1.
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
2.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
3.
Public space
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A public space is a social space that is generally open and accessible to people. Roads, public squares, parks and beaches are considered public space. To a limited extent, government buildings which are open to the public, such as libraries are public spaces, although they tend to have restricted areas. Recently, the concept of Shared space has been advanced to enhance the experience of pedestrians in public space used by automobiles. Public space has become something of a touchstone for critical theory in relation to philosophy, geography, visual art, cultural studies, social studies. The term public space is often misconstrued to mean other things such as gathering place. One of the earliest examples of spaces are commons. For example, no fees or paid tickets are required for entry, non-government-owned malls are examples of private space with the appearance of being public space. In Nordic countries like Norway, Sweden and Finland, all areas are considered public space, due to a law. In the United States the right of the people to engage in speech, the government cannot usually limit ones speech beyond what is reasonable in a public space, which is considered to be a public forum. This is not to say that the government can control what one says in their own home or to others, parks, malls, beaches, waiting rooms, etc. may be closed at night. As this does not exclude any specific group, it is not considered a restriction on public use. Entry to public parks cannot be restricted based upon a users residence, in some cultures, there is no expectation of privacy in a public space, however civil inattention is a process whereby individuals are able to maintain their privacy within a crowd. Public space is shared and created for open usage throughout the community. The area is built for a range of types of recreation. The physical setting is socially constructed, which creates a behavior influence, limitations are imposed in the space to prevent certain actions from occurring--public behavior that is considered obnoxious or out of character --and are supported by law or ordinance. Police forces are involved in moving unwanted members of the public from public spaces. In fact, by not being provided suitable access, disabled people are excluded from some spaces
4.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
5.
Soap opera
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A soap opera, soap, or soapie, is a serial drama on television or radio that examines the lives of many characters, usually focusing on emotional relationships to the point of melodrama. The term soap opera originated from such dramas being typically sponsored by soap manufacturers in the past, the first serial considered to be a soap opera was Painted Dreams, which debuted on October 20,1930 on Chicago radio station WGN. The first nationally broadcast radio soap opera was Clara, Lu, and Em, a crucial element that defines the soap opera is the open-ended serial nature of the narrative, with stories spanning several episodes. One of the features that makes a television program a soap opera. While Spanish language telenovelas are sometimes called soap operas, telenovelas have conflicts that get resolved, but with soap operas each episode ends with a promise that the storyline is to be continued in another episode. You spend more time even with the characters, the apparent villains grow less apparently villainous. Soap opera storylines run concurrently, intersect and lead into further developments, each episode may feature some of the shows current storylines, but not always all of them. Soap operas rarely bring all the current storylines to a conclusion at the same time, when one storyline ends, there are several other story threads at differing stages of development. Soap opera episodes typically end on some sort of cliffhanger, evening soap operas and those that air at a rate of one episode per week are more likely to feature the entire cast in each episode, and to represent all current storylines in each episode. Evening soap operas and serials that run for only part of the year tend to bring things to a dramatic end-of-season cliffhanger, the article explained that at that time, many prime time series lost money, while daytime serials earned profits several times more than their production costs. Fitting in with these characteristics, most soap operas follow the lives of a group of characters who live or work in a particular place, the storylines follow the day-to-day activities and personal relationships of these characters. These elements may be found across the gamut of soap operas, Due to the prominence of English-language television, most soap-operas are completely English. In many soap operas, in particular daytime serials in the US, Soap operas from the United Kingdom and Australia tend to focus on more everyday characters and situations, and are frequently set in working class environments. Many of the soaps produced in two countries explore social realist storylines such as family discord, marriage breakdown or financial problems. This diverges from US soap operas where such comedy is rare, UK soap operas frequently make a claim to presenting reality or purport to have a realistic style. Romance, secret relationships, extramarital affairs, and genuine hate have been the basis for many soap opera storylines, in US daytime serials, the most popular soap opera characters, and the most popular storylines, often involved a romance of the sort presented in paperback romance novels. Crimes such as kidnapping, rape, and even murder may go unpunished if the perpetrator is to be retained in the ongoing story, Australian and UK soap operas also feature a significant proportion of romance storylines. In Russia, most popular serials explore the romantic quality of criminal and/or oligarch life, in soap opera storylines, previously unknown children, siblings and twins of established characters often emerge to upset and reinvigorate the set of relationships examined by the series
6.
Neighbours
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Neighbours is an Australian television soap opera. It was first broadcast on the Seven Network on 18 March 1985, Seven decided to commission the show following the success of Watsons Sons and Daughters, which aired on the network. Although successful in Melbourne, Neighbours underperformed in the Sydney market, the show was immediately bought by rival network Ten. After taking over production of the show, the new network had to build replica sets because Seven destroyed the originals to prevent its rival from obtaining them, Ten began screening Neighbours on 20 January 1986, taking off where the previous series left off and commencing with episode 171. Neighbours has since become the longest running series in Australian television and in 2005. On 11 January 2011, Neighbours moved to Tens digital channel, the shows storylines concern the domestic and professional lives of the people who live and work in Erinsborough, a fictional suburb of Melbourne, Victoria. Neighbours began with three families created by Watson – the Ramsays, the Robinsons and the Clarkes, Watson said that he wanted to show three families who are friends living in a small street. The Robinsons and the Ramsays had a history and were involved in an ongoing rivalry. Pin Oak Court, in Vermont South, is the real cul-de-sac that has doubled for Ramsay Street since 1985, all of the houses featured are real and the residents allow the production to shoot external scenes in their yards. The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill, through its entire run in Australia, Neighbours has been screened as a twenty-two-minute episode each week night in an early-evening slot. In Australia it is currently broadcast each weeknight at 6,30 pm on Eleven, the show is produced by FremantleMedia and has been sold to over sixty countries around the world, making it one of Australias most successful media exports. Neighbours was first screened in the United Kingdom in October 1986 on BBC1 where it achieved popularity among British audiences in the late 1980s and 1990s. In 2008, it moved to the UKs Channel 5, Neighbours was created in the early-to-mid-1980s by Australian TV executive Reg Watson. Watson decided to create an opera after working on Crossroads and seeing how successful it. He had already created such successful Australian made soap operas as The Young Doctors, Prisoner and Sons, Watson proposed the idea of making a show that would focus on more realistic stories and portray teens and adults who talk openly to each other and solve their problems together. Watson, who worked for the Grundy production company, decided to make his appeal to both Australia and Britain. In 2005, Darren Devlyn and Caroline Frost from the Herald Sun reported that Watson then took his idea to the Nine Network in 1982, former Network Nine chief executive Ian Johnson commented that it was one of the biggest missed opportunities in his twenty-four years at the network. He added I remember it being discussed, but Im not exactly sure what went against it
7.
Collins English Dictionary
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The Collins English Dictionary is a printed and online dictionary of English. It is published by HarperCollins in Glasgow, by the third edition, they increasingly used the Bank of English established by Hanks at COBUILD to provide typical definitions rather than examples composed by the lexicographer. The current edition is the 12th edition, which was published in October 2014, the previous edition was the 11th edition, which was published in October 2011. A special 30th Anniversary 10th edition was published in 2010, with editions published once every 3–4 years. The unabridged Collins English Dictionary was published on the web on 31 December 2011 on CollinsDictionary. com, along with the dictionaries of French, German, Spanish. The site also includes example sentences showing word usage from the Collins Bank of English Corpus, word frequencies and trends from the Google Ngrams project and this followed an earlier launch of a discussion forum for neologisms in 2004. In May 2015, CollinsDictionary. com added 6500 new Scrabble words to their Collins Official Scrabble Wordlist, the words are based on terms related to and influenced by slang, social media, food, technology, and more. Collins COBUILD Advanced Dictionary CollinsDictionary. com – Collins English Dictionary, American English Dictionary, Thesaurus, French, German, Italian and Spanish
8.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
9.
National Library, Singapore
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The National Library in Singapore is located on an 11, 304-square metre site between Bugis Junction and the Bras Basah Complex at 100, Victoria Street. The current building, a 16-storey, two-block development situated in the citys Civic District, replaces the old National Library at Stamford Road, the MRT stations nearby are Bugis MRT Station and Bras Basah MRT Station. The library moved to its new home on 22 July 2005, the building designed by T. R. Hamzah & Ken Yeang consists of two 16-storey blocks, with three basements. The blocks are linked by skybridges on every floor and it houses two libraries, the Central Public Library in Basement 1 and the Lee Kong Chian Reference Library from Levels 7 to 13. It also houses the Drama Centre from Levels 2 to 5, on the 16th floor, there is a closed viewing point called The Pod. It is only used for functions and events, and is not a viewing gallery, from the Pod, it has a panoramic view of the island of Singapore, outlying islands, and also neighbouring countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. There are also many gardens in the building but only two are opened to the public and they offer a good view of the city, and one is the Courtyard on Level 5 and the Retreat on Level 10. The building has three public panoramic elevators with a city view, the National Library Board headquarters is on the 14th floor of the building. The building has escalators from Basement 3 to the 14th storey and it has a carpark with 246 lots. On the first floor are the entrance and a café. A number of old bricks from the old building are in new building. The National Library traces its history back to the establishment of the first public library as a result of suggestions by Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of modern Singapore. This library, renamed the Hullett Memorial Library in 1923, was co-located with Singapores first school, Raffles Institution, the only public lending library in the building and located in Basement One with an area of 6,407 square metres. It has a collection of over 200,000 books, and has the largest collection of books on the island. Almost half its collection are fiction titles and it has a childrens section and special rooms for events and functions in the library. It also has a collection of 726 magazines,74 newspapers as well as audiobooks on CDs, Central Lending Library has the largest number of foreign newspaper titles in her collection of newspapers. It also has Chinese, Malay and Tamil books, two outdoor gardens in the library add to a sense of peace and greenery in the library. The distinctive red-brick façade of the old building is in one of the two gardens, some 5,000 bricks from the old building have been saved and now line one wall of this garden
10.
Webby Award
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Categories include websites, advertising and media, online film and video, mobile sites and apps, and social. Two winners are selected in each category, one by members of The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences, each winner presents a five-word acceptance speech, a trademark of the annual awards show. Hailed as the Internet’s highest honor, the award is one of the older Internet-oriented awards, the Webby Awards began in 1996, sponsored by the Academy of Web Design and Cool Site of the Day. The first Webby Awards were produced by Kay Dangaard at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel as a nod to the first site of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and that first year, they were called Webbie Awards. The first Site of the Year winner was the pioneer webisodic serial The Spot, todays Webbys were founded by Tiffany Shlain when she was hired by the The Web Magazine to establish the awards. The event was held in San Francisco from 1996 to 2004, after the first year the awards became more successful than the magazine and IDG closed the publication. Shlain continued to run The Webby Awards with the help of Maya Draisin until 2004, the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences, which selects the winners of The Webby Awards, was established in 1998 by co-founders Tiffany Shlain, Spencer Ante and Maya Draisin. David-Michel Davies, CEO of Webby Media Group, current Executive Director of the Webby Awards, in 2009, the 13th Annual Webby Awards received nearly 10,000 entries from all 50 states and over 60 countries. That same year, more than 500,000 votes were cast in The Webby Peoples Voice Awards, in 2012, the sixteenth Annual Webby awards received 1.5 million votes from more than 200 countries for the Peoples Voice awards. In 2015, the 19th Annual Webby Awards received nearly 13,000 entries from all 50 U. S. states, during the Call for Entries phase, each entry is rated by Associate Members of the International Academy of Digital Arts & Sciences. Entries that receive the highest marks during this first round of voting are included on category-specific shortlists, deloitte provides vote tabulation consulting for the Webby Awards. Winners of both the Academy-selected and People’s Voice-selected awards are invited to the Webbys, the Webby Awards are presented in over a hundred categories among all four types of entries. A website can be entered in categories and receive multiple awards. In each category, two awards are handed out, a Webby Award selected by The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences, past winners include Amazon. com, eBay, Travel + Leisure, SimplyHired. com, Kayak. com, Yahoo. Each year, the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences also honors individuals with Webby Special Achievement Awards, since 2005, The Webby Awards has been presented in New York City. Comedian Rob Corddry hosted the ceremony from 2005 to 2007, seth Meyers of Saturday Night Live hosted in 2008 and 2009, B. J. Novak of NBCs The Office in 2010, and Lisa Kudrow in 2011. Comedian, actor, and writer Patton Oswalt hosted from 2012 to 2014, comedian Hannibal Buress will host the 19th Annual Webby Awards. The Webbys are famous for limiting recipients to five-word speeches, which are often humorous, in 2005 when accepting his Lifetime Achievement Award, former Vice President Al Gores speech was Please dont recount this vote
11.
BBC Radio
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BBC Radio is an operational business division and service of the British Broadcasting Corporation. The service provides national radio stations covering the majority of genres, as well as local radio stations covering local news, affairs. It also oversees online audio content, of the national radio stations, BBC Radio 1,2,3,4 and 5 Live are all available through analogue radio as well as on DAB Digital Radio and internet services through RealMedia, WMA and BBC iPlayer. The remaining stations, BBC Radio 1Xtra,4 Extra,5 Live Sports Extra and 6 Music, all of the BBCs national radio stations broadcast from bases in London, usually in or near to Broadcasting House in Marylebone. However, the BBCs network production units located in Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, the BBCs radio services began in 1922. Today radio broadcasting still makes up a part of the corporations output - the title of the BBCs listings magazine, Radio Times. On 1 January 1927 the British Broadcasting Company was succeeded in control of the airwaves by the British Broadcasting Corporation. John Reith, who had been the managing director of the commercial company. He expounded firm principles of centralised, all-encompassing radio broadcasting, stressing programming standards and these he set out in his autobiography, Broadcast Over Britain, influencing modern ideas of public service broadcasting in the United Kingdom. To this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate, although no other broadcasting organisation was licensed in the UK until 1973, commercial competition soon opened up from overseas. The English language service of Radio Luxembourg began in 1933 as one of the earliest commercial radio broadcasting to Britain. The IBC began leasing time on transmitters in continental Europe and then reselling it as sponsored English-language programming aimed at audiences in Britain and it was an important forerunner of pirate radio and modern commercial radio in the United Kingdom. The onset of World War II silenced all but one of the original IBC stations, at the start of the Second World War it was renamed The Overseas Service but is now known as the BBC World Service. Beginning in 1964 the first in what became a fleet of 10 offshore pirate radio stations began to ring the British coastline, by 1967 millions were tuning into these commercial operations and the BBC was rapidly losing its radio listening audience. The British government reacted by passing the Marine Offences Act, which all, One of the stations called Radio London was so successful that the BBC was told to copy it as best they could. This led to an overhaul by Frank Gillard the BBCs Director of Radio of the BBC output creating the four analogue channels that still form the basis of its broadcasting today. The creator of BBC Radio One told the press that his family had been fans of Radio London, the BBC hired many out-of-work broadcasting staff who had come from the former offshore stations. Tony Blackburn who presented the very first BBC Radio One morning show had previously presented the morning show on Radio Caroline
12.
Helene Hanff
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Helene Hanff was an American writer born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She is best known as the author of the book 84, Charing Cross Road which became the basis for a play, television play. She wrote a memoir in 1961 called Underfoot in Show Business that chronicled her struggles as a young playwright trying to make it in the world of New York theatre in the 1940s and 1950s. She worked in offices and spent summers on the straw hat circuit along the East Coast. Her plays were admired by some of Broadways leading producers but somehow none of them made it to the stage. When network television production geared up in New York City in the early 1950s, chief among these was the Dumont Network series The Adventures of Ellery Queen. At the same time, she continued to try to get one of her plays produced on Broadway, the bulk of television production eventually moved to California, but Hanff chose to remain in New York. As her TV work dried up, she turned to writing for magazines and, eventually, the epistolary work 84, Charing Cross Road was first published in 1970. It chronicles Hanffs 20 years of correspondence with Frank Doel, the buyer for Marks & Co. She depended on the bookshop—and on Doel—for the obscure classics and British literature titles that fueled her passion for self-education and she became intimately involved in the lives of the shops staff, sending them food parcels during Britains postwar shortages and sharing with them details of her life in Manhattan. Hanff did finally visit Charing Cross Road and the empty but still-standing shop in the summer of 1971, in Duchess, Hanff describes her visits with friends and fans to various locations and places of literary and historical interest in London and Southern England. In the 1987 film adaptation 84 Charing Cross Road, Hanff was played by Anne Bancroft, Anne Jackson had earlier played Hanff and Frank Finlay had played Doel in a 1975 adaptation of the book for British television. Ellen Burstyn recreated the role on Broadway in 1982 at the Nederlander Theater in New York City, elaine Stritch also played Helene Hanff in a television adaptation of 84 Charing Cross Road. Hanff later put to use her obsession with British scholar Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch in a book called Qs Legacy. The book serves as background to 84 and also recounts the aftermath of Duchess, Underfoot in Show Business was adapted as a stage play by Charles Leipart and premiered in 2008 at the Devonshire Theatre in Eastbourne, UK, directed by David Giles. No such person is mentioned in her autobiographical Underfoot, and none of her writings suggests that she ever had any lasting or even short-term romantic relationship with any person. In Duchess, she confides to her diary that she was irritated by a lot of togetherness with one of her male English fans who had taken her to Stratford-upon-Avon and her relationship with Frank Doel, warm as it was, was entirely literary. Stephen R. Pastore published a biography of Hanff in 2011 based on interviews that he had conducted with her, Hanff was never shy about her fondness for cigarettes and martinis, but nevertheless lived to be 80, dying of diabetes in 1997 in New York City
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84, Charing Cross Road
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Hanff was in search of obscure classics and British literature titles that she had been unable to find in New York City when she noticed an ad in the Saturday Review of Literature. She first contacted the shop in 1949, and it fell to Doel to fulfill her requests and their letters included discussions about topics as diverse as the sermons of John Donne, how to make Yorkshire Pudding, the Brooklyn Dodgers, and the coronation of Elizabeth II. Hanff postponed visiting her English friends until too late, Doel died in December 1968 from peritonitis from a burst appendix, and the bookshop eventually closed in December 1970. Hanff did finally visit Charing Cross Road and the empty but still-standing shop in the summer of 1971, a circular brass plaque on the building that now stands on the shops former site acknowledges the story. The five-story building still exists where Marks & Co. was located during the novels action and it has a small, round, gold-coloured plaque mentioning the memoir on a pillar of the outer wall. It housed a music and CD store in the early 1990s and it housed a Med Kitchen restaurant as late as 2009. It now houses a McDonalds restaurant, partial list of the books that Helene Hanff ordered from Marks & Co. and mentioned in 84 Charing Cross Road, Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice, Arkwright, Francis trans, memoirs of the Duc de Saint-Simon Belloc, Hillaire. Catullus – Loeb Classics Chaucer, Geoffrey The Canterbury Tales translated by Hill, published by Longmans 1934) Delafield, Diary of a Provincial Lady Dobson, Austen ed. The Sir Roger De Coverley Papers Donne, John Sermons Elizabethan Poetry Grahame, Kenneth, The Wind in the Willows Greek New Testament Grolier Bible Hazlitt, selected Essays Of William Hazlitt 1778 To 1830, Nonesuch Press edition. Horace – Loeb Classics Hunt, Leigh, johnson, Samuel, On Shakespeare,1908, Intro by Walter Raleigh Jonson, Ben. Discourses on the Scope and Nature of University Education, addressed to the Catholics of Dublin- Idea of a University Pepys, Samuel. Pepys Diary –4 Volume Braybrook ed. John, Christopher Ed, Ellen Terry and Bernard Shaw, A Correspondence / The Shaw – Terry Letters, A Romantic Correspondence Sterne, Laurence, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, Stevenson, Robert Louis. Virginibus Puerisque de Tocqueville, Alexis Journey to America Wyatt, Thomas, poems of Thomas Wyatt Walton, Izaak. The Lives of – John Donne – Sir Henry Wotton – Richard Hooker – George Herbert & Robert Sanderson Woolf, Virginia, hugh Whitemore adapted 84 Charing Cross Road for the BBCs Play for Today, a television anthology series. It was first broadcast on 4 November 1975, starring Frank Finlay, Virginia Browns adapted the story for BBC Radio drama and it was broadcast on Radio 3 15th January 1976, with Margaret Robertson as Helen Hanff and Lyndon Brook as Frank Doet. The play was produced by Christopher Venning, in 1981, James Roose-Evans adapted it for the stage in a two-character version first produced at the Salisbury Playhouse with Rosemary Leach and David Swift. It transferred to the West End, where it opened to universally ecstatic reviews, a second production at the Playhouse ran from 5–28 February 2015, with Clive Francis and Janie Dee in the lead roles
14.
Royalties
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A royalty is a payment made by one party, the licensee or franchisee to another that owns a particular asset, the licensor or franchisor for the right to ongoing use of that asset. A royalty interest is the right to collect a stream of future royalty payments, license agreements can be regulated, particularly where a government is the resource owner, or they can be private contracts that follow a general structure. However, certain types of agreements have comparable provisions. When a government owns the resource in question, the transaction is subject to legal. In the United States, fee simple ownership of the mineral is possible by a private individual, local taxing authorities may impose a severance tax on the unrenewable natural resources extracted from within their authority. The Federal Government receives royalties on production on federal lands, managed by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement, an example from Canadas north is the federal Frontier Lands petroleum royalty regime. In this manner risks and profits are shared between the government of Canada and the petroleum developer and this attractive royalty rate is intended to encourage oil and gas exploration in the remote Canadian frontier lands where costs and risks are higher than other locations. In many jurisdictions oil and gas royalty interests are considered property under the NAICS classification code. As a standard example, for every $100 bbl of oil sold on a U. S. federal well with a 25% royalty, the U. S. government does not pay and will only collect revenues. All risk and liability lie upon the operator of the well, Royalties in the forestry industry are called stumpage. An intangible asset such as a patent gives the owner an exclusive right to prevent others from practicing the patented technology in the country issuing the patent for the term of the patent. The right may be enforced in a lawsuit for monetary damages and/or imprisonment for violation on the patent, patent rights may be divided and licensed out in various ways, on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis. The license may be subject to limitations as to time or territory, a license may encompass an entire technology or it may involve a mere component or improvement on a technology. In the United States, reasonable royalties may be imposed, both after-the-fact and prospectively, by a court as a remedy for infringement. 0%, however, the range extended from 0% to 50%. All of these agreements may not have been at arms length, in license negotiation, firms might derive royalties for the use of a patented technology from the retail price of the downstream licensed product. In the Arab countries, it may be found, that a royalty as a percentage of sales may be difficult to transact, a flat fee may be preferred as percentages may be interpreted as percentage of profit. Trade marks are words, logos, slogans, sounds, or other expressions that distinguish the source, origin. Trade marks offer the public a means of identifying and assuring themselves of the quality of the good or service and they may bring consumers a sense of security, integrity, belonging, and a variety of intangible appeals
15.
Hobby
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A hobby is a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during ones leisure time. Hobbies can include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, a list of hobbies is lengthy and always changing as interests and fashions change. By continually participating in a hobby, one can acquire substantial skill. Engagement in hobbies has increased since the nineteenth century as workers have more leisure time and advancing production. As some hobbies have become popular, like stamp collecting, others have been created following technological advances. Hobbyists are a part of a group of people engaged in leisure pursuits where the boundaries of each group overlap to some extent. The Serious Leisure Perspective groups hobbyists with amateurs and volunteers and identifies three broad groups of activity with hobbies being found mainly in the Serious leisure category. Casual leisure is intrinsically rewarding, short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no preparation b, Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer that is substantial, rewarding and results in a sense of accomplishment. Project-based leisure is a short-term often a one-off project that is rewarding, in the 16th century, the term hobyn had the meaning of small horse and pony. The term hobby horse was documented in a 1557 payment confirmation for a Hobbyhorse from Reading, the item, originally called a Tourney Horse, was made of a wooden or basketwork frame with an artificial tail and head. It was designed for a child to mimic riding a real horse, by 1816 the derivative, hobby, was introduced into the vocabulary of a number of English people. Over the course of subsequent centuries, the term came to be associated with recreation, a hobby became an activity that is practised regularly and usually with some worthwhile purpose. Hobbies are usually, but not always, practised primarily for interest and enjoyment, the origins pursuits that others thought somewhat childish or trivial. However, as early as 1676 Sir Matthew Hale, in Contemplations Moral and Divine and he was acknowledging that a hobby horse produces a legitimate sense of pride. By the mid 18th century there was a flourishing of hobbies as working people had more hours of work. They spent more time to pursue interests that brought them satisfaction, however, there was concern that these working people might not use their leisure time in worthwhile pursuits. The hope of weaning people away from bad habits by the provision of counter-attractions came to the fore in the 1830s, the flourishing book and magazine trade of the day encouraged worthwhile hobbies and pursuits. The burgeoning manufacturing trade made materials used in hobbies cheap and was responsive to the interests of hobbyists
16.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
17.
Richard Bach
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Richard David Bach is an American writer. Bach is widely known as the author of some hugely popular 1970s best-sellers, including Jonathan Livingston Seagull and Illusions, Bach has authored numerous works of fiction and non-fiction, including One, A Novel and Out of My Mind. Most of Bachs books have been semi-autobiographical, using actual or fictionalized events from his life to illustrate his philosophy, Bachs books espouse his philosophy that our apparent physical limits and mortality are merely appearance. Bach is noted for his love of aviation and for his books related to flying in a metaphorical context, Bach has pursued flying as a hobby since the age of 17. In late August 2012, Bach was badly injured when on approach to landing at Friday Harbor, Washington, his aircraft clipped some power lines, Bach was born in Oak Park, Illinois. He attended Long Beach State College in 1955, Bachs first airplane flight occurred at age 15, when his mother was campaigning for a seat on the council of Long Beach, California. Her campaign manager, Paul Marcus, mentioned that he flew airplanes, Bach served in the United States Navy Reserve, then in the New Jersey Air National Guards 108th Fighter Wing, 141st Fighter Squadron, as a Republic F-84F Thunderstreak fighter pilot. He then worked at a variety of jobs, including as a writer for Douglas Aircraft. He served in the USAF reserve and was deployed in France in 1960, during the summer of 1970, Bach and his friend Chris Cagle traveled to Ireland, where they participated in flying sequences for Roger Cormans film Von Richthofen and Brown. They flew a variety of World War I aircraft of the Blue Max collection owned by ex-RCAF pilot Lynn Garrison, Bach and Garrison first met when Bach wrote articles for Avian, Garrisons aviation publication. The book, which included photos of seagulls in flight by photographer Russell Munson. The book contained fewer than 10,000 words, yet it sold more than 1,000,000 copies in 1972 alone, the surprise success of the book was widely reported in the media in the early 1970s. In 1973, Jonathan Livingston Seagull was turned into a film of the name, produced by Paramount Pictures Corporation. In 1975, Bach was the force behind Nothing by Chance. The film centers on modern barnstorming around the United States in the 1970s, Bach recruited a group of his friends who were pilots to recreate the era of the barnstormer. A second book, Illusions, The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah, published in 1977, on August 31,2012, Bach was injured in an aircraft landing accident on San Juan Island in Washington. He was landing his aircraft, a 2008 Easton Gilbert G Searey that he nicknamed Puff and he crashed upside down in a field about two miles from Friday Harbor, taking down two poles and sparking a small grass fire. The day after the accident, Bach was reported to be in serious but stable condition with a head injury, Bach was hospitalized for four months
18.
R. J. Ellory
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Roger Jon Ellory is an English thriller writer. He cites Arthur Conan Doyle, Michael Moorcock, J. R. R. Tolkien and Stephen King as being among the people who influenced his writing and he is an avid fan of BookCrossing and apart from his work as an author, he is interested in music. He is currently a singer and guitar player with a band called The Whiskey Poets, Ellorys father is unknown to him, having left the household before Ellory was born. He was raised by his mother and maternal grandmother, his grandfather having drowned in 1957 in Wales. Ellorys mother died as a result of a haemorrhage in late 1971. Leaving this school at 16, Ellory returned to Birmingham where he pursued a diploma in graphic art, after one year, Ellorys maternal grandmother died in April 1982 and Ellory dropped out of college, failing to secure any qualifications. In 2012, Ellory admitted having used a pseudonymous account name to write a review for each his own novels. He made a statement of apology, and the aforementioned reviews were withdrawn from Amazon. The Crime Writers Association, for which Ellory formerly served as a member, expressed concern about this unfair practice. His first novel to be accepted for publication, Candlemoth, was published in 2003 and was shortlisted for the CWA Ian Fleming Steel Dagger Award that same year, ghostheart was published in 2004 and A Quiet Vendetta in 2005. His fourth novel City of Lies was shortlisted for the CWA Steel Dagger for Best Thriller, a Quiet Belief in Angels was selected as one of the titles in the Richard & Judy Bookclub 2008. A Quiet Belief in Angels has sold in excess of 1,000,000 copies since its release and it was ranked third in the Sunday Times bestselling book list in the week of its review on TV. It won the Strand Magazine Thriller of the Year and it won Nouvel Observateurs inaugural Prix du Roman Noir in 2009. In October 2008 A Simple Act of Violence won Theakstons Crime Novel of the Year 2010, in 2003, Ellorys debut novel Candlemoth was shortlisted for the CWA Steel Dagger for Best Thriller. This followed with his fourth book City of Lies being shortlisted for the award in 2007. A Quiet Belief in Angels, his title, was shortlisted for the Barry Award for Best British Crime Fiction 2008. In 2010, A Quiet Vendetta won the Prix Des Libraires Du Quebec Laureat, additionally, it won the Villenueve les Avignon Literary Festival Readers Prize in 2010 and the St. Maur Prix Polar in 2011. A Simple Act of Violence was shortlisted for the Barry Award for Best British Crime Fiction 2009 and won the Theakstons Old Peculier Crime Novel of the Year Award for 2010
19.
Book swapping
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Book swapping or book exchange is the practice of a swap of books between one person and another. Practiced among book groups, friends and colleagues at work, it provides a way for people to exchange books, find out about new books. Many colleges and universities have developed online book exchange programs to help save money on textbooks. Some colleges build their own systems and others use systems from third party service providers, some book exchanges are informal - a shelf or box is provided where books can be left or picked up. The exchange relies on leaving and taking books and is generally not supervised. This is a frequent practice in youth hostels where travellers can leave a book, some railway stations in Great Britain have informal book exchanges and one has also been set up in a phone box in Kington Magna
20.
Give-away shop
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Give-away shops, swap shops, freeshops, or free stores are stores where all goods are free. They are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost, whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out–type policy. The free store is a form of direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods. The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers led by Gerrard Winstanley and sought to create a mini-society free of money, although free stores have not been uncommon in the United States since the 1960s, the freegan movement has inspired the establishment of more free stores. Culturally, some feel that accepting free goods carries a stigma. Swap shops, where you are asked to bring something in order to take something, are one way in which issues are addressed. In the United States, Really Really Free Market groups organize periodic market days in city parks. Participants are encouraged to share unneeded items, food, skills and talents, to clean up after themselves, in other cases, used goods are picked up from the donors homes, thus eliminating overhead costs. Donors are often not motivated by financial need or strictly anti-capitalist conviction, another recent development in the give-away shop movement is the creation of the Freecycle Network. Any proceeds are used to send free books to developing countries. Diggers —a group of early adopters of the free-store concept Food bank Regiving Gift economy Drive Really Really Free Market The Freecycle Network
21.
Library
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A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a building or room, or a virtual space. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items, in Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē, derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e. g. French bibliothèque. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period. A library is organized for use and maintained by a body, an institution. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information, Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide facilities for access to their electronic resources. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats, the first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt, the earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit, besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC, philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty. Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians, the Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II, an early organization system was in effect at Alexandria. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus by Celsus’ son, the library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC
22.
Gift economy
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A gift economy, gift culture, or gift exchange is a mode of exchange where valuables are not traded or sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. This contrasts with an economy or a market economy, where goods. Social norms and custom govern gift exchange, Gifts are not given in an explicit exchange of goods or services for money or some other commodity. The nature of gift economies forms the subject of a debate in anthropology. Anthropological research into gift economies began with Bronisław Malinowskis description of the Kula ring in the Trobriand Islands during World War I. The Kula trade appeared to be gift-like since Trobrianders would travel great distances over dangerous seas to give what were considered valuable objects without any guarantee of a return. According to anthropologists Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, it is the relationship between market and non-market exchange that attracts the most attention. Gift economies are said, by some, to communities. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies differs from the typical of non-market societies. Gift economies must also be differentiated from several closely related phenomena, such as common property regimes, however, he claims that anthropologists, through analysis of a variety of cultural and historical forms of exchange, have established that no universal practice exists. Gift exchange is frequently embedded in political, kin, or religious institutions, gift-giving is a form of transfer of property rights over particular objects. The nature of property rights varies from society to society, from culture to culture. The nature of gift-giving is thus altered by the type of property regime in place, property is not a thing, but a relationship amongst people about things. According to Chris Hann, property is a relationship that governs the conduct of people with respect to the use. Anthropologists analyze these relationships in terms of a variety of actors bundle of rights over objects, an example is the current debates around intellectual property rights. Hann and Strangelove both give the example of a book, over which the author retains a copyright. The gifts given in Kula exchange still remain, in some respects, in the example used above, copyright is one of those bundled rights that regulate the use and disposition of a book. Gift-giving in many societies is complicated because private property owned by an individual may be limited in scope
23.
Postcrossing
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Postcrossing is an online project that allows its members to send and receive postcards from all over the world. The projects tag line is send a postcard and receive a postcard back from a random person somewhere in the world. ”Its members, also known as postcrossers, send postcards to other members, where the postcards come from is always a surprise. Postcrossing is the union of the postcard and crossing and its origin is loosely based on the Bookcrossing site. However, the crossing or exchange of works in a different way. A member sends a postcard to another postcrosser and receives a postcard back from a random postcrosser, exchanges between the same two members only occur once, although direct swaps between members happen, they are not part of the official happenings on the site. The project is free and anyone with an address can create an account. However, the postcards themselves and postage fees to mail them are the responsibility of each user, by June 2015 postcrossing had more than 554,570 members in 213 different countries who had registered and exchanged over 30 million postcards that have traveled over 151 billion kilometers. The highest concentration of postcrossing members reside in the United States, Russia, China, Taiwan, globally, most postcrossers reside in North America, Europe, and East Asia. Of particular note, postcrossing is popular in eastern European and former-Soviet states, as of January 2012, more than a quarter of the combined total of postcards were sent from Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. The main idea is if a member sends a postcard he or she will receive at least one postcard back from a random postcrosser somewhere in the world. The first step is to request to send a postcard, the website will display, and send the member an e-mail with, the address of another postcrosser and a postcard ID. The postcard ID uniquely identifies that postcard in the system, the member then mails a postcard to that postcrosser and writes the postcard ID on it. The postcrosser receives the postcard and registers it using the postcard ID that is on the postcard, at this point, the sender is eligible to receive a postcard from a different postcrosser. Initially each member can have up to 5 postcards traveling at any single time, every time one of the sent postcards is registered, that postcrosser can request another address. The number of allowed to travel at any single time goes up the more postcards a member sends. The postcrossing system allows for the two members to exchange postcards only once. By default, members will exchange postcards with other than their own, however. Users are allowed to untick the send to repeated countries option in their profile, a small percentage of mailed postcards get lost during their travels, others may arrive with the postcard ID unreadable and are difficult to register
24.
Public bookcase
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A public bookcase is a cabinet which may be freely and anonymously used for the exchange and storage of books without the formalities associated with libraries. When in public places these cabinets are of a robust and weatherproof design which are available at all times, however, cabinets installed in public or commercial buildings may be simple, unmodified book-shelves and may only be available during certain periods. Closely allied with the Bookcrossing concept, the original public bookcases were conceived as artistic acts, very early examples are the creations of performance artist duo Clegg & Guttmann in 1991. Collections of bookcases were conceived as free open-air libraries in Darmstadt, a public bookcase opened in 2010 in Vienna, Austria. In Basel, Switzerland, where many shops and other venues host open bookshelves. Open bookcases are financed by a range of organisations. In truly public bookcases, each citizen decides which books to deposit and borrow, if a public bookcase is centrally and accessibly located and is stocked with sufficient material, public bookcases are quickly and widely appreciated. Vandalism has occurred in places and, in successful cases, is countered by bookcase sponsors or godfathers who devote their time. The acceptance, motivation and user-profile of public bookshelves was examined in 2008 by a study at the University of Bonn and it was found that the system had developed as a notable alternative to conventional bookstores. One cannot equate public bookcases with classic peer-to-peer exchange, but they represent the voluntary transfer of goods. Surveyed users also indicated that they believed that use of public bookcases could function as an example for similar schemes for other desirable goods. This acceptance has led to a rapid dissemination of public bookshelves throughout Germany and it has been found that durable construction and storm-resistance promote sustained use. In Oerlinghausen there is a version of the public bookcase. A small bookcase has been installed in Simon Square by the Friends of The Public Library and these groups stock the bookcase as needed from a so-called book exchange, a larger public event which has taken place in the Dietrich-Bonhoeffer-Haus in Oerlingsausen-South every Saturday since 2007. One may also deposit book requests to be matched from stock by the operators of the exchange, the Salbke Bookmark is a large, open-air construction which includes a number of public bookcases. A cafe in Marburg includes a public bookcase, the city library now includes a cabinet of books which may be freely taken or exchanged by patrons rather than organising complex book disposal events. The operation of this variant combines the librarys daily operations with community control, as the bookcase is located in a protected space it does not require sponsorship or weather protection. In the United States, small enclosed bookcases, usually in front of residences, have become a common sight in many cities, some of these are officially registered with the Little Free Library network
25.
Reuse
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Reuse is the action or practice of using something again, whether for its original purpose or to fulfil a different function. It should be distinguished from recycling, which is the breaking down of used items to make raw materials for the manufacture of new products, Reuse – by taking, but not reprocessing, previously used items – helps save time, money, energy, and resources. In broader economic terms, it can make quality products available to people and organizations with limited means, while generating jobs, historically, financial motivation was one of the main drivers of reuse. Current environmental awareness is gradually changing attitudes and regulations, such as the new packaging regulations, are beginning to reverse the situation. Reuse has certain advantages, Energy and raw materials savings as replacing many single use products with one reusable one reduces the number that need to be manufactured. Refurbishment can bring sophisticated, sustainable, well paid jobs to underdeveloped economies, cost savings for business and consumers as a reusable product is often cheaper than the many single use products it replaces. Some older items were better handcrafted and appreciate in value, disadvantages are also apparent, Reuse often requires cleaning or transport, which have environmental costs. Some items, such as appliances, infant auto seats, older tube TVs. Reusable products need to be more durable than single-use products, and this is particularly significant if only a small proportion of the reusable products are in fact reused. Sorting and preparing items for reuse takes time, which is inconvenient for consumers, special skills are required to tweak the functional throughput of items when devoting them to new uses outside of their original purpose. Being a rather minor disadvantage, metal that is repurposed later on can sometimes contain rust and these services facilitate the transaction and redistribution of unwanted, yet perfectly usable, materials and equipment from one entity to another. The entities that benefit from either side of this service can be businesses, nonprofits, schools, community groups, some maintain a physical space, and others act as a matching service. Reuse centers generally maintain both warehouses and trucks and they take possession of the donated materials and make them available for redistribution or sale. Virtual exchanges do not have space or trucks, but instead allow users to post listings of materials available. Staff will help facilitate the exchange of these materials without taking possession of the materials. United States Goodwill Industries Salvation Army Second Harvest Food Bank Habitat for Humanity ReStores and its all about reuse and keeping good stuff out of landfills. Teleplan Camera Repair has introduced a free camera recycling program through the reuse of cameras, the Bower Reuse and Repair Centre diverts more than 7,500 cubic metres of waste from landfills a year in a building entirely made of salvaged materials. Perth, Western Australia, REmida WA With technological innovations, new applications and shorter product lifetimes there is an increasing quantity of waste electrical
26.
Sharing
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Sharing is the joint use of a resource or space. In its narrow sense, it refers to joint or alternating use of inherently finite goods and it is also the process of dividing and distributing. Apart from obvious instances, which we can observe in human activity, when an organism takes in nutrition or oxygen for instance, its internal organs are designed to divide and distribute the energy taken in, to supply parts of its body that need it. Flowers divide and distribute their seeds, in a broader sense, it can also include free granting of use rights to goods that can be treated as nonrival goods, such as information. Still more loosely, sharing can actually mean giving something as a gift, for example. Sharing is a component of human interaction, and is responsible for strengthening social ties. Sharing disjoints the connection between usage and ownership of a product, though sharing is touted as an economical and environmental aid to the public, some businesses perceive it as a threat because of its assumed effect on their profitability. The concept of copyright makes some sharing illegal for certain intangible goods and this provides an economic incentive for the creation of informative, entertaining, or useful content by enforcing a monopoly price for a certain time period. On the other hand, prohibiting sharing has its own costs for consumers and producers of derivative works. Limitations and exceptions to copyright and patents include scope, duration, Sharing figures prominently in gift economies, but also can play a significant role in market economies, for example in car sharing. Share housing is a common and informally negotiated example of sharing of householders labour, resource sharing - called kaláka in Hungarian - is an old tradition in Hungary. Young couples had to build their house after marriage, marriage itself was called házasodás in Hungarian. When doing so the community, relatives and acquintances helped the young couple with work, knowledge. At pigsticking all members of the community got their shares too, superflouos plants were freely distributed for neighbours in the season. File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to stored information, such as computer programs, multi-media, documents. It may be implemented through a variety of ways, Sharing is a key feature in the developing field of free software and open source software, with implications for economics. This is leading to a need to review licensing, patents and copyright, and to controversy in these areas, as well as new approaches like Creative Commons and the GPL. Furthermore sharing is a key feature of Internet culture in which images, videos, links, knowledge, in computer science, the issue of handling shared resources figures prominently
39,199 (April 2014[update])[1]
