1.
Avigliana
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Avigliana is a town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, with about 11,000 inhabitants, located about 25 kilometres west of Turin. Avigliana lies in the Susa valley, on the highway going from Turin to Frejus and it is best known for two maar lakes, Lago Grande and Lago Piccolo. Also nearby is the massive Sacra di San Michele, in 574 the Lombard King Cleph built a castle here. According to some sources, the battle between the Franks of Pippin the Younger and the Lombards of Aistulf occurred in the nearby in 750, later Avigliana depended from the Abbey of Novalesa. Later it was a possession of the House of Savoy, Avigliana was captured by Emperor Henry VI in 1187, but later it was acquired by Thomas I of Savoy. In 1536, in the course of the Italian Wars, it was stormed by French troops. French attacks repeated in 1630 and 1690, the latter with the destruction of the castle, ruins of the castle, destroyed in the 17th century by the French. Church of San Giovanni, with works by Defendente Ferrari. The Romanesque church of San Pietro, natural Park of the Lakes of Avigliana. Avigliana has two gates on the A32 Bardonecchia-Turin motorway and it has also a station on the Turin-Modane railroad
2.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
3.
Fossano
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Fossano is a town and comune of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo. It is the fourth largest town of the Province of Cuneo, after Cuneo, Alba and it lies on the main railway line from Turin to Cuneo and to Savona, and has a branch line to Mondovì. Chief industries of the town include confectionery, chemicals, metallurgy, Fossano appeared as a commune in 1236, founded by a Guelph league of cities, but in 1251 had to yield to Asti. In 1304 it was acquired by the Marquisate of Saluzzo and it finally surrendered in 1314 to Filippo dAcaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy. The historians agree speaking about “great ditch of the Chiotto”in dialect Ciot, hole, another alternative hypothesis is that the name comes from the latin “fons sana, to indicate the presence in the proximitiy of a drinkable water spring. The old section of Fossano lies in the part of the town. It is divided in two borghi, Borgo Piazza, developed in the 15th through 18th centuries, and Borgo Vecchio, some sections of the ancient town walls are still extant. The castle with four towers, begun by Filippo dAcaia in 1314. It has a plan with four powerful towers at each side. One century later Amadeus VIII of Savoy turned it into a ducal residence, after serving as jail and barracks, the castle is now the seat of cultural events and houses a regional library. The cathedral was reconstructed at the end of the 18th century in Neoclassical style, the towns hospital and the Trinity Church were designed by Francesco Gallo in the 18th century. The Palazzo del Comandante is a Baroque building constructed in the 17th century, there are also Mineral Baths and a center for agriculture and cattle-breeding. Margaret of Savoy, born in Fossano, was one of the last of the Acaia branch of the House of Savoy and she became Marquise of Montferrat and, on being widowed, a nun at Alba. Ambrogio Borgognone, Italian Renaissance painter, is said to have been born here, giovanni Giovenale Ancina, priest, scholar and composer, was beatified in the late nineteenth century. Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris, a general, especially remembered for the Bava-Beccaris massacre was born in Fossano, paola Barale, show girl and Madonna former look-alike. Giuseppe Gallo, emigrant to the United States, father of Ernest & Julio Gallo, rafaela, Argentina Camponogara, Italy Długołęka, Poland This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fossano
4.
Piedmont
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Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.6 million, the capital of Piedmont is Turin. The name Piedmont comes from medieval Latin Pedemontium or Pedemontis, i. e. ad pedem montium, meaning “at the foot of the mountains”. Other towns of Piedmont with more than 20,000 inhabitants sorted by population and it borders with France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment with Emilia Romagna. The geography of Piedmont is 43. 3% mountainous, along with areas of hills. Piedmont is the second largest of Italys 20 regions, after Sicily and it is broadly coincident with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po, which rises from the slopes of Monviso in the west of the region and is Italy’s largest river. The Po collects all the waters provided within the semicircle of mountains which surround the region on three sides, from the highest peaks the land slopes down to hilly areas, and then to the upper, and then to the lower great Padan Plain. 7. 6% of the territory is considered protected area. There are 56 different national or regional parks, one of the most famous is the Gran Paradiso National Park located between Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They were later subdued by the Romans, who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. In the 9th–10th centuries there were incursions by the Magyars. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks, in 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry. Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful comuni of Asti and Alessandria, the County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont. A new client republic, the Piedmontese Republic, existed between 1798 and 1799 before it was reoccupied by Austrian and Russian troops, in June 1800 a third client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont. It fell under full French control in 1801 and it was annexed by France in September 1802, in the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was a springboard for Italys unification in 1859–1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820–1821 and this process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were countered by the efforts of rural farmers
5.
Galeazzo Maria Sforza
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Galeazzo Maria Sforza was the fifth Duke of Milan from 1466 until his death. He was famous for being lustful, cruel and tyrannical and he was born to Francesco Sforza, a popular condottiero and ally of Cosimo de Medici who would gain the Duchy of Milan in 1450, and Bianca Maria Visconti. He married into the Gonzaga family, on the death of his first wife Dorotea Gonzaga, Galeazzo Maria Sforza was born in Fermo, near the familys castle of Girifalco, the first son of Francesco Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti. At the death of his father, Galeazzo was in France at the head of an expedition to help King Louis XI of France against Charles I of Burgundy. Called back home by his mother, Galeazzo returned to Italy by a trip under a false name. The false identity was necessary as he had to pass by the territories of the enemy, the Duke of Savoy. He entered Milan on 20 March, acclaimed by the populace, in his first years Galeazzo and his mother ruled jointly, but later his ruthless character pushed him to oust Bianca Maria from Milan. Sforza was famous as a patron of music, under his direction, financial backing and encouragement, his chapel grew into one of the most famous and historically significant musical ensembles in Europe. Composers from the north, especially the Franco-Flemish composers from the present-day Low Countries, came to sing in his chapel and write masses, motets, some of the figures associated with the Sforza chapel include Alexander Agricola, Johannes Martini, Loyset Compère, and Gaspar van Weerbeke. However, most of the singers at the Sforza chapel fled after Galeazzos murder and took positions elsewhere, as a result, Galeazzo Sforza is also known to have had a cruel streak. He was a womanizer who often passed his women on to his courtiers once he was tired of them. Sforza once had a poacher executed by forcing him to swallow an entire hare and he also had a priest who predicted a short reign for Sforza punished by being starved to death. This made him enemies in Milan. There were three principal assassins involved in Sforzas death, Carlo Visconti, Gerolamo Olgiati and Giovanni Andrea Lampugnani, Lampugnani, descended from Milanese nobility, is recognized as the leader of the conspiracy. His motives were based primarily on a dispute, in which Galeazzo had failed to intervene in a matter which saw the Lampugnani family lose considerable properties. Visconti and Olgiati also bore the duke enmity - Olgiati was a Republican idealist, supported by about thirty friends, the three men waited in the church for the duke to arrive for mass. When Galeazzo Sforza arrived, Lampugnani knelt before him, after words were exchanged, Lampugnani rose suddenly and stabbed Sforza in the groin. Olgiati and Visconti soon joined in, as did a servant of Lampugnanis, Sforza was dead within a matter of seconds
6.
Gian Galeazzo Sforza
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Gian Galeazzo Sforza, also known as Giovan Galeazzo Sforza, was the sixth Duke of Milan. Born in Abbiategrasso, he was seven years old when in 1476 his father, Galeazzo Maria Sforza, was assassinated. His uncle, Ludovico Sforza, acted as regent to the young duke, Ludovico later became the duke after Gian Galeazzos death, which was widely viewed as suspicious. In February 1489, Gian Galeazzo married his cousin Princess Isabella of Naples, nor was there anyone who doubted that if it had been poison, it had been administered through his uncle Ludovico Sforzas machinations …
7.
Bianca Maria Sforza
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Bianca Maria Sforza was an Italian noble woman, who was Holy Roman Empress as the second wife of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. She was the eldest legitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, by his second wife, Biancas paternal grandparents were Francesco I Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti, for whom she was named. Her maternal grandparents were Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne de Lusignan of Cyprus, Biancas older illegitimate half-sister was Caterina Sforza from her fathers relationship with Lucrezia Landriani. Her uncle was Ludovico Sforza Il Moro, Duke of Milan, who married Beatrice dEste, and her aunt was Ippolita Maria Sforza, first wife of King Alfonso II of Naples. When Bianca was not yet five years old, her father was assassinated inside the Church of Santo Stefano in Milan on 26 December 1476 and he was stabbed to death by three high-ranking officials of the Milanese court. On 6 January 1474 the 21-months-old Bianca married her first cousin Philibert I, Duke of Savoy, the son of her uncle Amadeus IX of Savoy, Duke Philibert I died in the spring of 1482, leaving Bianca a widow at the age of ten. She returned to Milan, under the tutelage of her uncle Ludovico Il Moro, three years later, on 31 July 1485, the engagement between Bianca and Janus Corvinus, the only son of King Matthias of Hungary was formally announced. With this marriage, the Hungarian ruler wanted to secure his sons inheritance of Hungary and Bohemia. The marriage by proxy was signed on 25 November 1487, and according to the terms of the contract, however, due to the opposition and intrigues of Queen Beatrix, wife of Matthias and member of the Neapolitan House of Aragon, the formal marriage never took place. In March 1492 a marriage between Bianca and King James IV of Scotland was considered, but the idea was soon abandoned. Biancas second marriage was arranged by her uncle, who wanted recognition and the title of Duke confirmed by the Emperor, in exchange and her magnificent retinue on her way to her wedding aroused much attention. At her wedding, Bianca wore a bodice with eighty pieces of the jewelers art pinned thereon, with each consisting of one ruby. She also brought her husband a rich dowry of 400,000 ducats and this angered Anne of France, regent of France for her brother King Charles VIII, and brought about French intervention in Italy, thus inaugurating the lengthy Italian Wars. The union was unhappy, shortly after the consummation of the marriage and it was impossible for the young bride to win the affection of her husband, who considered her too uneducated, talkative, naive, wasteful with money, and careless. He did wish to have children with her, but all their attempts failed, despite Biancas several pregnancies and she very much liked his two surviving legitimate children, but was criticized for forgetting her dignity when she sat on the floor with them to play. After 1500, Maximilian lost all interest in Bianca and she lived with her own court of Milanese people in various castles in Tyrol. On several occasions he left her behind as security when he could not pay for his rooms on trips, Maximilian took the title of Holy Roman Emperor Elect in 1508. Bianca was, by marriage, Empress of the Holy Roman Empire, Bianca Maria Sforza died at Innsbruck on 31 December 1510
8.
Anna Sforza
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Anna Maria Sforza, was Hereditary Princess of Ferrara as the first wife of Alfonso I dEste, future Duke of Ferrara. She was the legitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, by his second wife. Annas paternal grandparents were Francesco I Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti and her maternal grandparents were Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne de Lusignan of Cyprus. She had two brothers, Gian Galeazzo Sforza and Hermes Maria Sforza, Marquis of Tortona. Annas older illegitimate half-sister was Caterina Sforza from her fathers relationship with Lucrezia Landriani and her uncle was Ludovico Sforza Il Moro, Duke of Milan, who married Beatrice dEste, and her aunt was Ippolita Maria Sforza, first wife of King Alfonso II of Naples. When Anna was only five months old, her father was assassinated inside the Church of Santo Stefano in Milan on 26 December 1476 and he was stabbed to death by three high-ranking officials of the Milanese court. In 1477, Anna was formally betrothed to the heir of Ercole I dEste and her wedding with Prince Alfonso dEste took place fourteen years later, on 12 January 1491, amidst banquets, receptions, and theatrical representations. She was buried in the monastery of San Vito, of which Anna was a benefactor and her husband was unable to take part of her funeral because at that time his face was disfigured as a consequence of syphilis. Her death marked the end of the bond between the Sforza and Este families, Alfonso remarried, to Lucrezia Borgia, in 1502
9.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
10.
House of Savoy
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The House of Savoy is one of the oldest royal families in the world, being founded in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, it grew from ruling a small county in that region to the attainment of the rank of king in 1713, the Savoyard kings of Italy were Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II. The last monarch ruled for a few weeks before being deposed following the Constitutional Referendum of 1946, the name derives from the historical region of Savoy in the Alpine region between what is now France and Italy. Over time, the House of Savoy expanded its territory and influence through judicious marriages, from rule of a small region on the French/Italian border, the dynastys realm included nearly all of the Italian Peninsula by the time of its deposition. The house descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, Humberts family are thought to have originated from near Magdeburg in Saxony, with the earliest recording of the family being two 10th century brothers, Amadeus and Humbert. Though Sabaudia was originally a county, later counts were diplomatically skilled. Two of Humberts sons were bishops at the Abbey of Saint Maurice on the River Rhone east of Lake Geneva and this diplomatic skill caused the great powers such as France, England, and Spain to take the counts opinions into account. Piedmont was later joined with Sabaudia, and the name evolved into Savoy, the people of Savoy were descended from the Celts and Romans. In 1494, Charles VIII of France passed through Savoy on his way to Italy and Naples, during the outbreak of the Italian war of 1521-1526, Emperor Charles V stationed imperial troops in Savoy. In 1536, Francis I of France invaded Savoy and Piedmont taking Turin by April of that year, Charles III, Duke of Savoy, fled to Vercelli. He served Philip II as Governor of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559, in this capacity he led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a victory at St. Quentin in 1557. He took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin and he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin. The 17th century brought economic development to the Turin area. Charles Emmanuel II developed the port of Nice and built a road through the Alps towards France, and through skillful political manoeuvres territorial expansion continued. Savoy rule over Sicily lasted only seven years, the crown of Sicily, the prestige of being kings at last, and the wealth of Palermo helped strengthen the House of Savoy further. In 1720 they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, on the mainland, the dynasty continued its expansionist policies as well. In 1798, Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate, eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna. In the meantime, nationalist figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini were influencing popular opinion, the Kingdom of Italy was the first Italian state to include the Italian Peninsula since the fall of the Roman Empire
11.
Louis, Duke of Savoy
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Louis I was Duke of Savoy from 1440 until his death in 1465. He was born at Geneva the son of Antipope Felix V and Mary of Burgundy, on 1 November 1433, at Chambéry, he married Princess Anne of Cyprus, an heiress of the Kingdom of Cyprus and the defunct Kingdom of Jerusalem. The family lived in Allaman Castle, Vaud/Switzerland and as Count de Vaud, Savoy tried to conquer the Duchy of Milan, then under the Repubblica Ambrosiana, in 1453 he received the Shroud of Turin from Margaret de Charny. It was held by the House of Savoy until 1946, at the end of the Kingdom of Italy, Louis died at Lyon in 1465, while returning from France. Louis, Count of Geneva, King of Cyprus, marguerite, married firstly in December 1458 Giovanni IV Paleologo, Marquis of Montferrat and secondly Pierre II de Luxembourg, Count of St. Pol, of Brienne, de Ligny, Marle, and Soissons. Janus, Count of Faucigny and Geneva, married Helene of Luxembourg, daughter of Louis de Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol, charlotte, married King Louis XI of France. Agnes, married François dOrléans, Duke of Longueville and their son is Louis I dOrléans, duc de Longueville. Maria, married Louis of Luxembourg, Count of St. Pol, of Brienne, de Ligny, bona, married Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan. Giacomo, Count of Romont, Lord of Vaud, François, Archbishop of Auch and Bishop of Geneva
12.
Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy
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The Blessed Amadeus IX, nicknamed the Happy, was the Duke of Savoy from 1465 to 1472. The Catholic Church venerates him with a liturgical feast on March 30 and he was born at Thonon-les-Bains, the son of Louis, Duke of Savoy, and Anne de Lusignan, daughter of Janus of Cyprus, King of Cyprus. In 1452, his mother arranged a marriage to Yolande of Valois, sister of Louis XI of France. Because of his epilepsy and retirement, she was left in control of the state, France and the Holy Roman Empire competed to gain control of Savoy’s strategically important Alpine passes and trade routes. French influence increased in Savoy and involved the country in the wars between France and the emperors, the Castle of Moncalleri in Piedmont, Italy was initially built around 1100 as a fortress on a hill, to command the main southern access to Turin. In the mid-15th century Yolanda turned it into a Renaissance Royal Palace, Amadeus was a particular protector of Franciscan friars and endowed other religious houses as well as homes for the care of the poor and suffering. He made a pilgrimage to Saint-Claude in 1471, a painting of Amadeus, made in 1474 was housed in the Dominican church in Turin and acquired a miraculous reputation. In 1612 a brief text was published in the city, by Girolamo Cordieri, canon of the cathedral chapter of Mondovi. Cordieri was later appointed theologian to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, also that year, a canon from Vercelli published a compendium of miracles attributed to the intercession of Amadeus IX. The cultus of Amadeus was actively promoted by Charles Emanuels son, Prince Maurice of Savoy, in 1613, an Historia del Beato Amedeo terzo duca di Savoia was composed by Fr. Six years later, the Duke of Savoy issued nine-florin coins depicting Amadeus IX on one side and these appear to have been used as religious medals, particularly in the Chablais, where they were distributed by Francis de Sales. Michel Merle suggests that the revival of the cult of Amadeus IX was part of a long effort on the part of the House of Savoy to enhance its political status. Presented as a prince known for his charity and concern for the poor
13.
Philip II, Duke of Savoy
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Philip II, surnamed the Landless, was the Duke of Savoy for a brief reign from 1496 to 1497. He was the granduncle of the previous duke Charles II, however, he was not the heir general of the previous duke, there being several females before him in the line of succession. To ensure male inheritance to the Savoy line, his eldest son Philibert was married to his cousin, however, the plan did not succeed, the girl died at age twelve. The children of the daughters of Philips eldest brother Duke Amedeo IX of Savoy were next in line, despite the fact that Cyprus and Jerusalem did not bar succession in female line, Philip however took those claims and used those titles as well. His male successors in Savoy also continued to do so, thus giving their ducal title a higher and he spent most of his life as a junior member of the ducal family. His original apanage was the district of Bresse, close to the French and Burgundian border, but it was lost and therefore Philip received his sobriquet the Landless, or Lackland
14.
Margaret of Savoy, Countess of Saint-Pol
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Margaret of Savoy, also known as Marguerite de Savoie or Margherita di Savoia, was the eldest surviving daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy. She was the wife of Margrave John IV of Montferrat and later the wife of Pierre II de Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol, of Brienne, de Ligny, Marle, margarets numerous descendants included Mary, Queen of Scots, and King Henry IV of France. Margaret was born in April 1439 in Turin, Italy, the eldest surviving daughter and one of the nineteen children of Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne de Lusignan, Princess of Cyprus. In December 1458 at Casale, she married her first husband, John IV, Margrave of Montferrat and he was a condottiere for the Republic of Venice during the Wars in Lombardy which were a series of conflicts fought between Venice and Milan, and their various allies. Margaret brought a dowry of 100,000 scudi, and in return received Trino, Morano, Borgo San Martino, the marriage was childless, although he fathered several illegitimate children. He died on 19 January 1464, leaving her a widow at the age of twenty-five. Marie married secondly, François de Bourbon, Count of Vendôme, by whom she had six children including Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, Mary, Queen of Scots, King Henry IV of France, and the Lorraine Dukes of Guise were Maries direct descendants. Françoise of Luxembourg, Dame dEnghien, married Philip of Cleves-Ravenstein, Captain General of Flanders, margaret died at Bruges on 9 March 1483, less than six months after her husband Pierre, and she was buried at the Abbey of Happlaincourt. Margaret was survived by her two daughters, Marie and Françoise, her three sons having died in early infancy. Charles Cawley, Medieval Lands, Savoy Charles Cawley, Medieval Lands, Champagne, Nobility www. Worldroots. com, Descendants of Amadeus III of Savoy, Leo van de Pas
15.
Charlotte of Savoy
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Charlotte of Savoy was queen of France as the second spouse of Louis XI. She served as regent during the absence in 1465, and was a member of the royal regency council during her sons minority in 1483. She was a daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne of Cyprus and her maternal grandparents were Janus of Cyprus and Charlotte de Bourbon-La Marche. Her maternal grandmother, for whom she was named, was a daughter of John I, Count of La Marche. She was one of 19 children,14 of whom survived infancy, on 11 March 1443, when Charlotte was just over a year old, she was betrothed to Frederick of Saxony, eldest son of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony. For reasons unknown, the betrothal was annulled, less than eight years later on 14 February 1451, Charlotte married Louis, Dauphin of France, eldest son of Charles VII of France and Marie of Anjou. The bride was nine years old and the groom twenty-seven, the marriage, which had taken place without the consent of the French king, was Louis second, his first spouse, Margaret of Scotland, had died childless in 1445. Upon her marriage, Charlotte became Dauphine of France, on 22 July 1461, Charlotte became Queen of France. The following year, she became ill and was close to death by August 1462. Although she recovered, her health was weakened, Louis XI did not keep much of a representational court life. Charlotte was interested in literature and praised for the taste and excellence of her personal library and she left a collection of about one hundred manuscripts, which would become the genesis of the Bibliothèque nationale of France. Charlotte served as regent in September 1465, Charlotte was widowed in 1483, when Louis XI was succeeded by their son Charles VIII, who was still a minor. In practice, her daughter Anne took control over France as regent during the minority of Charles, Charlotte died on 1 December 1483 in Amboise, just a few months after her spouses death. She is buried with him in the Notre-Dame de Cléry Basilica in Cléry-Saint-André in the arrondissement of Orléans, Charlotte became the mother of eight children, but only three survived infancy. Joan, who was briefly Queen of France as the first spouse of Louis XII Francis Charles VIII, Francis Upon the death of her daughter, Anne, Charlottes line became extinct, her granddaughter, Suzanne having died in 1521 without surviving issue
16.
Louis XI of France
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Louis XI, called the Prudent, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father Charles VII. Louis was a devious, the king forgave his rebellious vassals, including Louis, to whom he entrusted the management of the Dauphiné, then a province in southeastern France. Louiss ceaseless intrigues, however, led his father to him from court. From the Dauphiné, Louis led his own political establishment and married Charlotte of Savoy, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy, against the will of his father. Charles VII sent an army to compel his son to his will, but Louis fled to Burgundy, where he was hosted by Philip the Good, when Charles VII died in 1461, Louis left the Burgundian court to take possession of his kingdom. His taste for intrigue and his diplomatic activity earned him the nicknames the Cunning. In 1472, the subsequent Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, however, Louis was able to isolate Charles from his English allies by signing the Treaty of Picquigny with Edward IV of England. The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years War, with the death of Charles the Bold at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy died out. Louis took advantage of the situation to seize numerous Burgundian territories, including Burgundy proper, without direct foreign threats, Louis was able to eliminate his rebellious vassals, expand royal power, and strengthen the economic development of his country. He died in 1483 and was succeeded by his son Charles VIII, Louis was born in Bourges on 3 July 1423, the son of King Charles VII of France. At the time of the Hundred Years War, the English held northern France, including the city of Paris, and Charles VII was restricted to the centre and south of the country. Louis was the grandson of Yolande of Aragon, who was a force in the family for driving the English out of France. Just a few weeks after Louiss christening at the Cathedral of St. Étienne on 4 July 1423, shortly thereafter, a combined Anglo-Burgundian army threatened Bourges itself. Duke Philip II was the reigning Duke of Burgundy while he was king, phillip was an uncle of King Charles VI, and he actually served on a council of regents for King Charles. The Dukes of Anjou, Berry, and Bourbon, all uncles of Charles VI, all effective power in France actually lay with this council of dukes. In its position of independence from the French throne, Burgundy had grown in size, during the Hundred Years War, the Burgundians allied themselves with England against the French crown. Indeed, the Burgundians were responsible for the capture of Joan of Arc, Joan later led troops in other victories at the Battle of Jargeau and the Battle of Patay. Nevertheless, Louis grew up aware of the weakness of the French nation
17.
Edward IV of England
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Edward IV was the King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. He was the first Yorkist King of England, before becoming king, he was 4th Duke of York, 7th Earl of March, 5th Earl of Cambridge and 9th Earl of Ulster. He was also the 65th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, Edward of York was born at Rouen in France, the second son of Richard, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville. He was the eldest of the four sons who survived to adulthood and he bore the title Earl of March before his fathers death and his accession to the throne. Edwards father Richard, Duke of York, had been heir to King Henry VI until the birth of Henrys son Edward in 1453, Richard carried on a factional struggle with the kings Beaufort relatives. He established a dominant position after his victory at the First Battle of St Albans in 1455, in which his chief rival Edmund Beaufort, however, Henrys Queen, Margaret of Anjou, rebuilt a powerful faction to oppose the Yorkists over the following years. The Yorkist leaders fled from England after the collapse of their army in the confrontation at Ludford Bridge, the Duke of York took refuge in Ireland, while Edward went with the Nevilles to Calais where Warwick was governor. In 1460 Edward landed in Kent with Salisbury, Warwick and Salisburys brother William Neville, Lord Fauconberg, raised an army and this left Edward, now Duke of York, at the head of the Yorkist faction. He defeated a Lancastrian army at Mortimers Cross in Herefordshire on 2–3 February 1461 and he then united his forces with those of Warwick, whom Margarets army had defeated at the Second Battle of St Albans, during which Henry VI had been rescued by his supporters. Edwards father had restricted his ambitions to becoming Henrys heir, and he then advanced against the Lancastrians, having his life saved on the battlefield by the Welsh Knight Sir David Ap Mathew. He defeated the Lancastrian army in the exceptionally bloody Battle of Towton in Yorkshire on 29 March 1461, Edward had effectively broken the military strength of the Lancastrians, and he returned to London for his coronation. King Edward IV named Sir David Ap Mathew Standard Bearer of England, Lancastrian resistance continued in the north, but posed no serious threat to the new regime and was finally extinguished by Warwicks brother John Neville in the Battle of Hexham in 1464. Henry VI had escaped into the Pennines, where he spent a year in hiding, Queen Margaret fled abroad with the young Prince Edward and many of their leading supporters. Even at the age of nineteen, Edward exhibited remarkable military acumen and he also had a notable physique and was described as handsome and affable. His height is estimated at 6 feet 4.5 inches, making him the tallest among all English, Scottish, most of Englands leading families had remained loyal to Henry VI or remained uncommitted in the recent conflict. The new regime, therefore, relied heavily on the support of the Nevilles, however, the king increasingly became estranged from their leader the Earl of Warwick, due primarily to his marriage. Warwick, acting on Edwards behalf, made arrangements with King Louis XI of France for Edward to marry either Louis daughter Anne or his sister-in-law Bona of Savoy. He was humiliated and enraged to discover that, while he was negotiating, Edward had secretly married Elizabeth Woodville, Edwards marriage to Elizabeth Woodville has been criticised as an impulsive action that did not add anything to the security of England or the York dynasty
18.
Elizabeth Woodville
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Elizabeth Woodville was Queen consort of England as the spouse of King Edward IV from 1464 until his death in 1483. At the time of her birth, her family was mid-ranked in the English aristocracy. Her first marriage was to a supporter of the House of Lancaster, Sir John Grey of Groby, he died at the Second Battle of St Albans. Her second marriage, to Edward IV, was a cause célèbre of the day, thanks to Elizabeths great beauty and lack of great estates. Edward was only the king of England since the Norman Conquest to have married one of his subjects. This hostility turned into open discord between King Edward and Warwick, leading to a battle of wills that finally resulted in Warwick switching allegiance to the Lancastrian cause, Elizabeth Woodville was born about 1437, possibly in October, at Grafton Regis, Northamptonshire. She was the child of a socially unequal marriage that had briefly scandalised the English court. Her father, Sir Richard Woodville, was merely a knight at the time of her birth, Sir Richards own father had made a good career in royal service, rising to become chamberlain to the Duke of Bedford. Sir Richard followed his father into service with the duke, the daughter of Peter of Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol, and Margaret de Baux, she had been married to the Duke of Bedford in 1433 at the age of 17. The duke was significantly older than Jacquetta of Luxembourg, his second wife and he died in 1435, leaving Jacquetta of Luxembourg a childless, wealthy widow. She was required to seek permission from King Henry VI before she could remarry, the couple was fined £1000, but this was remitted in October of the same year. Despite this inauspicious start, the couple soon prospered, thanks mainly to Jacquettas continuing prominence within the royal family. She retained her rank and dower as Duchess of Bedford, the latter providing an income of between £7000 and £8000 per year. Over the years, this income would diminish due to losses in France. Sir Richard was honoured with military ranks, in which he proved himself a capable soldier, further honours for both came when Henry VI married Margaret of Anjou, whose uncle was Jacquettas brother-in-law. The Woodvilles were among those chosen to escort the bride to England, Sir Richard was raised to the rank of Baron Rivers in 1448. Their children therefore would grow up enjoying considerable privilege and material comfort, in about 1452, Elizabeth Woodville married Sir John Grey of Groby, the heir to the Barony Ferrers of Groby. He was killed at the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461 and this would become a source of irony, since Elizabeths future husband Edward IV was the Yorkist claimant to the throne
19.
Ludovico Sforza
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Ludovico Maria Sforza, was Duke of Milan from 1494 until 1499, following the death of his nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza. A member of the Sforza family, he was the son of Francesco I Sforza. He was famed as a patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists and he is probably best known as the man who commissioned The Last Supper. Ludovico Sforza was born on 27 July 1452 at Vigevano, in what is now Lombardy and he was the fourth son of Francesco I Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti and, as such, was not expected to become ruler of Milan. Nevertheless, his mother, Bianca, prudently saw to it that his education was not restricted to the classical languages. Under the tutelage of the humanist Francesco Filelfo, Ludovico received instruction in the beauties of painting, sculpture, and letters and he later helped Leonardo paint with pastels. When their father Francesco died in 1466, the titles devolved upon the dissolute Galeazzo Maria. Galeazzo Maria ruled until his assassination in 1476, leaving his titles to his son, Gian Galeazzo Sforza. For the following 13 years he ruled Milan as its Regent, Leonardo da Vinci orchestrated the wedding celebration. Beatrice and Alfonso’s sister, Isabella dEste was married to Francesco II Gonzaga, the 15-year-old princess quickly charmed the Milanese court with her joy in life, her laughter, and even her extravagance. She helped to make Sforza Castle a center of sumptuous festivals and balls and she loved entertaining philosophers, poets, diplomats and she would become the mother of Maximilian Sforza and Francesco II Sforza, future Dukes of Milan. Prior to and throughout the duration of his marriage, Ludovico is known to have had mistresses, bernardina de Corradis was an early mistress who bore him a daughter, Bianca Giovanna. The child was legitimized and later married to Galeazzo da Sanseverino in 1496, cecilia Gallerani, believed to be a favourite, gave birth to a son named Cesare on 3 May 1491, in the same year in which he married Beatrice dEste. Gallerani is identified as the subject of Leonardo da Vincis Lady with an Ermine – the ermine was the animal of Ludovico il Moro. Another mistress was Lucrezia Crivelli, who bore him another son, Giovanni Paolo. Ludovico also fathered an illegitimate son, called Sforza, who was born around 1484 and died suddenly in 1487. Ludovico contented himself with the rather than the appearance of power. He invested in agriculture, horse and cattle breeding, and the metal industry, some 20,000 workers were employed in the silk industry
20.
Cicco Simonetta
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Francesco Simonetta was an Italian Renaissance statesman. He also is remembered for composing a treatise on cryptography. Francesco, nicknamed Cicco, was born in Caccuri, Calabria and he studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and other languages and graduated in civil and canonic law, presumably in Naples. As a young man, he entered the service of the Sforza family as a secretary to condottiero Francesco Sforza and he was soon placed in charge of the city of Lodi. In 1441, Francesco Sforza married Bianca Maria Visconti, illegitimate daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti, on Filippo’s death, the so-called Ambrosian Republic had been set up in Milan by the patrician families. In 1450, Francesco Sforza, backed by the Venetians, laid siege to Milan to combat the aristocrats, the city surrendered after eight months and Francesco made himself ‘‘Capitano del popolo. ’’ He was proclaimed duke by the people and by right of his wife. Simonetta was nominated golden knight and entered the ducal chancellery and this appointment was the beginning of his undisputed domination of the political situation for thirty years. As a reward for his services, he was given the fief of Sartirana, in Lomellina and he soon became a member of the Secret Council. When he married Elisabetta Visconti in 1452 his fame was widespread, in 1456, he received the honorary citizenship of Novara, which was later followed by those of Lodi and Parma. In 1465, he wrote the Constitutiones et Ordines as a contribution to an organization of the chancellery. At the death of Francesco Sforza his son Galeazzo Maria succeeded him and his mother Bianca Maria and the other influential families did not approve of his capricious conduct of the state affairs, but Simonetta sided with Galeazzo. In 1476, Galeazzo was assassinated and was succeeded by his 7-year-old son Gian Galeazzo and his tutor was his mother, Bona of Savoy. In this period of unrest, Simonettas diplomatic activity was intense and he maneuvered in order to maintain stability in the Milanese state during the endemic conflicts between Guelphs, Ghibellines and the various wars and interstate alliances. The next year he became secretary, with the powers of a prime minister. Simonettas power provoked the hatred of Ludovico il Moro, one of the brothers of Galeazzo. The main obstacle to his project was the presence of Cicco Simonetta in the city government, after many personal vicissitudes, Ludovico managed to gain the confidence of the duchess and convinced her to arrest Simonetta. He was accused falsely of treason, imprisoned, and tortured in Pavia and his house and assets were pillaged, and he was beheaded in the tower of the castle. His body was buried in the cloister of Sant’Apollinare, outside the Milan city walls, during the Sforza rule, the duchy had enjoyed years of prosperity and great expansion despite the political turmoil
21.
Sforza Hours
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The Sforza Hours, is a richly illuminated book of hours initiated by Bona Sforza, widow of Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, around 1490, who commissioned the illuminator Giovanni Pietro Birago. The book remained in a state for 30 years until Margaret of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands. The book therefore contains decoration of the highest quality by two artists and it provides a unique example of an early fifteenth-century Northern Renaissance illuminators response to Milanese art of the late Quattrocento. The history of the Sforza Hours also includes one of the earliest recorded examples of art theft, Bona commissioned the Book of Hours around 1490, fourteen years after the assassination of her husband Galeazzo Sforza. Completion of the book was abandoned in 1494 when Bona found herself excluded from power by her brother-in-law, Ludovico Sforza. She returned to her native Savoy in 1495 as a guest of her nephew Philibert of Savoy, Bona died in 1503 and Philibert also died the following year, whereupon the book became the property of his widow, Margaret of Austria. Bona of Savoy and Margaret of Austria were identified as the owners of the book in 1894 from mottos. Also uncovered at this time was a letter from Birago that had published in 1885. The letter, from about 1490, was addressed to a correspondent, your Excellency. Biragos letter therefore makes the Sforza Hours one of the earliest recorded examples of art theft, in the letter, Birago claims that a friar, Fra Johanne Jacopo, had stolen the incomplete Book of Hours. Birago requests that Jacopo remains in prison until the thief has paid for the stolen items, according to Birago, the material stolen by Jacopo was worth more than 500 ducats. This was a sum at the time and an indication of the contemporary value of the Sforza Hours. It is not known whether Birago received compensation for the theft of part of the book or what happened to most of the stolen pages, in 1517 she instigated the completion of the Sforza Hours. A French scribe, Etienne de Lale, was first engaged to replace missing text pages and these pages were executed in a rounded Italian Gothic hand in an attempt to imitate the books original script. Gerard Horenbout was then commissioned to paint 16 miniatures and two borders, there is a portrait of Charles, wearing the chain of the Order of the Golden Fleece, in one of Horenbouts text illustrations dated 1520. It is therefore believed that Margaret gave the Sforza Hours to her nephew as a gift on the occasion of his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor. The book did not resurface until 1871, when it was acquired by C. J. Robinson from a priest in Madrid for eight hundred pounds and it was then sold to John Malcolm of Poltalloch who presented it to the British Museum in 1893, shortly before his death. A miniature from the body of the work stolen from Birago, in 1956, Birago was confirmed as an original artist of Sforza Hours following the discovery of his signature on the frontispiece of Giovanni Simonettas Sforziada from 1490
22.
Isabella of Aragon, Duchess of Milan
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Isabella of Aragon, also known as Isabella of Naples, was the daughter of King Alfonso II of Naples and Ippolita Maria Sforza. From 1489 to 1494, she was the Duchess consort of Milan, after her brother Ferdinand IIs death, she was the heir of the Brienne claim to the title King of Jerusalem. She married her first cousin, Gian Galeazzo Sforza, who at the time was the Duke of Milan, however, his uncle Ludovico Sforza was the de facto ruler. With Gian Galeazzo Sforza she had one son and two daughters, Francesco, who was taken to France by the French King Louis XII in 1499, Bona, Isabella also outlived Francesco, who was killed in 1512 by falling from his horse. Of her three children, only Bona survived her, in 2012, anthropologists excavated the body of Isabella of Aragon, and concluded that she had syphilis. Her teeth had a level of mercury, which was used to treat syphilis. They concluded that she was poisoned by her own medicine, bust of Isabella di Aragona by Francesco Laurana at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna
