1.
Bolsover
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Bolsover is a small town near Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England. It is 145 miles from London,18 miles from Sheffield,26 miles from Nottingham and 54 miles from Manchester and it is the main town in the Bolsover district. The civil parish for the town is called Old Bolsover and it includes the town and the New Bolsover model village, along with Carr Vale, Shuttlewood, Stanfree, Oxcroft and Whaley. Its population at the 2011 UK Census was 11,673, Bolsover, along with several nearby villages, is situated in the north east of the county of Derbyshire. It is the town in the District of Bolsover, which is an electoral constituency. The origin of the name is uncertain and it may be derived from Bulas Ofer or Bolls Ofer, respectively the Old English for Bulls Ridge or Bolls Ridge, alternatively in the 1650s it was referred to as Bolsouer. Bolsover is mentioned in Domesday Book, named as Belesovre, where it is described as the property of William Peverel, the description refers to the villans, the ploughs,8 acres of meadow and woodland pasture, which is given as two leagues by a league. William was possibly a son of William the Conqueror. Bolsover became the seat of the Peverel family, and in the 12th century a keep was built, the present castle was erected in 1613. In 1657 William Cavendish produced the book La Methode et Invention nouvelle de Dresser les Chevaux which he produced in exile in Antwerp during the Cromwellian Protectorate, the etches are attributed to Abraham van Diepenbeeck a pupil of Van Dyck. Two railway lines once served Bolsover, but both were early casualties, the Bolsover railway station on this line was known as Bolsover Castle in its latter days. The other line was the highly ambitious west-east running Lancashire, Derbyshire and East Coast Railway, later part of the Great Central Railway, the tunnel was mostly filled in with colliery waste in 1966-67, and both ends sealed off. Today both portals are visible, the portal at the end of an unusually deep sheer-sided cutting in the village of Scarcliffe. In chronostratigraphy, the British sub-stage of the Carboniferous period, the Bolsovian derives its name from a geological exposure at the River Doe Lea, the major industry of the area used to be coal mining, but this has declined throughout all of Britain. Markham Colliery, just outside the town, closed in 1993, Bolsover Colliery Company was one of the original companies in the original FT30 list of companies. It was closed in 2004 after a decline in demand for solid fuel, Bolsover has three levels of local government. The civil parish of Old Bolsover is administered by Old Bolsover Town Council, the parish falls within the wider Bolsover District, and other functions are exercised by Derbyshire County Council. The town falls within the Bolsover parliamentary constituency, the MP for the constituency is the Labour Partys Dennis Skinner, a former miner who has represented the seat since 1970
2.
Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays
3.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
4.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Castle
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A castle is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. Usage of the term has varied over time and has applied to structures as diverse as hill forts. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built, they took on a great many forms with different features, although some, such as curtain walls. A European innovation, castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures served as centres of administration. Many castles were built from earth and timber, but had their defences replaced later by stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, lacking features such as towers and arrowslits, in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire, many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castles firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, so that devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape, while castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery forts with no role in civil administration, and country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of castles, part of a romantic revival of Gothic architecture. The word castle is derived from the Latin word castellum, which is a diminutive of the word castrum, meaning fortified place. The Old English castel, Old French castel or chastel, French château, Spanish castillo, Italian castello, the word castle was introduced into English shortly before the Norman Conquest to denote this type of building, which was then new to England. In its simplest terms, the definition of a castle accepted amongst academics is a fortified residence. Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for service and the expectation of loyalty. Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, as well as defensive structures, castles were also offensive tools which could be used as a base of operations in enemy territory
7.
Ordnance Survey National Grid
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The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, different from using Latitude and Longitude. It is often called British National Grid, the Ordnance Survey devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys. Grid references are commonly quoted in other publications and data sources. The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system is used to provide references for worldwide locations. European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military Grid Reference System system, the grid is based on the OSGB36 datum, and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–1962. It replaced the previously used Cassini Grid which, up to the end of World War Two, had issued only to the military. The Airy ellipsoid is a regional best fit for Britain, more modern mapping tends to use the GRS80 ellipsoid used by the GPS, the British maps adopt a Transverse Mercator projection with an origin at 49° N, 2° W. Over the Airy ellipsoid a straight grid, the National Grid, is placed with a new false origin. This false origin is located south-west of the Isles of Scilly, the distortion created between the OS grid and the projection is countered by a scale factor in the longitude to create two lines of longitude with zero distortion rather than one. Grid north and true north are aligned on the 400 km easting of the grid which is 2° W. 2° 0′ 5″ W. OSGB36 was also used by Admiralty nautical charts until 2000 after which WGS84 has been used, a geodetic transformation between OSGB36 and other terrestrial reference systems can become quite tedious if attempted manually. The most common transformation is called the Helmert datum transformation, which results in a typical 7 m error from true, the definitive transformation from ETRS89 that is published by the OSGB is called the National Grid Transformation OSTN02. This models the detailed distortions in the 1936–1962 retriangulation, and achieves backwards compatibility in grid coordinates to sub-metre accuracy, the difference between the coordinates on different datums varies from place to place. The longitude and latitude positions on OSGB36 are the same as for WGS84 at a point in the Atlantic Ocean well to the west of Great Britain. In Cornwall, the WGS84 longitude lines are about 70 metres east of their OSGB36 equivalents, the smallest datum shift is on the west coast of Scotland and the greatest in Kent. But Great Britain has not shrunk by 100+ metres, a point near Lands End now computes to be 27.6 metres closer to a point near Duncansby Head than it did under OSGB36. For the first letter, the grid is divided into squares of size 500 km by 500 km, there are four of these which contain significant land area within Great Britain, S, T, N and H. The O square contains an area of North Yorkshire, almost all of which lies below mean high tide
8.
House of Cavendish
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Cavendish is the surname of a British noble family, also known as the House of Cavendish. S. Their principal seat, Welbeck Abbey in Nottinghamshire, came to them through the Cavendish connection, charles Roger Dod, Peerage, Baronetage, and Knightage, Volume 15,544. William Courthope, Debretts Complete Peerage of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, sir Egerton Brydges, A Biographical Peerage of the Empire of Great Britain,86
9.
English Heritage
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English Heritage is a registered charity that manages the National Heritage Collection. This comprises over 400 of Englands historic buildings, monuments and sites spanning more than 5,000 years of history, within its portfolio are Stonehenge, Dover Castle, Tintagel Castle and the best preserved parts of Hadrians Wall. English Heritage also manages the London Blue Plaques scheme, which links influential historical figures to particular buildings and it was created to combine the roles of existing bodies that had emerged from a long period of state involvement in heritage protection. The British government gave the new charity an £80 million grant to establish it as an independent trust. Over the centuries, what is now called Heritage has been the responsibility of a series of state departments. There was the Kings Works after the Norman Conquest, the Office of Works, the Office of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues and Works, and the Ministry of Works. Responsibility subsequently transferred to the Ministry of Public Building and Works then to the Department of the Environment and now the Department for Culture, Media, the states legal responsibility for the historic environment goes back to the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. Central government subsequently developed several systems of protection for different types of assets, introducing listing for buildings after WW2. The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission was formed under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983 on 1 April 1984, soon after, the commission gained the operating name of English Heritage by its first Chairman, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu. A national register of parks and gardens, was set up in 1984. Registration is a consideration in the planning process. In 2010–2011 it recorded 4.3 million unique online user sessions, in 2012 the section responsible for archive collections was renamed the English Heritage Archive. As a result of the National Heritage Act 2002, English Heritage acquired administrative responsibility for historic wrecks, the administration of the listed building system was transferred from DCMS to English Heritage in 2006. It was retained on grounds of performing a function which should remain independent from Government. However the department also suffered from budget cuts during the recession of the 2010s resulting in a deficit of £100 million. In June 2013 the British Government announced plans to provide an £80 million grant to enable English Heritage to become a self-financing charity, the national portfolio of historic properties remain in public ownership, but the new English Heritage will be licensed to manage them. The change occurred on 1 April 2015 with the planning and heritage protection functions remaining an independent, non-departmental public body. The new trust has a licence to operate the properties until 2023, English Heritage is the guardian of over 400 sites and monuments, the most famous of which include Stonehenge, Iron Bridge and Dover Castle
10.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
11.
Scheduled monument
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In the United Kingdom, a scheduled monument is a nationally important archaeological site or historic building, given protection against unauthorised change. The various pieces of legislation used for protecting heritage assets from damage. The protection given to scheduled monuments is given under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, a heritage asset is a part of the historic environment that is valued because of its historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic interest. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. There are about 20,000 scheduled monuments in England representing about 37,000 heritage assets, of the tens of thousands of scheduled monuments in the UK, most are inconspicuous archaeological sites, but some are large ruins. According to the 1979 Act, a monument cannot be a structure which is occupied as a dwelling, as a rule of thumb, a protected historic asset that is occupied would be designated as a listed building. Scheduled Monuments are defined in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, in England, Wales and Scotland they are often referred to as a scheduled ancient monument, although the Act defines only ancient monument and scheduled monument. A monument can be, A building or structure, cave or excavation which is above or below the surface of the land, a site comprising any vehicle, vessel, aircraft or other moveable structure. In Northern Ireland they are designated under separate legislation and are referred to as a historic monument or a monument in state care. The first Act to enshrine legal protection for ancient monuments was the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 and this identified an initial list of 68 prehistoric sites, which were given a degree of legal protection. This was the result of strenuous representation by William Morris and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, which had been founded in 1877. Following various previous attempts, the 1882 legislation was guided through parliament by John Lubbock, the first Inspector of Ancient Monuments, as set up by the act, was Augustus Pitt Rivers. At this point, only the inspector, answering directly to the First Commissioner of Works, was involved in surveying the scheduled sites and persuading landowners to offer sites to the state. The act also established the concept of guardianship, in which a site might remain in private ownership, however the legislation could not compel landowners, as that level of state interference with private property was not politically possible. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 extended the scope of the legislation to include medieval monuments, in a speech in 1907, Robert Hunter, chairman of the National Trust, observed that only a further 18 sites had been added to the original list of 68. Charles Peers, an architect, was appointed as Inspector in 1910 in the Office of Works becoming Chief Inspector in 1913. The job title Inspector is still in use, scheduling offers protection because it makes it illegal to undertake a great range of works within a designated area, without first obtaining scheduled monument consent. However, it does not affect the owner’s freehold title or other interests in the land
12.
William Peverel the Younger
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William the Younger Peverel was the son of William Peverel. He married Avicia de Lancaster in La Marche, Normandy, France and she was the daughter of William de Lancaster I and Countess Gundred de Warenne, daughter of William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey. In 1114, she bore a daughter, Margaret Peverel, another member of his family, Maude Peverel was - by 1120 - the first wife of Robert fitz Martin. William inherited the Honour of Peverel and he was a principal supporter of King Stephen, and a commander in the Battle of the Standard. He was captured at The Battle of Lincoln, the Earl died before he took possession of the Honour, and it stayed in the Crown for about a half century
13.
Earl of Derby
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Earl of Derby is a title in the Peerage of England. The title was first adopted by Robert de Ferrers, 1st Earl of Derby under a creation of 1139 and it continued with the Ferrers family until the 6th Earl forfeited his property toward the end of the reign of Henry III and died in 1279. Most of the Ferrers property and, by a creation in 1337, the title merged in the Crown upon Henry IVs accession to the throne. It was created again for the Stanley family in 1485, Lord Derbys subsidiary titles are Baron Stanley of Bickerstaffe in the County Palatine of Lancaster, and Baron Stanley of Preston, in the County Palatine of Lancaster. The courtesy title of the heir apparent is Lord Stanley and they were at times one of the richest landowning families in England. The family seat is Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool, Merseyside, Ferrières in Normandy, the hometown of the de Ferrers family, was an important centre for iron and takes it name from the iron ore mines used during the Gallo-Roman period. Lord of Longueville, Normandy, and a Domesday Commissioner, he built Tutbury Castle, the Ferrers, lords of the barony of Ferrières in Normandy, were accompanied to England by three other families who were their underlords in France, the Curzons, the Baskervilles and the Levetts. Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Earl of Ferrières was created Earl of Derby by King Stephen in 1138 for his valiant conduct at the Battle of Northallerton and he was married to Hawise de Vitre and died in 1139. His son Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Earl of Derby became the earl and was married to Margaret Peverel. He founded Darley Abbey and Merevale Abbey and his son William de Ferrers, 3rd Earl of Derby was married to Sybil de Braose. He rebelled against King Henry II and was imprisoned at Caen and he died in the Crusades at the Siege of Acre. He was succeeded by his son William de Ferrers, 4th Earl of Derby who married Agnes de Kevelioc, daughter of Hugh de Kevelioc, through one line the descent of the Earls of Derby eventually gave rise to the Earls Ferrers. Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, was the only peer of the realm to be hanged for murder, another familial line takes in the Baron Ferrers of Chartley descent. The large estates which were taken from Robert in 1266 were given by Henry III to his son, Edmund Crouchback, John of Gaunt’s son and successor was Henry Bolingbroke, who acceded to the throne as Henry IV in 1399. The title Earl of Derby merged into the Crown, the Stanley family was descended from Ligulf of Aldithley, who was also the ancestor of the Audleys. One of his descendants married an heiress whose marriage portion included Stoneley, Sir Thomas Stanley served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and represented Lancashire in the House of Commons. In 1456 he was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Stanley and his eldest son Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley, married Lady Margaret Beaufort, the mother of King Henry VII, and also Eleanor Nevill. The title of Earl of Derby was conferred on him in 1485 by his stepson Henry VII after the Battle of Bosworth Field where Thomas decided not to support King Richard III
14.
Henry II of England
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Henry was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England. He became actively involved by the age of 14 in his mothers efforts to claim the throne of England, then occupied by Stephen of Blois and he inherited Anjou in 1151 and shortly afterwards married Eleanor of Aquitaine, whose marriage to Louis VII of France had recently been annulled. Stephen agreed to a treaty after Henrys military expedition to England in 1153. Henry was an energetic and sometimes ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the lands and privileges of his royal grandfather, Henrys desire to reform the relationship with the Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Beckets murder in 1170, Henry soon came into conflict with Louis VII and the two rulers fought what has been termed a cold war over several decades. By 1172, he controlled England, large parts of Wales, the half of Ireland and the western half of France. Henry and Eleanor had eight children, as they grew up, tensions over the future inheritance of the empire began to emerge, encouraged by Louis and his son King Philip II. In 1173 Henrys heir apparent, Young Henry, rebelled in protest, he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother, France, Scotland, Flanders, and Boulogne allied themselves with the rebels. The Great Revolt was only defeated by Henrys vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them new men appointed for their loyalty, Young Henry and Geoffrey revolted again in 1183, resulting in Young Henrys death. The Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for his youngest son John, Philip successfully played on Richards fears that Henry would make John king, and a final rebellion broke out in 1189. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from an ulcer, Henry retreated to Chinon in Anjou. Henrys empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his youngest son John, many of the changes Henry introduced during his long rule, however, had long-term consequences. Historical interpretations of Henrys reign have changed considerably over time, in the 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. Late-20th-century historians have combined British and French historical accounts of Henry, Henry was born in France at Le Mans on 5 March 1133 as the eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou. In theory, the county answered to the French king, but royal power over Anjou weakened during the 11th century, Henrys mother, firstly married to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, was the eldest daughter of Henry I, King of England and Duke of Normandy. She was born into a ruling class of Normans, who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her half-brother. The war, termed the Anarchy by Victorian historians, dragged on, Henry probably spent some of his earliest years in his mothers household, and accompanied Matilda to Normandy in the late 1130s
15.
Henry the Young King
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Henry, known as the Young King, was the second of five legitimate sons of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine but the first to survive infancy. Beginning in 1170, he was titular King of England, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou, Henry the Young King was the only King of England since the Norman conquest to be crowned in the lifetime of his father, but never exercised any power. Little is known of the young prince Henry before the associated with his marriage. His mothers children by her first marriage to Louis VII of France were Marie of France, Countess of Champagne and he had one older brother, William IX, Count of Poitiers, and his younger siblings included Matilda, Richard, Geoffrey, Eleanor, Joan, and John. He was known in his own lifetime as Henry the Young King to distinguish him from his father, because he was not a reigning king, he is not counted in the numerical succession of kings of England. Henry did not appear to have been interested in the day-to-day business of government. His father, however, is reputed to have failed to delegate authority to his son, the majority opinion amongst historians is that of W. L. Warren, The Young Henry was the only one of his family who was popular in his own day. It was true that he was also the one who gave no evidence of political sagacity, military skill. And elaborated in a book, He was gracious, benign, affable, courteous. Unfortunately he was also shallow, vain, careless, high-hoped, incompetent, improvident, the Young Kings contemporary reputation, however, was by no means so negative. This had much to do with his place in the enthusiastic tournament culture of his own day. We can see this from his appearances in the History of William Marshal, the biography of the assigned to him as a tutor in 1170. The History depicts him as constantly moving from one tournament to another across northern, with his cousins, Philip, Count of Flanders, and Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut, Flanders and Namur, he was one of the key patrons of the sport. He is said to have spent over £200 a day on the great retinue of knights he brought to the tournament of Lagny-sur-Marne in November 1179, if he lacked political weight, the Young Kings patronage gave him celebrity status throughout western Europe. The baron and troubador Bertran de Born, who knew him, said that he was the best king who took up a shield. There was a perception amongst his contemporaries and the generation that his death in 1183 marked a decline both in the tournament and knightly endeavour. His former chaplain, Gervase of Tilbury, said that his death was the end of everything knightly, the young Henry played an important part in the politics of his fathers reign. On 2 November 1160, he was betrothed to Margaret of France, daughter of King Louis VII of France and his wife, Constance of Castile
16.
Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany
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Geoffrey II was Duke of Brittany and 3rd Earl of Richmond between 1181 and 1186, through his marriage with the heiress Constance. Geoffrey was the fourth of five sons of Henry II, King of England and Eleanor, in the 1160s, Henry II began to alter his policy of indirect rule in Brittany and to exert more direct control. Henry had been at war with Conan IV, Duke of Brittany, local Breton nobles rebelled against Conan, who now sought Henry IIs help. In 1164, Henry intervened to seize lands along the border of Brittany and Normandy and, in 1166, Henry then forced Conan to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his five-year-old daughter, Constance, who was handed over and betrothed to Henrys son Geoffrey. This arrangement was unusual in terms of medieval law, as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. They eventually married in July 1181, Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots and Bretons and the French king attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. Henry was then free to move against the barons in Brittany. Geoffrey was fifteen years old when he joined the first revolt against his father, Geoffrey was a good friend of Louis VIIs son Philip, and the two men were frequently in alliance against King Henry. Geoffrey spent much time at Philips court in Paris, and Philip made him his seneschal, there is evidence to suggest that Geoffrey was planning another rebellion with Philips help during his final period in Paris in the summer of 1186. As a participant in so many rebellions against his father, Geoffrey acquired a reputation for treachery, Geoffrey also was known to attack monasteries and churches in order to raise funds for his campaigns. This lack of reverence for religion earned him the displeasure of the Church and, as a consequence, there is also evidence that supports a death date of 21 August 1186. There are two accounts of his death. The more common first version holds that he was trampled to death in a jousting tournament, at his funeral, a grief-stricken Philip was said to have attempted jumping into the coffin. Roger of Hovedens chronicle is the source of this version, the detail of Philips hysterical grief is from Gerald of Wales. Possibly, this version was an invention of its chronicler, sudden illness being Gods judgment of an ungrateful son plotting rebellion against his father, and for his irreligiosity. Marie of Champagne, with whom Geoffrey had gotten on well, was present at the requiem for her half-brother, Geoffrey was buried in the choir of Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral, but his tombstone was destroyed in the 18th century before the French revolution. His body was exhumed in 1797 and measured at five feet, six inches, after Geoffreys death, Henry II arranged for Constance, Geoffreys widow, to marry Ranulph, the Earl of Chester
17.
Richard I of England
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Richard I was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine and Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Poitiers, Anjou, Maine, and Nantes and he was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was known as Richard Cœur de Lion or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a military leader. He was also known in Occitan as Oc e No, because of his reputation for terseness, by the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father. Richard spoke both French and Occitan and he was born in England, where he spent his childhood, before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine, in the southwest of France. Following his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, most of his life as king was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending his lands in France. Rather than regarding his kingdom as a responsibility requiring his presence as ruler, nevertheless, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects. He remains one of the few kings of England remembered by his epithet, rather than regnal number, Richard was born on 8 September 1157, probably at Beaumont Palace, in Oxford, England, son of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was a brother of Count William IX of Poitiers, Henry the Young King. As the third son of King Henry II, he was not expected to ascend the throne. He was also a brother of Duke Geoffrey II of Brittany, Queen Eleanor of Castile, Queen Joan of Sicily, and Count John of Mortain. Richard was the younger maternal half-brother of Countess Marie of Champagne, the eldest son of Henry II and Eleanor, William, died in 1156, before Richards birth. Richard is often depicted as having been the son of his mother. His father was Angevin-Norman and great-grandson of William the Conqueror, contemporary historian Ralph of Diceto traced his familys lineage through Matilda of Scotland to the Anglo-Saxon kings of England and Alfred the Great, and from there linked them to Noah and Woden. According to Angevin legend, there was even infernal blood in the family, while his father visited his lands from Scotland to France, Richard probably spent his childhood in England. His first recorded visit to the European continent was in May 1165 and his wet nurse was Hodierna of St Albans, whom he gave a generous pension after he became king. Little is known about Richards education, during his captivity, English prejudice against foreigners was used in a calculated way by his brother John to help destroy the authority of Richards chancellor, William Longchamp, who was a Norman. One of the charges laid against Longchamp, by Johns supporter Hugh
18.
Peveril Castle
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Peveril Castle is a ruined 11th-century castle overlooking the village of Castleton in the English county of Derbyshire. The town became the centre of the barony. The castle has views across the Hope Valley and Cave Dale, William Peveril the Younger inherited his fathers estates, but in 1155 they were confiscated by King Henry II. While in royal possession, Henry visited the castle in 1157,1158, and 1164, during the Revolt of 1173–1174, the castles garrison was increased from a porter and two watchmen to a force led by 20 knights shared with the castles of Bolsover and Nottingham. The closest Peveril Castle came to seeing battle was in 1216, when King John gave the castle to William de Ferrers, but the castellan refused to relinquish control. Although they were both Johns supporters, the king authorised the earl to use force to evict the castellan, in 1223 the castle returned to the Crown. In the 13th century there were periods of building work at the castle, toward the end of the 14th century, the barony was granted to John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Having little use for the castle, he ordered some of its material to be stripped out for re-use, from the time of John of Gaunt to the present day, the castle has been owned and administered by the Duchy of Lancaster. Peveril Castle became less important administratively, and by 1609 it was very ruinous, in the 19th century, Sir Walter Scott featured the castle in his novel Peveril of the Peak. The site is situated in a park, and cared for by English Heritage. Peveril Castle is protected as a monument and a Grade I listed building. Peveril Castle stands on a limestone outcrop overlooking the west end of Hope Valley, in the midst of an ancient landscape. Overlooking the head of the valley,2 km to the west, is Mam Tor, a Bronze Age hill fort, the valley formed a natural line of communication and had extra importance due to valuable mineral resources in the area, particularly lead. The small Hope Castle lay halfway along the valley, the castles founder, William Peveril, was a follower of William the Conqueror and was rewarded for supporting him during the Norman Conquest. The first mention of him in England records that in 1068 he was granted the new castle at Nottingham by William the Conqueror, an unsubstantiated legend states that Peveril was Williams illegitimate son. By the Domesday Book of 1086, Peveril had become a powerful landowner, the castle was recorded as standing at Pechesers which has been translated as both Peaks Tail and Peaks Arse. Although the earliest Norman castles were built in timber, Peveril Castle seems to have been designed from outset to be built in stone. William Peveril had custody of royal lands such as the district of Hope, in 1100 the new king, Henry I, granted William his demesne in the Peak
19.
Knight
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A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
20.
John, King of England
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John, also known as John Lackland, was King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death in 1216. The baronial revolt at the end of Johns reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, John, the youngest of five sons of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, was at first not expected to inherit significant lands. Following the failed rebellion of his brothers between 1173 and 1174, however, John became Henrys favourite child. He was appointed the Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England, Johns elder brothers William, Henry and Geoffrey died young, by the time Richard I became king in 1189, John was a potential heir to the throne. John unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against Richards royal administrators whilst his brother was participating in the Third Crusade, John spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances. Johns judicial reforms had a impact on the English common law system. An argument with Pope Innocent III led to Johns excommunication in 1209, Johns attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed due to the French victory over Johns allies at the battle of Bouvines. When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, although both John and the barons agreed to the Magna Carta peace treaty in 1215, neither side complied with its conditions. Civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by Louis of France and it soon descended into a stalemate. John was born to Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine on 24 December 1166, Henry had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard—Anjou, Normandy and England—and expanded his empire by conquering Brittany. The result was the Angevin Empire, named after Henrys paternal title as Count of Anjou and, more specifically, its seat in Angers. The Empire, however, was fragile, although all the lands owed allegiance to Henry. As one moved south through Anjou and Aquitaine, the extent of Henrys power in the provinces diminished considerably, scarcely resembling the concept of an empire at all. Some of the ties between parts of the empire such as Normandy and England were slowly dissolving over time. It was unclear what would happen to the empire on Henrys death, most believed that Henry would divide the empire, giving each son a substantial portion, and hoping that his children would continue to work together as allies after his death. To complicate matters, much of the Angevin empire was held by Henry only as a vassal of the King of France of the line of the House of Capet. Henry had often allied himself with the Holy Roman Emperor against France, shortly after his birth, John was passed from Eleanor into the care of a wet nurse, a traditional practice for medieval noble families. Eleanor then left for Poitiers, the capital of Aquitaine, and sent John and this may have been done with the aim of steering her youngest son, with no obvious inheritance, towards a future ecclesiastical career
21.
Mark (currency)
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The mark was a currency or unit of account in many nations. It is named for the unit of weight. The word mark comes from a merging of three Teutonic/Germanic words, Latinised in 9th century post-classical Latin as marca, marcha, marha or marcus and it was a measure of weight mainly for gold and silver, commonly used throughout Western Europe and often equivalent to eight ounces. Considerable variations, however, occurred throughout the Middle Ages, as of 2017, the only circulating currency named mark is the Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark. In England the mark never appeared as a coin but was only a unit of account and it was apparently introduced in the 10th century by the Danes. According to 19th-century sources, it was equivalent to 100 pence. In Scotland, the merk Scots was a coin of that value, issued first in 1570. In northern Germany and Scandinavia, the mark was a unit of account, in an attempt to prevent debasement of the currency, the Bank of Hamburg was founded in 1619, after the example of the Bank of Amsterdam. Both these banks established a money of account. The Hamburg unit of account was the mark banco and it was credited in exchange for the sale of bullion or by way of credit against collateral. No coins or banknotes were issued, but accounts were opened showing a credit balance, the account holders could use their credit balances by remittances to other accounts or by drawing bills of exchange against them. These bills circulated and could be transferred by endorsement, and were accepted as payment and this currency proved to be very stable. Following German unification in 1871, the country adopted the German gold mark as its currency in 1873, the name was taken from the mark banco. Coins denominated in gold marks were first issued in 1871, the mark banco was converted into the new gold mark at par. The Bank of Hamburg was incorporated as the Hamburg subsidiary into the newly founded Reichsbank, in 1914, the Reichsbank stopped demanding first-class collateral when providing credit to borrowers. The gold mark became a currency, colloquially referred to as the paper mark. In 1918, the sound money policy was not re-established, and the continuing loose money policy resulted in inflation. In late 1923, when the mark had become virtually worthless, it was replaced by a new currency
22.
Henry III of England
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Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was nine in the middle of the First Barons War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the barons to be a religious crusade and Henrys forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and his early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had belonged to his father. A revolt led by William Marshals son, Richard, broke out in 1232, following the revolt, Henry ruled England personally, rather than governing through senior ministers. He travelled less than previous monarchs, investing heavily in a handful of his palaces and castles. He married Eleanor of Provence, with whom he had five children, in a fresh attempt to reclaim his familys lands in France, he invaded Poitou in 1242, leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. After this, Henry relied on diplomacy, cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 and he planned to go on crusade to the Levant, but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony. The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government, in 1263 one of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power, resulting in the Second Barons War. Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army, the Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264, where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner. Henrys eldest son, Edward, escaped captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year. Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the rebels, but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth. Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures, including suppression of the Jews, to maintain baronial. Henry died in 1272, leaving Edward as his successor and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign, and was moved to his current tomb in 1290. Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised, Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207. He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, little is known of Henrys early life
23.
Manorialism
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Manorialism was an essential element of feudal society. It was the principle of rural economy that originated in the Roman villa system of the Late Roman Empire. It was slowly replaced by the advent of a market economy. These obligations could be payable in several ways, in labor, in kind, or, on rare occasions, in examining the origins of the monastic cloister, Walter Horn found that as a manorial entity the Carolingian monastery. Manorialism died slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape and it outlasted serfdom as it outlasted feudalism, primarily an economic organization, it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent, the last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II, in Quebec, the last feudal rents were paid in 1970 under the modified provisions of the Seigniorial Dues Abolition Act of 1935. The term is most often used with reference to medieval Western Europe, antecedents of the system can be traced to the rural economy of the later Roman Empire. With a declining birthrate and population, labor was the key factor of production, the workers of the land were on their way to becoming serfs. The legal status of adscripti, bound to the soil, contrasted with barbarian foederati, the process of rural self-sufficiency was given an abrupt boost in the eighth century, when normal trade in the Mediterranean Sea was disrupted. The lord held a court, governed by public law. Not all territorial seigneurs were secular, bishops and abbots also held lands that entailed similar obligations, by extension, the word manor is sometimes used in England to mean any home area or territory in which authority is held, often in a police or criminal context. In the generic plan of a manor from Shepherds Historical Atlas. As concerns for privacy increased in the 18th century, manor houses were located a farther distance from the village. In an agrarian society, the conditions of land tenure underlie all social or economic factors, there were two legal systems of pre-manorial landholding. One, the most common, was the system of holding land allodially in full outright ownership, the other was a use of precaria or benefices, in which land was held conditionally. To these two systems, the Carolingian monarchs added a third, the aprisio, which linked manorialism with feudalism and he solved this problem by allotting desert tracts of uncultivated land belonging to the royal fisc under direct control of the emperor. These holdings aprisio entailed specific conditions, the earliest specific aprisio grant that has been identified was at Fontjoncouse, near Narbonne
24.
Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury
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Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury, 7th Earl of Waterford, KG was a peer in the peerage of England. He was the eldest surviving son of George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, by the latters first marriage to Gertrude Manners, daughter of the first Earl of Rutland. In 1568, Gilbert was married to Mary Cavendish, daughter of his new stepmother, Bess of Hardwick, when Bess and her husband fell out, Gilbert took the side of his wife and his mother-in-law against his own father. However, when the old earl died in 1590, Gilbert refused Bess the widows portion she felt was her due, and consequently they fell out. He appears to have been a highly individual, feuding with not only his stepmother but his brother and other family members, his tenants. He was overshadowed by his wife, Francis Bacon remarked that she was undoubtedly greater than he. The children from his marriage to Mary Cavendish were, Lady Mary Talbot Lady Elizabeth Talbot Lady Alethea Talbot Two sons, George and John and he was elected knight of the shire for Derbyshire in 1572. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Talbot in 1589 and became 7th Earl of Shrewsbury on his fathers death in 1590. In 1592, he was created a Knight of the Garter, but feuded with his former friend John Stanhope when Johns brother got the post of Earl Marshal of England, gilberts stepbrother Charles Cavendish challenged Stanhope to a duel for his sake, which was not fought. Elizabeth I was displeased and took Stanhopes side, after this Gilbert challenged his own brother Edward to a duel over a lease, but Edward refused to fight him. Gilbert accused his brother of planning to poison him, but lost his case against him and he became a patron of the arts, as was his daughter Alethea, who became Countess of Arundel by her marriage to Thomas Howard in 1606. Talbots second daughter, Elizabeth, married Henry Grey, 8th Earl of Kent, the eldest, Mary, married William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke. As well as bringing up their three daughters, Gilbert and Mary Talbot spent a deal of time with their orphaned niece. In the absence of a heir, he was succeeded in the earldom of Shrewsbury by his younger brother. However, some of the estates passed then to his daughters
25.
Bess of Hardwick
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Elizabeth Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury, known as Bess of Hardwick, was a notable figure of 16th century Elizabethan English society. By a series of marriages, she rose to the highest levels of English nobility. Bess was a business woman, increasing her assets with business interests including mines. An accomplished needlewoman, Bess joined her husbands captive charge at Chatsworth House for extended periods in 1569,1570, and 1571, during which time they worked together on the Oxburgh Hangings. Bess is also known for her building projects, the most famous of which are, Chatsworth, now the seat of the Dukes of Devonshire. Elizabeth Hardwick was the daughter of John Hardwick of Derbyshire by his wife Elizabeth Leeke, daughter of Thomas Leeke and it cannot be later than 1527 because of the date of her fathers death, given in his Inquisition Post Mortem. By the mid-fifteenth century the family had risen to gentleman-yeoman stock, the Hardwick coat of arms of Hardwick was probably granted c.1450 to William Hardwick. The blazon is, Argent, a saltier engrailed azure on a chief of the second three cinquefoils of the first. When giving evidence of his right to arms in 1569, Besss only brother, James Hardwick, provided the heralds with a pedigree of his family began with this William. James was the last surviving male member of the Hardwick family. The Hardwicks were members of the gentry of Scarsdale, no male member of the Hardwick family rose above the status of esquire or held any important local or county offices. Bess was born into this relatively minor gentry family and her fourth marriage to the earl of Shrewsbury in 1567 elevated her to the rank of countess, and following the earls death in November 1590, Bess became one of the richest women in the kingdom. She set about building her greatest monument, Hardwick New Hall, John Hardwick died aged about 40 leaving a widow, son, and four daughters. His widow, Elizabeth Leeke then remarried to the son of the neighbouring Leche family of Chatsworth. Little is known of Besss early life and she appears to have been espoused to her first husband during the 1530s, and probably married for the first time in 1543. Not surprisingly, this coincides with that Dugdale claimed Bess was in service to Anne Gainsford in London. However, there is no evidence to support the story, and she certainly married Sir William at Bradgate, but that in itself does not prove that Bess was in service at Bradgate. It remains possible that she met Sir William elsewhere, possibly at Codnor, in 1543, Bess married 13-year-old Robert Barley, heir to a neighbouring estate
26.
William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle
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William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne KG KB PC was an English polymath and aristocrat, having been a poet, equestrian, playwright, swordsman, politician, architect, diplomat and soldier. At first a courtier of James I of England, Cavendish would later strike up friendships with Charles I of England and he was created Marquess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and entrusted with the education of the royal couples son, the future Charles II of England. In 1645 he married the English poet, dramatist, philosopher, after the defeat at Marston Moor, Cavendish went into self-imposed exile, only returning with the English Restoration when he was created a duke. A descendant of the Cavendish family, William Cavendish was born at Handsworth Manor in the West Riding of Yorkshire to Sir Charles Cavendish, on the paternal side of his family, the grandparents of William were Bess of Hardwick and courtier William Cavendish. Shortly after the birth of William, his brother Charles was born, the brothers would maintain a close relationship throughout their lives. The family lived at Welbeck Abbey and he was the eldest surviving son of Sir Charles Cavendish and his wife Catherine, and the grandson of Sir William Cavendish and Bess of Hardwick. He was educated at St Johns College, Cambridge and he possessed an immense fortune, and several times he entertained King James I and King Charles I with great magnificence at Welbeck and Bolsover. The Duke died at Welbeck Abbey on Christmas Day 1676, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The 1st Dukes daughters included Lady Elizabeth Cavendish, who married John Egerton, 2nd Earl of Bridgewater and had issue, and Lady Frances Cavendish, on 3 November 1620 Cavendish became Viscount Mansfield and on 7 March 1628 Earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1629 he inherited his mothers barony of Ogle, together with an estate of £3,000 per annum, in 1638 he became governor of Charles, Prince of Wales, and in 1639 a Privy Counsellor. When the Scottish war broke out he assisted King Charles I with a loan of £10,000, in 1641 Newcastle became implicated in the Army Plot, and in consequence withdrew for a time from the court. On 11 January 1642 King Charles sent him to seize Hull, when the king declared open war, Newcastle received the command of the four northern counties, and had the power conferred on him of making knights. He maintained troops at his own expense, and having occupied Newcastle kept open communications with Queen consort Henrietta Maria of France, in November 1642 he advanced into Yorkshire, raised the siege of York, and compelled Lord Fairfax of Cameron to retire after attacking him at Tadcaster. Subsequently his plans were checked by Fairfaxs re-capture of Leeds in January 1643, in June he advanced again, defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton Moor on 30 June, and obtained possession of all Yorkshire except Hull and Wressle Castle. On 27 October 1643, he was created Marquess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the next year Newcastles position was further threatened by the advance of the Scots. Against larger numbers he could do little but harass and cut off supplies and he retreated to York, where the three armies of the Scots, as well as those of Lord Fairfax of Cameron and Lord Manchester, surrounded him. On 1 July 1644 Prince Rupert of the Rhine raised the siege, after this disaster, against the wishes of the king and of Rupert, Newcastle immediately announced his intention of abandoning the cause and of leaving England. There he met and married his second wife Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Lucas of St Johns, Colchester, the new Marchioness was a dramatist and romancer, and had been maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria
27.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
28.
Roundhead
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Roundhead was the name given to the supporters of the Parliament of England during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against Charles I of England and his supporters, the Cavaliers or Royalists, who claimed rule by absolute monarchy, the goal of the Roundhead party was to give the Parliament supreme control over executive administration. Most Roundheads sought constitutional monarchy in place of the absolutist monarchy sought by Charles I, englands many Puritans and Presbyterians were almost invariably Roundhead supporters, as were many smaller religious groups such as the Independents. However many Roundheads were Church of England, as were many Cavaliers, Roundhead political factions included the proto-anarchist Diggers, the diverse group known as the Levellers and the apocalyptic Christian movement of the Fifth Monarchists. Some Puritans, but by no means all, wore their hair closely cropped round the head or flat, during the war and for a time afterwards, Roundhead was a term of derision—in the New Model Army it was a punishable offence to call a fellow soldier a Roundhead. This contrasted with the term Cavalier to describe supporters of the Royalist cause, Roundheads appears to have been first used as a term of derision toward the end of 1641, when the debates in Parliament in the Clergy Act 1640 were causing riots at Westminster. The demonstrators included London apprentices and Roundhead was a term of derision for them because the regulations to which they had agreed included a provision for closely cropped hair. However, Richard Baxter ascribes the origin of the term to a made by Queen Henrietta Maria of France at the trial of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford. Referring to John Pym, she asked who the man was. The principal advisor to Charles II, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, remarked on the matter and they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called Cavaliers, and the other of the rabble contemned and despised under the name of Roundheads. By the end of this period some Independent Puritans were again using the term Roundhead to refer to the Presbyterian Puritans. Likewise during the Exclusion Bill crisis, the term Cavalier was replaced with Tory, an Irish term introduced by their opponents, the History of England from the Accession of James II. Historical Memorials Relating to the Independents Or Congregationalists, From Their Rise to the Restoration of the Monarchy, religious Thought in England, from the Reformation to the End of Last Century, A Contribution to the History of Theology. Heavy Words Lightly Thrown, The Reason Behind Rhyme, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Anonymous
29.
Slighting
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Slighting is the deliberate destruction, partial or complete, of a fortification without opposition, to render it unusable as a fortress. In England during the Middle Ages, adulterine castles, if captured by the king, during the Wars of Scottish Independence, King Robert the Bruce adopted a strategy of slighting Scottish castles to prevent them being occupied by the English. A strategy of slighting castles in the Levant was also adopted by the Mamluks in their wars with the Crusaders and these included the recent fortifications at Dunbar Castle, Leith and Eyemouth. On the island of Inchkeith a token garrison of 60 French soldiers were allowed to remain for a time, Inchkeith and Dunbar were finally slighted in 1567. During the English Civil War many castles and fortified houses were slighted by the Parliamentarians to stop them being used by the Royalists, most of the destruction was in Wales, the Midlands, and Yorkshire e. g. Pontefract Castle. The coastal fortifications were spared by the Commonwealth, as they might have been useful for hindering a Royalist or foreign invasion, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, Rheinfels Castle was started in 1245 by Diether V, Count of Katzenelnbogen. By the late 17th century it was a fortress complex and it was the only Rhineland fortress to hold out against the French in the War of the Palatine Succession. During the French Revolutionary Wars, the bank of the Rhine was annexed by the French Republic. Under the orders of the French Revolutionary government, Burg Rheinfels was slighted in 1797, in the 19th century many of the obsolete fortifications were slighted in order to provide more space in the area for growing cities. This process of eliminating urban fortifications is specifically referred to as defortification, the resulting slag bricks, clinker, boulders, etc. served as building material for construction. The slighting was carried out by the removal of walls and ramparts. Most of the time, the land on which the fortifications stood was used as parks, the term boulevard is an Old French word meaning fortification. Walking the River Rhine Trail, Germany, perry, David R. Blackburn, Mark A. S. Castle Park, Dunbar, two years on a fortified headland. Monograph, Society of Antiquaries of Scot land, discovering Fortifications, from the Tudors to the Cold War. Goode, Dominic, ed. Fortified Places, Edinburgh, the Walls of Edinburgh, A short guide. A general history of Scotland from the earliest accounts to the present time, understanding the Castle Ruins of England and Wales, How to Interpret the History and Meaning of Masonry and Earthworks. The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, the Yorkshire Countryside, a landscape history
30.
Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland
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Her collection included costly art objects including the Portland Vase. Her ambition for her collection was for it to contain and to every living species. She was a member of the Bluestockings, a group of intellectuals led by women. She was also grandmother of Queen Elizabeth II through her mothers side. She was the surviving child of the 2nd Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, bibliophile, collector and patron of the arts. As a child, she collected pets and natural objects and was encouraged by her father and her paternal grandfather. By the November following her marriage, her collecting had gathered pace, expanding to include the decorative and her home in Buckinghamshire, Bulstrode Hall, provided space to house the results, and her independent fortune meant that cost was no object. Her collection was, unlike many similar ones, well-curated. She corresponded with Rousseau until she sent him a copy of Georg Rumpfs Herbarium amboinense, the Portland Museum at Bulstrode was open to visitors, along with its zoo, aviary and vast botanic garden. Many came, scholars, philosophers, scientists and even royalty, and her fellow collector Horace Walpole commented on it, Few men have rivalled Margaret Cavendish in the mania of collecting, and perhaps no woman. In an age of great collectors she rivalled the greatest, or, in the words of Mrs Delany, Surely an application to natural beauties must enlarge the mind. This house with all belonging to it is a school for contemplations. Her natural collection was the largest and most famous of its time, with few geographical bounds and she drew and recorded its specimens, sorting them innovatively in type species and displaying them alongside ancient remains such as the Portland Vase, which she bought from Sir William Hamilton. On her death, with her children uninterested in the collection, her sons political career to finance and her creditors demands to be paid, the collection was entirely dissolved at an auction of over 4,000 lots at her Whitehall residence from 24 April to 3 July 1786. However, the vast majority went, including the natural history collection, Walpole records that only eight days included items other than shells, ores, fossils, birds eggs. Only fragments of the Portland Museums building survive too, since Bulstrode was demolished in the 19th century, the Harley Gallerys Treasury Museum shows changing displays of objects from the Portland Collection. List of natural history dealers R. G. W. Anderson, Enlightening the British, Knowledge, discovery and the museum in the eighteenth century, ISBN 0-7141-5010-X, p83
31.
Earl of Portland
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Earl of Portland is a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of England, first in 1633 and again in 1689. The title Duke of Portland was created in 1716 but became extinct in 1990 upon the death of the ninth Duke, the title of Earl of Portland was first created for the politician Richard Weston, 1st Baron Weston, in 1633. He was Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1621 to 1628 and Lord High Treasurer from 1628 to 1635 and this title was also in the Peerage of England. He was succeeded by his son, the second Earl and he served as Joint Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire. His son, the third Earl, was killed at the Battle of Lowestoft in 1665 and he was unmarried and was succeeded by his uncle, the fourth Earl. He was childless and on his death in 1688 the titles became extinct, the title was created for a second time in 1689 in favour of William Bentinck, the Dutch favourite and close advisor of King William III. He was made Baron Cirencester and Viscount Woodstock at the time he was given the earldom. He was succeeded in 1709 by his son from his first marriage, Henry and he represented Southampton and Hampshire in the House of Commons. In 1716 he was created Marquess of Titchfield and Duke of Portland in the Peerage of Great Britain and his grandson, William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland was a noted politician. He was Prime Minister in 1783 and from 1807 to 1809 and also served as Home Secretary, in 1801 he assumed by Royal licence the additional surname of Cavendish. The third Duke was succeeded by his eldest son William Bentinck, the fourth Duke was also a politician and served as Lord Privy Seal in 1827 and as Lord President of the Council from 1827 to 1828. He married Henrietta, daughter of Major-General John Scott in 1795 and his eldest son and heir apparent, William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, Marquess of Titchfield, represented two constituencies in Parliament but died unmarried in 1824,15 years before his father. Portland was therefore succeeded by his son, William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck. The fifth Duke is remembered as a architect and engineer but eccentric. Charles first son, also named Charles, was a maternal great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth II, in 1880, the sixth Duke also succeeded his stepmother as second Baron Bolsover. He was a Conservative politician and served as Master of the Horse from 1886 to 1892 and his eldest son William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland was also a Conservative politician and served as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1927 to 1929 and in 1932. However, the barony of Bolsover became extinct upon the death of the seventh Duke, the eighth Duke was a colonial administrator in British Kenya and served as Legislative Assembly of Kenya. The eighth Duke was childless and succeeded by his brother, Victor Cavendish-Bentinck
32.
William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland
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William Arthur Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland KG, styled Marquess of Titchfield until 1943, was a British peer and Conservative Party politician. Portland was the son of William Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland. He also held the posts of Lord Lieutenant of Nottinghamshire between 1939 and 1962 and was the second Chancellor of the University of Nottingham between 1954 and 1971. In 1948 he was made a Knight of the Garter and he also held the appointment of the honorary air commodore of No.616 Squadron RAF. Portland married Ivy Gordon-Lennox, daughter of Colonel Lord Algernon Charles Gordon-Lennox and granddaughter of Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond and he was succeeded in the dukedom by his third cousin Ferdinand Cavendish-Bentinck. The subsidiary title Baron Bolsover became extinct on his death, the family seat of Welbeck Abbey passed to his elder and only surviving daughter Lady Anne, who never married. Portlands younger daughter Lady Margaret had pre-deceased him in 1955 at the age of 36 and she had married Don Gaetano Parente, Principe di Castel Viscardo on 12 April 1950. The marriage produced one son, William Henry Marcello Parente, who served as High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire in 2003-04, Portland was a second cousin of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. New York, St Martins Press,1990, Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Lundy, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Portland William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland genealogics. org
33.
Archaeological site
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Sites may range from those with few or no remains visible above ground, to buildings and other structures still in use. Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a site can vary widely, depending on the period studied and it is almost invariably difficult to delimit a site. It is sometimes taken to indicate a settlement of some sort although the archaeologist must also define the limits of human activity around the settlement, any episode of deposition such as a hoard or burial can form a site as well. Development-led archaeology undertaken as cultural resources management has the disadvantage of having its sites defined by the limits of the intended development, even in this case however, in describing and interpreting the site, the archaeologist will have to look outside the boundaries of the building site. According to Jess Beck in “How Do Archaeologists find sites. ”The areas with a number of artifacts are good targets for future excavation. The most common person to have found artifacts are farmers who are plowing their fields or just cleaning them up often find archaeological artifacts, many people who are out hiking and even pilots find artifacts they usually end up reporting them to archaeologist to do further investigation. When they find sites, they have to first record the area and if they have the money, there are many ways to find sites, one example can be through surveys. Surveys involve walking around analyzing the land looking for artifacts. ”This helps archaeologists in the future. In case there was no time, or money during the finding of the site, archaeologists can come back, archaeologist can also sample randomly within a given area of land as another form of conducting surveys. Surveys are very useful, according to Jess Beck, “it can tell you where people were living at different points in the past. ”Geophysics is a branch of survey becoming more and more popular in archaeology, because it uses different types of instruments to investigate features below the ground surface. It is not as reliable, because although they can see what is under the surface of the ground it does not produce the best picture, Archaeologists have to still dig up the area in order to uncover the truth. There are also two most common types of survey, which is, magnetometer and ground penetrating radar. Magnetometry is the technique of measuring and mapping patterns of magnetism in the soil and it uses an instrument called a magnetometer which is required to measure and map traces of soil magnetism. The ground penetrating radar is a method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface and it uses electro magnetic radiation in the microwave band of the radio spectrum, and detects the reflected signals from subsurface structures. There are many tools that can be used to find artifacts. This tool is helpful to archaeologists who want to explore in a different area. They can use this tool to see what has already been discovered, with this information available, archaeologists can expand their research and add more to what has already been found. Traditionally, sites are distinguished by the presence of artifacts and features
34.
Historic England
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Historic England is an executive non-departmental public body of the British Government sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. It is tasked with protecting the environment of England by preserving and listing historic buildings, ancient monuments. The body was created by the National Heritage Act 1983. Historic England has a remit to and complements the work of Natural England which aims to protect the natural environment. Historic England inherits English Heritages position as the UK governments statutory adviser and this includes archaeology on land and under water, historic buildings sites and areas, designated landscapes and the historic elements of the wider landscape. It monitors and reports on the state of Englands heritage and publishes the annual the Heritage at Risk survey which is one of the UK Governments Official statistics and it is tasked to secure the preservation and enhancement of the man-made heritage of England for the benefit of future generations. Giving grants national and local organisations for the conservation of buildings, monuments. In 2013/14 over £13 million worth of grants were made to support heritage buildings, advising central UK government on which English heritage assets are nationally important and should be protected by designation. Administering and maintaining the register of Englands listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered battlefields, conservation areas and protected parks and this is published as an online resource as The National Heritage List for England. Advising local authorities on managing changes to the most important parts of heritage, providing expertise through advice, training and guidance to improve the standards and skills of people working in heritage, practical conservation and access to resources. In 2009–2010 it trained around 200 professionals working in local authorities, consulting and collaborating with other heritage bodies, local and national planning organisations e. g. It is not responsible for approving alterations to listed buildings, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government. It also owns the National Heritage Collection of nationally important historic sites, however they do not run these sites as this function is instead carried out by the English Heritage Trust under licence until 2023. Britain from Above, presents the unique Aerofilms collection of photographs from 1919-1953. Images of England website Heritage Explorer, Education site for teachers Department for Culture Media and Sport
35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
36.
Ardotalia
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Ardotalia is a Roman fort in Gamesley, near Glossop in Derbyshire, England. Ardotalia was constructed by Cohors Primae Frisiavonum—The First Cohort of Frisiavones, evidence for the existence of this unit exists not only from the building stone found at the site but also from various diplomas and other Roman writings. This unit would have had around a thousand men, including the specialist craftsmen needed to perform the work of building the fort. This unit was assisted in constructing the fort by the 3rd Cohort of Bracara Augustani and these men were probably Iberian Celts from the colony of Braga in Portugal, who seem to have been attached to the XX Legion Valeria Victrix in Chester. The Frisiavones were from low-lying lands beyond the Rhine and so may have divided between the lower terrain of Manchester and Northwich. The First Cohort of Frisiavones were also present at Brocolitia, one of Hadrians wall forts and settlements, at Carrawburgh, evidence for this relies on an inscription on an altar stone, which tells us that Optio Maus had repaid a vow to the goddess Coventina. Whether this altar was the repayment of the vow is unknown, the name Melandra is of unknown origin but may have been originated by the John Watson, Rector of Stockport, who visited the site c.1771 when substantial stone remains existed. The name Ardotalia is an emendation of Zerdotalia written in the Ravenna Cosmography. The site is a Scheduled Ancient Monument
37.
Codnor Castle
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Codnor Castle is a ruined 13th-century castle in Derbyshire, England. The land around Codnor came under the jurisdiction of William Peverel after the Norman conquest, although registered as a Scheduled Ancient Monument and Grade II Listed Building the site is officially, as at 2016, a Building at Risk. The castle is a keep and bailey fortress and was established by William Peverel. The present fragmentary remains represent a three-storey keep and a curtain wall and ditch. The outer bailey is on a level and was constructed at a later period. The castle overlooks the Erewash valley and the counties of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire and it originally had a deep moat and on its eastern side there was once a considerable abundance of trees, which have now been cut down. On the west side there was a courtyard that was fortified by huge round towers. In other parts of the ruins there is evidence that the walls had loopholes included to allow bowmen to use them if necessary. By 1211 it was owned by Henry de Grey, a descendant of the Norman knight Anchetil de Greye and his son Richard settled in Codnor and was a loyal Baron to Henry III. Along with his brother John they served the King in the Holy Land, John Grey distinguished himself in the Scottish wars and found himself in great favour with Edward III. Together with William DEincourt, the Lord Grey commanded all the knights of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire in case of an invasion, Henry the last of the family, died during the reign of Henry VII, without a legitimate heir. He left part of his lands to his sons, Henry and Richard. The remainder went to his aunt Elizabeth Grey, who in 1429 married Sir John Zouche, Sir John Zouche of Codnor was three times High Sheriff of Derbyshire. The castle remained in the hands of the Zouche family for two hundred years until they sold up and emigrated to Virginia in 1634. Sir Streynsham Master, High Sheriff of Derbyshire, who bought the Codnor Castle estate in 1692, is reported as the last resident of the castle and he lived there until his death in 1724. Today the remnants of Codnor Castle are a fragile ruin, its few remaining walls are well visited. The site is now privately owned, public access is managed by The Codnor Castle Heritage Trust, access can be arranged by contacting the Trust. In June 2007, Channel 4s Time Team programme carried out an archaeological dig around the castle, a perfectly preserved gold noble of Henry IV was found in the moat and is now displayed at Derby Museum and Art Gallery
38.
Duffield Castle, Derbyshire
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Duffield Castle was a Norman Castle in Duffield, Derbyshire. The site is a Scheduled Ancient Monument and it was on a rocky promontory facing the river, easily defended, though it is debatable whether it was inhabited in prehistoric times. Remains, however, that appear to be of Anglo-Saxon origin, have found, suggesting occupation by persons of some position, possibly a Saxon Thane of the name of Siward. Considerable amounts of Roman or Romano-British pottery have also been found, some of the artefacts that were discovered were lodged with the Derby Museum, while others were kept in the Parish Room, many have disappeared. What is known, however, is that in or around 1066 Henry de Ferrers, having rendered great service to King William, was granted estates in Derbyshire and this extended between Heage and Shottle on the North, and Tutbury on the South. He built Tutbury Castle, and made it his chief seat and his third son, Robert, distinguished himself in the Battle of the Standard against the Scots in 1138 and was made the Earl of Derby. His great grandson, William, who succeeded to the position in 1162 joined the Kings sons in a rebellion against their father, Henry II and in 1173 both castles were destroyed. Following him was his second, William, who was a favourite of King John who restored his earldom along with the manors of Wirksworth, Ashbourne and, later, at some time, the castles at Tutbury and Duffield were rebuilt, this time of stone. The next William also enjoyed many Royal favours, the next Earl, Robert, the seventh generation, rebelled against Henry III and Tutbury Castle was destroyed. Although pardoned, Robert rebelled again and being defeated in battle at Chesterfield was dispossessed in 1269 and his lands were given to Prince Edmund, who was shortly afterwards created Earl of Lancaster. The castle was razed to the ground, much of the stone being scavenged for other buildings. Memories of a castle persisted, preserved in the name of Castle Orchard, the site was rediscovered in 1885. When the site was excavated, the foundations of a traditional Norman motte and bailey castle were discovered, what was remarkable was the size of the latter, about 98 feet in length and 95 feet in breadth, only slightly smaller than the White Tower in London. The grounds were preserved, with the foundations marked out, and donated to the National Trust, in 1899, for many years, upkeep was carried out by the Parish Council, but has recently been taken back by the Trust. The Trust is currently considering raising the funds to carry out further investigations. As a postscript, the de Ferrers family in Normandy presided over an important centre for iron manufacture and it has been suggested that this is the origin of nailmaking in Belper. - History of the de Ferrers family Maps of present day Duffield and the castles location
39.
Melbourne Castle
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Melbourne Castle was a medieval castle in Melbourne, Derbyshire. It was built on the site of a royal manor house that had provided accommodation for noblemen hunting in a nearby royal park in the reign of King John. Construction of the castle was started in 1311 by Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, and continued until 1322, shortly before his execution, from the early fourteenth century, Melbourne Castle was mainly in the possession of the Earls and Dukes of Lancaster or the crown. Improvements and repairs were made, notably by John of Gaunt, the castle was in decline by the end of the reign of Elizabeth I. Although the stonework was sound, minimal maintenance had led to significant deterioration of other parts of the structure, the manor was purchased in 1604 by Henry Hastings, 5th Earl of Huntingdon, who had his own castle in nearby Ashby-de-la-Zouch. The Melbourne property was demolished and used as a source for building materials. All that remains of Melbourne Castle today is a section of wall about 15 m long and 4 m high and some foundations, the ruins are grade II listed and the site is a scheduled monument. There is no access to the site. Melbourne is a town in South Derbyshire close to the River Trent, as recorded in the Domesday Book, the manor of Melbourne and its lands were the property of King Edward the Confessor prior to the Norman Conquest. The property then passed into the hands of William I of England, after creating the Diocese of Carlisle in 1133, Henry I gave the manor for life to Æthelwold, the first bishop. Some time later, the built an palace nearby on the site of what is now Melbourne Hall. When Bishop Æthelwold died in about 1156, the manor reverted to the crown, a royal hunting park close to Melbourne was probably created by King John around 1200, and the King is known to have stayed at the manor house on at least five occasions. John gave the manor and its lands to Hugh Beauchamp, although appear to have soon reverted to the crown. The estate returned to the crown on the death in 1248. At some later date, the manor appears to have granted to a Philip Marc, before passing to Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster. This was in 1298 when he came of age, his father having died two years earlier, early references to the house itself are rare, but there are records of repairs to the gutters in 1246 and to the roof of the Kings Chamber in 1248. The castle was built to the east of the town on a slightly raised location. The area enclosed within the outer walls was about 2.8 ha, but with outbuildings, other ancillary constructions and orchards
40.
Pilsbury Castle
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Pilsbury Castle was a Norman castle in Derbyshire near the present-day village of Pilsbury, overlooking the River Dove. Pilsbury Castle occupied an area of high ground approximately 175 by 150 yards overlooking the River Dove, in early medieval times, the site would have been located along the River Dove routeway, and would also have overlooked a key crossing point. The Normans built a substantial motte-and-bailey castle on the site, and several theories have been put forward as to when, one theory is that the castle was built in the years following the Norman conquest of England. Henry built other castles at Tutbury and Duffield, making Pilsbury part of set of 11th-century fortifications. The castle itself includes a motte and two enclosures, approximately 40 metres and 45 metres across respectively. It had timber defences, ditches and additional flanking earthworks, alternatively, it may simply have become redundant as nearby Hartington grew in importance and the village of Pilsbury became increasingly depopulated. By the 20th century there was little to see except for a mound on a limestone outcrop, at the beginning of the present century, however, archaeological surveys revealed the foundations of the castle. The site is a Scheduled Ancient Monument, castles in Great Britain and Ireland List of castles in England Cox, J. C. Landon, N. P. Ash, A. Payne, the Victoria History of the County of Derby, vol
41.
Anchor Church
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Anchor Church is the name given to a series of caves in a Keuper Sandstone outcrop, close to the village of Ingleby, Derbyshire, England. The caves have been extended by human intervention to form a crude dwelling place, complete with door, the sandstone outcrop once formed part of the banks of the River Trent and the caves were formed by the action of the river on the rock. The course of the river has altered and left the caves opening onto a backwater pool and it has been designated as both a Regionally Important Geological Site, and as a Local Wildlife Site. The name Anchor Church is derived from the term anchorite because it is thought to have been the cell of an Anchorite hermit, St Hardulph, the nearby church at Breedon on the Hill is dedicated to this saint. In the Middle Ages, the caves were used by a monk named Bernard, records of the caves exist from 1658 when it is mentioned in Repton church records. William Woolley, writing around 1715, said, “About half a mile eastward, upon the side of the Trent, is a cave dug out of a rock in the form of a chapel. It has been, as tradition informs us, a cell and it really is a most solitary. The Burdett family of Foremarke Hall enlarged the caves to the present size in the 18th century, fitting a door in 1845 and some additional brickwork, sir Francis Burdett used the caves as a summerhouse and held picnics there. The caves are nowadays on the route of popular walks in the area. Anchor Church is a Grade II listed building, in 2015, a large area of the valley over which Anchor Church has a commanding view was subject to a planning application for gravel extraction. It formed part of a 61 hectare extension to Swarkestone Quarry by Tarmac Aggregates Limited, Anchor Church is included on the list of Derbyshire Regionally Important Geological Sites, and is also listed as a Local Wildlife Site. Other species of note recorded near Anchor Church include Eurasian otter, and 1970s records of small water-pepper
42.
Church of St Mary and All Saints, Chesterfield
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Chesterfield Parish Church is an Anglican church dedicated to Saint Mary and All Saints, located in the town of Chesterfield in Derbyshire, England. The largest church in Derbyshire, it lies within the Diocese of Derby, the church is largely medieval with Early English, Decorated Gothic and Perpendicular Gothic features built of ashlar. It comprises a nave, aisles, north and south transepts, a new font was donated by Samuel Johnson of Somersal Hall. The church reopened on 9 May 1843, lightning struck the church spire on 11 March 1861 which snapped the gas lighting pipes in the tower and a fire started in a beam next to the wooden roof of the chancel. The fire smouldered for three and a half hours until it was discovered by the Sexton on his round to ring the midnight bell. A further restoration was begun in 1896 by Temple Lushington Moore, Moore designed the High Altar reredos, installed in 1898. A fire on 22 December 1961 destroyed many of the interior fittings, surviving elements include the south transept screen from c. 1500, the Norman font and a Jacobean pulpit, the spire was added to the 14th-century tower in about 1362. It is both twisted and leaning, twisting 45 degrees and leaning 9 ft 6 in from its true centre, the leaning characteristic was initially suspected to be the result of the absence of skilled craftsmen, insufficient cross bracing, and the use of unseasoned timber. It is now believed that the twisting of the spire was caused by the lead that covers the spire and this was compounded by the weight of the lead which the spires bracing was not originally designed to bear. In common folklore, there are numerous explanations as to why the spire is twisted, several local legends hold that the Devil was responsible. In one tale, a Bolsover blacksmith mis-shod the Devil, who leapt over the spire in pain, a similar story has the Devil causing mischief in Chesterfield, seating himself on the spire and wrapping his tail around it. The people of the town rang the bells and the Devil, frightened by the clamour, tried to jump away with his tail still wound about the spire. The tower upon which the spire sits contains ten bells and these bells were cast in 1947 by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry in London, replacing a previous ring. The windlass is now on display at Chesterfield Museum and Art Gallery and it is this twisted spire that gives the towns football club, Chesterfield F. C. their nickname, the Spireites. A depiction of the spire also features on the clubs crest, the spire is open to the public most days and can be climbed partway up. The views from the top of the tower on a clear day stretch for miles, the spire, which is used as a symbol of Chesterfield, can often be seen from the surrounding hill poking out of a sea of mist, on a winter morning. The vast majority of the original John Snetzler organ was destroyed by fire in 1961 and it was replaced in 1963 by a redundant T. C. Lewis organ from Glasgow
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Derby Cathedral
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The Cathedral of All Saints, is a cathedral church in the city of Derby, Derbyshire, England. It is the seat of the Bishop of Derby, the church was founded in the mid-10th century as a royal collegiate church. It became a cathedral in 1927, the main body of the church as it stands today is a Neoclassical rebuilding by James Gibbs, completed in 1725. The tower dates from the 16th century, and a retrochoir was added in the 20th century, the original church was probably founded by King Edmund I in about 943 as a royal collegiate church, however, no traces of its structure survive. According to the Domesday assessors, it belonged to the King, the current cathedral dates from the 14th century, although it appears to be based on an earlier medieval building, which drawings show was about the same size as the present church. It may be that it became unstable and was pulled down. The 212-foot tower dates from 1510 to 1532 and was built in the popular Perpendicular Gothic style of the time, twelve large carved grotesque animal figures top the tower, three per face, whilst the carved heads of two green men adorn either side of the main West Door. The sandstone used in the construction is Ashover Grit, sourced from nearby Duffield Bank quarry. Under the Protestant persecutions of Queen Mary, Joan Waste was tried for heresy at the cathedral in 1556, the execution took place on the Burton Road in Derby. The fabric of the church appears to have deteriorated from the middle of the 17th century. In February 1723, desirous of a new building, the vicar Dr. Michael Hutchinson unilaterally decided to demolish the church, accepting the fait accompli handed to them, the Corporation of Derby then headed the subscription list for a new church to be built. A plaque within the South Aisle marks Dr Hutchinsons own significant financial contribution to this fund, encountering numerous disputes, Hutchinson eventually resigned in 1728, dying some eighteen months later with numerous outstanding debts. With the original 1530s tower remaining standing, the rest of the church was rebuilt to a Neo-Classical design of 1725 by James Gibbs, to offset the rather austere interior, Gibbs introduced a wrought-iron screen which extended across the entire width of the church. It was built by the local iron-smith and gate-maker, Robert Bakewell and its first sermon was preached on 25 November 1725. The building, previously known as All Saints Church, became a cathedral by Order in Council on 1 July 1927, the church was later extended eastwards with the addition of a retrochoir designed by Sebastian Comper, constructed between 1967 and 1972. It is a Grade I listed building, the entrance gates are also by Robert Bakewell, but these were only moved to the cathedral from St Marys Gate in 1957. The entrance gates were refurbished in 2012 and renamed the Queen Elizabeth II Gates to celebrate the Queens Diamond Jubilee, notable 20th-century additions are the stained-glass windows designed by Ceri Richards, and the bronze crucifix by Ronald Pope. In 1927 a new clock was installed by John Smith & Son, Derby clockmakers, replacing one reputed to have made by George Ashmore in 1738
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Buxton Crescent
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Buxton Crescent is a Grade-I-listed building in the town of Buxton, Derbyshire, England. The Crescent faces the site of St Anns Well, where spring water has flowed for thousands of years. The well is at the foot of The Slopes, a steep landscaped hillside in the centre of Buxton, here the geological strata channel mineral water from a mile below ground, to emerge at a constant 27.5 °C. Originally detached, the Crescent building is now the centrepiece of an attached range facing The Slopes, to the left are the Natural Mineral Baths, recently the tourist office but now empty, followed by the Old Hall Hotel, and still a hotel. To the right are the Buxton Thermal Baths, now shops, and The Colonnade, the Crescent was built for William Cavendish, the 5th Duke of Devonshire, as part of his scheme to establish Buxton as a fashionable Georgian spa town. The facade forms an arc of a circle facing southeast and it was built as a unified structure incorporating a hotel, five lodging houses, and a grand assembly room with a fine painted ceiling. The Assembly Rooms became the heart of 18th-century Buxton. On the ground floor arcade were shops and kitchens were in the basement, the western end served as a hotel. The eastern end served as offices, a library and a clinic. The hotel at the end closed in the mid-1980s due to the high cost of necessary repairs. The whole building was closed when major structural problems were discovered in the assembly rooms, the hotel part was bought by the local council in 1993, at which time the whole building fell into public ownership. A further £1.5 million from English Heritage was used to make the building weathertight, the Crescent, Pump Rooms and Natural Baths buildings were then jointly marketed by the borough and county councils. In 1994 the Monumental Trust proposed a scheme to convert the Crescent into flats, however, in December 2000 the combined councils applied to the Heritage Lottery Fund to help finance plans to restore the Crescent as a hotel and to build new spa facilities. Funding was approved in July 2003, the then £23 million plan was scheduled for completion in 2007. A further £2 million is required for the £46 million development
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Buxton Opera House
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Buxton Opera House is in The Square, Buxton, Derbyshire, England. Hosting live performances until 1927, the theatre then was used mostly as a cinema until 1976, in 1979, it was refurbished and reopened as a venue for live performance. It was built in 1903 and designed by Frank Matcham, one of Britains finest theatre architects and he also designed two famous London theatres, the London Palladium and the London Coliseum. The Opera House ran as a theatre, receiving touring companies until 1927. Silent films were shown until 1932 when the theatre was wired for sound, the Opera House also became the venue for an annual summer theatre festival from 1936 to 1942, two of them in conjunction with Lillian Bayliss and her London-based Old Vic company. In 2014, the houses former finance chief was jailed for two years for stealing nearly £250,000 from the opera house accounts in 2012 and 2013. The Opera House gradually fell into disrepair, in 1976, it was closed and rumours circulated that it would never reopen. In 1979, however, it was restored and a pit was added to the original Frank Matcham design. The theatre is staffed by a small full-time technical crew for all the work, setting up all the shows. Volunteers from the community are also employed for front-of-house duties including bar work. By the 1990s, more work was needed to repair and modernise the theatre, the current capacity is 902 seats. In 2011, FT Magazine featured an article on house design. In the section called My favourite experiences, the praised the European opera houses designed by the Viennese architectural firm of Fellner and Helmer. Represent a near-ideal marriage of size, acoustic and decorative beauty and their British equivalents are those designed by Frank Matcham – best of all the Buxton Opera House. The theatre complex also includes the adjacent Pavilion Gardens, the 369-seat Pavilion Arts Centre, the arts centre stage area can be converted into a separate 93-seat studio theatre. Typically, it includes a Handel opera and other rarely seen operas as well as more popular classics, running alongside it is the Buxton Festival Fringe. It is popular as a warm-up for the Edinburgh Fringe, from 1994 to 2013, the Opera House also hosted the annual three-week-long International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival, attracting audiences from all over the UK and from abroad. The Opera House presents over 400 performances each year, since 2004, the Opera House and the neighbouring Pavilion Gardens have hosted the annual Four Four Time music festival which sees a wide variety of musical performances over one week in February
