienzeile in Mariahilf, the 6th district of Vienna, in the same year EUMIG moved to 42 Schallergasse in the 12th district. In 1921, the company, now with 65 employees, moved again, to 5 Hirschgasse, in 1924, EUMIG began manufacturing two models of radios, the Low Loss Detektor Empfänger and a smaller model, the Eumig Baby. In 1926 Vockenhuber and Handler bought out Halpern, who retired from the company, EUMIG continued production of radio receivers and sound recorders from 1924 until 1962. In 1928, Eumig began producing equipment, and three years later, in 1931 it introduced its first film projector, the Eumig P1. In 1932, the first movie camera Eumig C1 for 9. 5-mm film was introduced, and a second model and this was the first movie camera in the world with semi-automatic tracking exposure control. Still expanding, that year, EUMIG acquired the company Panradio, located at 11-13 Buchengasse. In 1937 it introduced the movie cameras Eumig C3, and the Eumig C4, overall, about 300,000 units of the C-3-series were built. During this period, EUMIG benefitted from its employment of some of the best-known European industrial designers, including Walter Maria Kersting. It became the manufacturer of several models of the well-known Volksempfänger, or Peoples Radio, by 1941 EUMIG had grown to 1,000 employees, and during the war year, in addition to radios and cameras EUMIG also produced military equipment. Its factory on the Buchengasse in Vienna was destroyed in 1945 by bombing, but fortunately, despite the slow economic recovery after the destruction of the Second World War, EUMIG continued to develop new lines of equipment in the 1950s. In 1951 Charles Vockenhuber died, the year that EUMIG began producing individual photographic cameras. Two years later, its successor, the Eumigetta 2, debuted,1954 saw the introduction of the projector Eumig P8, the worlds first home movie projector with a low voltage lighting system. In 1955, EUMIG released its most successful model, the Eumigette. 1956 was a year for EUMIG. It built a new complex, designed by Oswald Haerdtl. Then, on the initiative of junior engineer Karl Vockenhuber, and after 6-week trials, finally, the C16 was introduced for 16-mm film
7.
Viewfinder
–
In photography, a viewfinder is what the photographer looks through to compose, and, in many cases, to focus the picture. Most viewfinders are separate, and suffer parallax, while the single-lens reflex camera lets the use the main optical system. Viewfinders are used in many cameras of different types, still and movie, film, analog, a zoom camera usually zooms its finder in sync with its lens, one exception being rangefinder cameras. Before the development of microelectronics and electronic devices, only optical viewfinders existed. Direct viewfinders are essentially miniature Galilean telescopes, the eye was placed at the back. A declining minority of point and shoot cameras use them, parallax error results from the viewfinder being offset from the lens axis, to point above and usually to one side of the lens. The error varies with distance, being negligible for distant scenes, viewfinders often show lines to indicate the edge of the region which would be included in the photograph. Cameras with interchangeable lenses had to indicate the field of view of each lens in the viewfinder, more usually, such viewfinders were integrated into box cameras, and fitted to the side of folding cameras. These viewfinders were fitted to inexpensive cameras, for many sports and press applications optical viewfinders gave too small an image and were inconvenient to use for scenes that were changing rapidly. This was fast and convenient to use, but not particularly accurate, twin-lens reflex cameras had a large lens above the taking lens, and a large mirror at 45°, projecting an image onto a ground glass screen viewable from above, with the camera at waist level. The viewfinder lens was of size and focal length to the taking lens, though the optical quality was less critical. These cameras were expensive, the Rolleiflex and cheaper sister Rolleicord were the pioneers. Both single- and twin-lens reflexes allowed focussing by adjusting the lens until the image was sharp, single-lens reflex cameras viewed the scene through the taking lens. Early SLRs were plate cameras, with a mechanism to insert a mirror between the lens and the film reflected the light upwards, where it could be seen at waist level on a ground glass screen. When ready to take the picture, the mirror was pivoted out of the way, later SLRs had a mechanism which flipped the mirror out of the way when the shutter button was pressed, followed immediately by the shutter opening. Instead of an arrangement, a prism was used to allow the camera to be held to the eye. The big advantage of the SLR was that any lens, or other device, could be used. The live preview feature of digital cameras share this advantage of the SLR, as they show the image exactly as it will be recorded
8.
David Lynch
–
David Keith Lynch is an American director, screenwriter, producer, painter, musician, and photographer. He has been described by The Guardian as the most important director of this era, allMovie called him the Renaissance man of modern American filmmaking, while the success of his films has led to him being labelled the first popular Surrealist. He moved to Los Angeles, where he produced his first motion picture, meanwhile, Lynch embraced the Internet as a medium, producing several web-based shows, such as the animated DumbLand and the surreal sitcom Rabbits. Lynch has received three Academy Award nominations for Best Director and a nomination for best screenplay. He has won Frances César Award for Best Foreign Film twice, as well as the Palme dOr at the Cannes Film Festival, the French government awarded him the Legion of Honor, the countrys top civilian honor, as a Chevalier in 2002 and then an Officier in 2007. Blue Velvet and Mulholland Drive are widely considered by critics to be among the greatest films of their respective decades, Lynch was born in Missoula, Montana on January 20,1946. His father, Donald Walton Lynch, was a research scientist working for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Lynchs maternal great-grandparents were Finnish, and had immigrated to the United States from Finland in the 19th century. The Lynch family often moved around according to where the USDA assigned Donald and it was here that Lynchs sister Martha was born. The family then moved to Durham, North Carolina, then Boise, Idaho, Lynch found this transitory early life relatively easy to adjust to, noting that he found it fairly easy to meet new friends whenever he started attending a new school. Commenting on much of his life, Lynch has remarked, Alongside his schooling, Lynch joined the Boy Scouts, although he would later note that he only became so I could quit. He rose to the highest rank of Eagle Scout and it was through being an Eagle Scout that he was present with other Boy Scouts outside of the White House at the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy, which took place on Lynchs birthday in 1961. They had some hopes that in Europe they could train with the expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka at his school. Upon reaching Salzburg, however, they found that he was not available and, Back in the United States, Lynch returned to Virginia, but since his parents had moved to Walnut Creek, California, he stayed with his friend Toby Keeler for a while. He decided to move to the city of Philadelphia and enroll at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, after advice from Jack Fisk and it was here that he began a relationship with a fellow student, Peggy Reavey, and they were married in 1967. The following year, Peggy gave birth to their daughter Jennifer, later describing this situation, Peggy stated that definitely was a reluctant father, but a very loving one. Hey, I was pregnant when we got married, later describing living there, Lynch stated that We lived cheap, but the city was full of fear. A kid was shot to death down the street and we were robbed twice, had windows shot out and a car stolen. The house was first broken into three days after we moved in
9.
Terry Gilliam
–
Terrence Vance Terry Gilliam is an American-born British screenwriter, film director, animator, actor, comedian and member of the Monty Python comedy troupe. Gilliam has directed 12 feature films, including Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Time Bandits, Brazil, The Fisher King,12 Monkeys, the only Python not born in Britain, he became a naturalised British citizen in 1968 and formally renounced his American citizenship in 2006. Gilliam was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Beatrice and his father was a travelling salesman for Folgers before becoming a carpenter. Soon after, they moved to nearby Medicine Lake, Minnesota, the family moved to the Los Angeles neighbourhood of Panorama City in 1952. Gilliam attended Birmingham High School, where he was the president of his class and he was voted Most Likely to Succeed and achieved straight As. During high school, he began to avidly read Mad magazine, then edited by Harvey Kurtzman, Gilliam graduated from Occidental College in 1962 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science. It was 66–67, it was the first police riot in Los Angeles, in college my major was political science, so my brain worked that way. And I drove around this little English Hillman Minx—top down—and every night Id be hauled over by the cops, up against the wall, and all this stuff. They had this monologue with me, it was never a dialogue and it was that I was a long-haired drug addict living off some rich guys foolish daughter. And I said, No, I work in advertising, I make twice as much as you do. Which is a thing to say to a cop. And it was like an epiphany, I suddenly felt what it was like to be a black or Mexican kid living in L. A. Before that, I thought I knew what the world was like, I thought I knew what people were. And I got more and more angry and I just felt, Thats why so much of the U. S. is still standing. Gilliam began his career as an animator and strip cartoonist, one of his early photographic strips for Help. Featured future Python cast member John Cleese, folded, Gilliam went to Europe, jokingly announcing in the very last issue that he was being transferred to the European branch of the magazine, which, of course, did not exist. Moving to England, he animated sequences for the childrens series Do Not Adjust Your Set, which also featured Eric Idle, Terry Jones, Gilliam was a part of Monty Pythons Flying Circus from its outset, credited at first as an animator and later as a full member. His cartoons linked the shows together and defined the groups visual language in other media
10.
Spike Lee
–
Shelton Jackson Spike Lee is an American film director, producer, writer, and actor. His production company,40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks, has produced over 35 films since 1983, Lee has acted in ten of his own films. Lees movies have examined race relations, colorism in the community, the role of media in contemporary life, urban crime and poverty. Lee was born in Atlanta, Georgia, the son of Jacqueline Carroll, a teacher of arts and black literature, and William James Edward Lee III, a jazz musician and composer. Lee also had three younger siblings Joie, David, and Cinqué, who all worked in different positions in Lees films. Director Malcolm D. Lee is his cousin, when he was a child, the family moved to Brooklyn, New York. His mother nicknamed him Spike during his childhood and he attended John Dewey High School in Brooklyns Gravesend neighborhood. Lee enrolled in Morehouse College, a black college, where he made his first student film. He took film courses at Clark Atlanta University and graduated with a B. A. in mass communication from Morehouse and he did graduate work at New York Universitys Tisch School of the Arts, where he earned a Master of Fine Arts in film & television. In 1991, Lee taught a course at Harvard about filmmaking and it was there that he received his Master of Fine Arts and was appointed Artistic Director in 2002. Lees independent film, Joes Bed-Stuy Barbershop, We Cut Heads, was the first student film to be showcased in Lincoln Centers New Directors/New Films Festival, in 1985, Lee began work on his first feature film, Shes Gotta Have It. With a budget of $175,000, he shot the film in two weeks, when the film was released in 1986, it grossed over $7,000,000 at the U. S. box office. Lees 1989 film Do the Right Thing was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1989, many people, including Hollywoods Kim Basinger, believed that Do the Right Thing also deserved a Best Picture nomination. Driving Miss Daisy won Best Picture that year, after the 1990 release of Mo Better Blues, Lee was accused of antisemitism by the Anti-Defamation League and several film critics. They criticized the characters of the club owners Josh and Moe Flatbush, Lee denied the charge, explaining that he wrote those characters in order to depict how black artists struggled against exploitation. Lee said that Lew Wasserman, Sidney Sheinberg or Tom Pollock and he said he could not make an antisemitic film because Jews run Hollywood, and thats a fact. His 1997 documentary 4 Little Girls, about the killed in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham. On May 2,2007, the 50th San Francisco International Film Festival honored Spike Lee with the San Francisco Film Societys Directing Award and he received the 2008 Wexner Prize
11.
Super 8 film
–
Super 8mm film is a motion picture film format released in 1965 by Eastman Kodak as an improvement over the older Double or Regular 8 mm home movie format. The film is nominally 8mm wide, the same as older formatted 8mm film, but the dimensions of the rectangular perforations along one edge are smaller, the Super 8 standard also allocates the border opposite the perforations for an oxide stripe upon which sound can be magnetically recorded. Unlike Super 35, the stock used for Super 8 is not compatible with standard 8mm film cameras. There are several varieties of the system used for shooting. The most popular system by far was the Kodak system and this is enough film for 2.5 minutes at the professional motion picture standard of 24 frames per second, and for 3 minutes and 20 seconds of continuous filming at 18 frames per second for amateur use. In 1973 the system was upgraded with a cartridge, which included film with magnetic sound. In 1975 an even larger 200-foot cartridge became available which could be used in specifically designed cameras, the sound and the 200 foot cartridge system are no longer available, but the 50 foot silent cartridge system is still manufactured. Historically, Super 8 film was a stock for home projection used primarily for the creation of home movies. It became a popular consumer product in the late 1960s through the 1970s. During the mid-to-late 1980s Super 8 began to re-emerge as a method for movie production. This included emulsions from Kodak, Fuji and Ilford, today Super 8 color negative film is the main color stock used. There are also Super 8 reversal films available including 200D Agfa color and black-and-white from Foma, ADOX and ORWO, in addition, coded notches cut into the Super 8 film cartridge exterior allow the camera to recognize the film speed automatically. Not all cameras can all the notches correctly, however. Canon keeps an exhaustive list of their Super 8 cameras with detailed specifications on what film speeds can be used with their cameras, usually, testing one cartridge of film can help handle any uncertainty a filmmaker may have about how well their Super 8 camera reads different film stocks. Color stocks were available only in tungsten, and almost all Super 8 cameras come with a switchable daylight filter built in. The original Super 8 film release was a silent system only, the film with sound had a magnetic soundtrack and came in larger cartridges than the original cartridge in order to accommodate the sound recording head in the film path. Sound film requires a longer path, and a second aperture for the recording head. Sound cameras were compatible with silent cartridges, but not vice versa, Sound film was typically filmed at a speed of 18 or 24 frames per second
