1.
Biblical judges
–
A Biblical judge was a ruler or a military leader as well as someone who presided over legal hearings. These judges appear most often in the Book of Judges, which is named after them, kenneth Kitchen argues that following the conquest of Canaan by Joshua until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel and Judah, the Israelite tribes formed a loose confederation. No central government existed in this confederation, in times of crisis, however, almost all scholars have abandoned the idea that Joshua carried out a conquest of Canaan similar to that described in the Book of Joshua. Likewise, there is considerable doubt among scholars that a period resembling the one described in the Book of Judges ever existed in ancient Israel. Moses was a shofet over the Israelites and appointed others to whom cases were delegated in accordance with the advice of Jethro, his Midianite father-in-law. The Book of Judges mentions twelve leaders who judged Israel, Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah, Gideon, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, the First Book of Samuel mentions Eli and Samuel, as well as Joel and Abiah. The First Book of Chronicles mentions Kenaniah and his sons, the Second Book of Chronicles mentions Amariah and Zebadiah. The biblical text does not generally describe these leaders as a judge, thus, Othniel judged Israel, Tola judged Israel twenty-three years, and Jair judged Israel twenty-two years. This is most likely not the case though as if all the figures given in Judges are treated as consecutive, however, Cyrus H. Gordon argued that they were normally from among the hereditary leaders of the fighting, landed and ruling aristocracy, like the kings in Homer. The shoftim many times played the role as an official with the authority to administer justice, most shoftim acted primarily as military leaders in times of war. The leaders were thought of as being sent by God to deliver the people from a threat, after the threat had passed, shoftim were generally expected to give up their position as military leaders. In accordance with the needs of the time, their functions were primarily martial and judicial, all biblical Judges performed judicial duties and the institution of Judges was separated from the institute of King. Shophet Moses Book of Judges Book of Samuel This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles. Judges Boling, Robert G. revised by Richard D. Nelson, The Harper Collins Study Bible, Book of Judges, Harper Collins Publishers,2006 Malamat, givatayim, Israel, Rutgers University Press,1971. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament, Oxford University Press,2009 Wolf, the Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible, Judge, Abingdon Press,1962
Biblical judges
–
Biblical judges
2.
Book of Joshua
–
The Book of Joshua is the sixth book in the Hebrew Bible and the first book of the Deuteronomistic history, the story of Israel from the conquest of Canaan to the Babylonian exile. Almost all scholars agree that the book of Joshua holds little value for early Israel. Although Rabbinic tradition holds that the book was written by Joshua, transfer of leadership to Joshua A. Joshuas instructions to the people II, entrance into and conquest of Canaan A. Entry into Canaan 1. Reconnaissance of Jericho 2, establishing a foothold at Gilgal 4. Failure and success at Ai 3, renewal of the covenant at Mount Ebal 4. Other campaigns in central Canaan 5, summary list of defeated kings III. Division of the land among the tribes A, cities of refuge and levitical cities D. Summary of conquest E. De-commissioning of the eastern tribes IV, conclusion A. Joshuas farewell address B. Methodist writer Joseph Benson suggests that Gods revelation to Joshua comes either immediately after, God commissions Joshua to take possession of the land and warns him to keep faith with the Covenant. The Israelites cross the Jordan River through the intervention of God. The conquest begins in Canaan with Jericho, followed by Ai, after which Joshua builds an altar to Yahweh at Mount Ebal, the covenant ceremony has elements of a divine land-grant ceremony, similar to ceremonies known from Mesopotamia. The narrative then switches to the south, the Gibeonites trick the Israelites into entering into an alliance with them by saying they are not Canaanites, this prevents the Israelites from exterminating them, but they are enslaved instead. An alliance of Amorite kingdoms headed by the Canaanite king of Jerusalem is defeated with Yahwehs miraculous help of stopping the sun and the moon, the enemy kings were eventually hanged on trees. With the south conquered the narrative moves to the northern campaign, a powerful multi-national coalition headed by the king of Hazor, the most important northern city, is defeated with Yahwehs help and Hazor captured and destroyed. Chapter 11, 16–23 summarises the extent of the conquest, Joshua has taken the land, almost entirely through military victories. Joshua 11,18 asserts that the conquest took a long time - the Amplified Bible, anglican churchman Charles Ellicott thinks the war seems to have lasted seven years. The land then had rest from war, the list of the 31 kings is quasi-tabular, the king of Jerusalem, one, the king of Hebron, one, the king of Jarmuth, one, the king of Lachish, one
Book of Joshua
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Joshua
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Joshua and the Israelites crossing the Jordan (
Gustave Doré)
Book of Joshua
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1759 map of the tribal allotments of Israel
Book of Joshua
–
The Taking of Jericho (
Jean Fouquet, c.1452–1460)
3.
Joshua
–
Joshua /ˈdʒɒʃuə/ or Jehoshua is the central figure in the Hebrew Bibles Book of Joshua. According to the books of Exodus, Numbers and Joshua, he was Moses assistant and his name was Hoshea the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, but Moses called him Yehoshua the name by which he is commonly known. The name is shortened to Yeshua in Nehemiah, according to the Bible he was born in Egypt prior to the Exodus. According to the Hebrew Bible, Joshua was one of the spies of Israel sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan. In Numbers 13, 1–16, and after the death of Moses, he led the Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan, according to Biblical chronology, Joshua lived between 1355 and 1245 BCE, or sometime in the late Bronze Age. According to Joshua 24,29, Joshua died at the age of 110, Joshua also holds a position of respect among Muslims. According to Islamic tradition, he was, along with Caleb, all Muslims also see Joshua as the leader of the Israelites, following the death of Moses. Some Muslims also believe Joshua to be the attendant of Moses mentioned in the Qurān, before Moses meets Khidr, the English name Joshua is a rendering of the Hebrew language Yehoshua, meaning Yahweh is salvation. The vocalization of the second name component may be read as Hoshea—the name used in the Torah before Moses added the divine name, Jesus is the English of the Greek transliteration of Yehoshua via Latin. In the Septuagint, all instances of the word Yehoshua are rendered as Ἰησοῦς, thus, in Greek, Joshua is called Jesus son of Naue to differentiate him from Jesus Christ. This is also true in the Slavic languages following the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Joshua was a major figure in the events of the Exodus. He was charged by Moses with selecting and commanding a group for their first battle after exiting Egypt, against the Amalekites in Rephidim. He later accompanied Moses when he ascended biblical Mount Sinai to commune with God, visualize Gods plan for the Israelite tabernacle and receive the Ten Commandments. Joshua was with Moses when he descended from the mountain, heard the Israelites celebrations around the Golden Calf, and broke the tablets bearing the words of the commandments. However, when Moses returned to the mountain to re-create the tablets recording the Ten Commandments, Joshua was not present, according to Joshua 1, 1-9, God appointed Joshua to succeed Moses as leader of the Israelites along with giving him a blessing of invincibility during his lifetime. The first part of the book of Joshua covers the period when he led the conquest of Canaan, at the Jordan River, the waters parted, as they had for Moses at the Red Sea. The first battle after the crossing of the Jordan was the Battle of Jericho, Joshua led the destruction of Jericho, then moved on to Ai, a small neighboring city to the west. However, they were defeated with thirty-six Israelite deaths, the defeat was attributed to Achan taking an accursed thing from Jericho, and was followed by Achan and his family and animals being stoned to death to restore Gods favor
Joshua
–
Moses and the Messengers from Canaan, by
Giovanni Lanfranco, oil on canvas, 85-3/4 x 97 inches, at the
J. Paul Getty Museum,
Los Angeles,
United States
Joshua
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"The Children of Israel Crossing the Jordan" by
Benjamin West, 1800
Joshua
–
Joshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon by
John Martin
Joshua
–
Joshua's Tomb in
Kifl Haris, April 2007
4.
Othniel
–
Othniel was the first of the Biblical Judges. The etymology of his name is uncertain, but may mean God/El is my strength or God has helped me, the Hebrew Bible refers to Othniel as Othniel the son of Kenaz, the brother of Caleb. The expression is inconclusive in Hebrew, and has taken to mean either that Othniel himself was the brother of Caleb. The Talmud argues that Othniel was Calebs brother, when Caleb promises the hand of his daughter Achsah to whoever conquers the land of Debir, it is Othniel who rises to the challenge, thus becoming Calebs son-in-law. The historical reality of events described in the book of Judges is the subject of ongoing dispute among scholars, who vary in their opinions about how much of the book is historical. As to the story of Othniel in particular, biblical scholar Mark Zvi Brettler states, The Ehud and he oppressed them for eight years, when they cried unto God, Othniel was raised up to be their deliverer. He is the only Judge mentioned connected with the Tribe of Judah, under Othniel, peace lasted for forty years. After these forty years, Israel fell under the subjection of Eglon, a tomb traditionally regarded as belonging to Othniel Ben Knaz is located in Hebron in a traditional burial cave. Located approximately 200 meters west of the Beit Hadassah building, it has been revered as a site for prayers for generations. The structure of the tomb corresponds to the way Jewish burial sites were made in the times of the Mishnah, menachem Mendel of Kamenitz, the first hotelier in the Land of Israel references his visit to the Tomb of Othniel in his 1839 book Sefer Korot Ha-Itim. He states, outside of the city I went to the grave of Othniel ben Kenaz and, I gave 20 pa’res to the owner of the vineyard. The author and traveler J. J. Benjamin mentioned visiting the tomb in his 1859 book Eight Years in Asia and Africa. He states, Likewise outside the city, towards the south, in a vineyard, which was purchased by the Jews, are the graves of the father of King David and of the first Judge, Othniel, the son of Kinah. In recent years prayer services have been organized for the holiday of Lag BaOmer and for Tisha BAv
Othniel
–
Othniel from "
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "
5.
Ehud
–
Ehud ben‑Gera is described in the biblical Book of Judges as a judge who was sent by God to deliver the Israelites from Moabite domination. He is described as being left-handed and a member of the Tribe of Benjamin, according to Judges 3, 12-30, Ehud was sent to the Moabite King Eglon on the pretext of delivering the Israelites annual tribute. He made a double-edged shortsword about a long, useful for a stabbing thrust. Being left-handed, he could conceal the sword on his right thigh, once they met, Ehud told Eglon he had a secret message for him. Eglon dismissed his attendants and allowed Ehud to meet him in private, Ehud said, I have a message from God for you, drew his sword, and stabbed the king in his abdomen. After Ehud stabbed the king, the end of Judges 3,22 reads in Hebrew vayyetze hap-parshedonah, the sword disappeared into the wound and Ehud left it there. He locked the doors to the chamber and left. Eglons assistants returned when too much time had elapsed and found the doors locked, assuming that he was relieving himself, they waited to the point of embarrassment before unlocking the door and finding their king dead. Ehud escaped to the town of Seraiah in Ephraim and he sounded the shofar and rallied the Israelite tribes, who killed the Moabites, cutting off the fords of the Jordan River, and invaded Moab itself, killing about 10,000 Moabite soldiers. After the death of Eglon, the reports that there was peace in the land for 80 years. Coogan argues that the story of Ehud was probably a tale of local origin that was edited by the Deuteronomistic historians. The “crying out to the Lord” and the subsequent rescue are evident in Judges 3.15, “but when the Israelites cried out to the Lord, the Lord raised up for them a deliverer, Ehud son of Gera. He was the second chosen by God Barry Webb sees Ehud as directed by the Lord. The etymology of Ehuds name is unknown, biblical judges Book of Judges Book of Judges article of the Jewish Encyclopedia The story of Ehud retold for children
Ehud
–
Illustration by
Ford Madox Brown of Ehud assassinating
Eglon.
6.
Deborah
–
Deborah was a prophet of the God of the Israelites, the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel, counselor, warrior, and the wife of Lapidoth according to the Book of Judges chapters 4 and 5. Judges chapter 5 gives the story in poetic form. This passage, often called The Song of Deborah, may date to as early as the 12th century BC and is perhaps the earliest sample of Hebrew poetry, in Hebrew, her name, דְּבוֹרָה, translates as bee. She is considered a saint in the Catholic Church, the Deborah number, a dimensionless number used in rheology, is named after her. In the Book of Judges, it is stated that Deborah was a prophet, a judge of Israel and she rendered her judgments beneath a date palm tree between Ramah in Benjamin and Bethel in the land of Ephraim. Some people today refer to Deborah as the mother of Israel, as she is titled in the biblical Song of Deborah, the people of Israel had been oppressed by Jabin, the king of Canaan, whose capital was Hazor, for twenty years. At the same time she states that the Lord God of Israel will draw Sisera to the River Kishon, Barak declines to go without the prophet. Deborah consents, but declares that the glory of the victory will therefore belong to a woman, as soon as the news of the rebellion reaches Sisera he collects nine hundred chariots of iron and a host of people. Then Deborah said, according to Judges 4,14, “Go and this is the day the Lord has given Sisera into your hands. Has not the Lord gone ahead of you. ”So Barak went down Mount Tabor, as Deborah prophesied, a battle is fought, and Sisera is completely defeated. He himself escapes on foot, while his army is pursued as far as Harosheth of the Gentiles, Sisera comes to the tent of Jael, and he lies down to rest. He asks for a drink, she gives him milk, the Biblical account of Deborah ends with the statement that after the battle, there was peace in the land for 40 years. Traditional Jewish chronology places Deborahs 40 years of judging Israel from 1107 BC until her death in 1067 BC, the Dictionary of World Biography, The Ancient World claims that she might have lived in the period between 1200 BC to 1124 BC. The Song of Deborah is found in Judges 5, 2–31 and is a hymn, sung by Deborah and Barak. Biblical scholars have identified the Song as one of the oldest parts of the Bible, dating somewhere in the 12th century BC, based on its grammar. However, some scholars have argued that the songs language. The song itself differs slightly from the events described in Judges 4, the song mentions six participating tribes as opposed to the two tribes in Judges 4,6 and does not mention the role of Jabin. After the death of Joshua, the tribe of Judah led the tribe of Simeon in a campaign against the Canaanites and Perizzites, then they marched against Kiriath-Arba and defeated three more kings
Deborah
–
Grave near
Kedesh attributed to
Barak or Deborah
Deborah
–
Deborah in "
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "
Deborah
–
Gustave Dore 's interpretation of the prophetess Deborah.
Deborah
–
For other uses, see
Deborah (disambiguation).
7.
Gideon
–
Gideon was the son of Joash, from the Abiezrite clan in the tribe of Manasseh and lived in Ephra. As a leader of the Israelites, he won a victory over a Midianite army despite a vast numerical disadvantage. The nineteenth-century Strongs Concordance derives the name Jerubbaal from Baal will contend, according to biblical scholar Lester Grabbe,6.32 gives a nonsensical etymology of his name, it means something like Let Baal be great. Likewise, where Strong gave the meaning hewer to the name Gideon, God chose Gideon, a young man from the tribe of Manasseh, to free the people of Israel and to condemn their idolatry. The Angel of the Lord, or the Lord’s angelic messenger came in the character, of a traveller who sat down in the shade to enjoy a little refreshment and repose and entered into conversation with Gideon. The narrative has echoes of the meeting between Abraham and the visitors who came to him in the trees of Mamre and promised Abraham and Sarah, in their old age. The Angel of the Lord greeted Gideon, The Lord is with you, you mighty man of valor, God first instructed Gideon to send home those men who were afraid. Gideon invited any man who wanted to leave, to do so,22,000 men returned home and 10,000 remained, during the night, God instructed Gideon to approach the Midianite camp. There, Gideon overheard a Midianite man tell a friend of a dream in which a loaf of barley bread tumbled into the camp of Midian and this was interpreted as meaning that God had given the Midianites over to Gideon. Gideon returned to the Israelite camp and gave each of his men a trumpet, divided into three companies, Gideon and the three hundred marched on the enemy camp. He instructed them to blow the trumpet, give a battle cry and light torches, as they did so, the Midianite army fled. Gideon sent messengers ahead into Israel calling for the Ephraimites to pursue the retreating Midianites, Gideon and the three hundred pursued Zebah and Zalmunna, the two Midianite kings. When he had asked for provisions in his pursuit, the men of Succoth, after capturing the two kings, Gideon punished the men of Succoth, and pulled down the tower of Peniel killing all the men there. Gideon then killed Zebah and Zalmunna as justice for the death of his brothers, the Israelites invited Gideon to become their king and to found a dynasty, but he refused, telling them that only God was their ruler. G. A. Gideon went on to make an out of the gold won in battle. Gideon had 70 sons from the women he took as wives. He also had a Shechemite concubine who bore him a son whom he named Abimelech, there was peace in Israel for 40 years during the life of Gideon. As soon as Gideon died of old age, the Israelites again turned to worship the false god Baal-Berith, the text of Judges 6–8 is a composite narrative, combining Jahwist, Elohist and Deuteronomic sources, with further interpolations and editorial comments of the Second Temple period
Gideon
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"Gideon thanks God for the miracle of the dew", painting by
Maarten van Heemskerck (
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg)
Gideon
–
Gideon's fleece, as symbol of Mary, in a "Hunt of the Unicorn
Annunciation " (ca. 1500) from a Netherlandish
book of hours. For the complicated
iconography, see
Hortus Conclusus.
8.
Abimelech (Judges)
–
Abimelech was a ruler who, according to the Hebrew Bible, ruled wickedly over the ancient city of Shechem. His name can best be interpreted as my father is king, claiming the right to rule. He is introduced in Judges 8,31 as the son of Gideon and his Shechemite concubine, according to the Hebrew Bible, he was an unprincipled, ambitious ruler, often engaged in war with his own subjects. Abimelechs mother was Gideons Shechemite concubine, who was probably a Canaanite and he is likely to have been brought up with his 70 half-brothers, who lived in Gideons household at Ophrah of the Abiezrites. According to the Book of Judges, Abimelech went to Shechem to meet his mothers clan and he asked them whether they would rather be ruled by seventy rulers or just one. His mothers relatives accepted his proposal, and gave him seventy shekels of silver from the house of Baal Berith, Abimelech and a hired group of worthless and reckless men went to the house of Gideon in Ophrah to kill the seventy sons of Gideon, Abimelechs brothers. They were killed systematically, but only one escaped, Jotham. Since Abimelech was merely a son of Gideons concubine, he made good of his claim to rule over Manasseh by killing his half-brothers, Jotham was the youngest brother, and he was the only one to have escaped Abimelechs wrath. Abimelech was declared king or prince by the people of Shechem and by the house of Millo, Judges 9,22 suggests that he ruled over all of Israel, but the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges notes that strictly speaking he only ruled over Shechem and its neighbourhood. His fable of the trees compared Abimelech to a bramble bush, Gaal and his brothers arrive at Shechem only to plot and overthrow Abimelech with the help of the men of Shechem. Before Gaal could begin his plot, Zebul who is the governor of Shechem, Zebul sent messengers to inform Abimelech of Gaals plot against him. Abimelech plans to ambush Gaal and his followers in front of the city gates through the night towards the morning, Abimelech divides his followers by four companies to hide and wait against Shechem. The ambush begins as soon as Gaal stands in front of the gates, Zebul taunts Gaal into fighting Abimelech because of Gaals mouth. Gaal fights Abimelech during the battle but fails and is forced to flee with his forces, Zebul chases Gaal out of Shechem, and Abimelech dwelt at Arumah. After Gaal was driven away by Zebul, Abimelech gathered three companies by dividing his followers to attack the city and they waited on a field to ambush the people who were moving in and out of the city gates. He attacked as soon as the gates were open for the city dwellers and they aggressively rushed towards the gate and devastated them. The seizing of the city lasted a day, and Abimelech slaughtered the people within the city, the remaining resistance went to the tower of El-Berith to hold their ground. Abimelech hastily gathered his followers to Mount Zalmon to explain his plan and he grabbed an axe and cut down the bough of a tree, and wanted everyone to follow his example
Abimelech (Judges)
–
Abimelech from
Guillaume Rouillé 's
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum
Abimelech (Judges)
–
Gustave Doré, The Death of Abimelech.
9.
Jair
–
The Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research is an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research in all areas of artificial intelligence. It was established in 1993 as one of the first scientific journals distributed online, paper volumes are printed by the AAAI Press. The journal is abstracted and indexed by Inspec, Science Citation Index, according to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2010 impact factor of 1.691, ranking it 37th out of 108 journals in the category Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence
Jair
–
Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research
10.
Jephthah
–
Jephthah, appears in the Book of Judges as a judge over Israel for a period of six years. According to Judges, he lived in Gilead and his fathers name is also given as Gilead and, as his mother is described as a prostitute, this may mean that his father may have been any of the men of that area. Jephthah led the Israelites in battle against Ammon and, after defeating the Ammonites, fulfilled a vow of his. The story of Jephthah is found in the Old Testament Book of Judges, the Israelites again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord. They forsook the Lord and did not serve him, so the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he sold them into the hand of the Philistines and into the hand of the Ammonites. Jephthah, having been born illegitimately, is out by his half-brothers and takes up his dwelling in Tob. Outlaws collected around Jephthah and went raiding with him, on behalf of Israel as a whole and in reliance on the might of God the Judge, Jephthah challenges the Ammonites. Jephthah swears an oath. and whatever comes out from the doors of my house to meet me when I return in peace from the Ammonites shall be the LORDs, and I will offer it up for a burnt offering. —Judges 11,31, English Standard Version The victorious Jephthah is met on his return by his only child, Jephthah tears his clothes and cries, Alas, my daughter. You have brought me very low, but is bound by his vow, I have opened my mouth to the Lord, and I cannot take back my vow. The girl asks for two months grace. that I may go up and down on the mountains and weep for my virginity, and so Jephthah did with her according to his vow that he had made. The story ends by recounting how the daughters of Israel went year by year to lament the daughter of Jephthah, later, Jephthah was forced to fight against the Ephraimites, who refused to aid him in his struggle against the Ammonites. The story is remembered for the killing of the fugitive Ephraimites who were identified by their accent, at that time 42,000 of the Ephraimites fell. There was no intervention in the case of Jephthahs daughter who was sacrificed to God as instructed, of course, the barbarism of the Israelites says nothing about why the god of the bible would accept a child sacrifice. David Janzen argued that the story was a part of the Deuteronomist picture of moral decline through adoption of non-Israelitic practices such as child sacrifice. Solomon Landers believed that the absence of express judgement implies that the sacrifice was not acceptable to God, the Book of Judges has been seen as teaching a cycle of pride associated with rejection of Gods law and subsequent suffering of the people. Pseudo-Philos Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum gives a name for Jephthahs daughter, Seila and her character is elaborated and emphasized, the author has done his utmost to put this woman on the same level as the patriarchs, in this case especially Isaac. Ambrose cited the story as an example of how it is contrary to duty to fulfill a promise
Jephthah
–
The Return of Jephtha, by
Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini
Jephthah
–
Jephthah, depicted here in Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum of
Guillaume Rouillé
Jephthah
–
The Daughter of Jephthah, by
Alexandre Cabanel (1879).
11.
Ibzan
–
Ibzan appears in the Hebrew Bible as the tenth of the Judges of Israel. Very little is said about him, except the following, 8And after him,9 And he had thirty sons, and thirty daughters, whom he sent abroad, and took in thirty daughters from abroad for his sons. And he judged Israel seven years,10 Then died Ibzan, and was buried at Bethlehem. Biblical judges Book of Judges Ibzan and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Easton, Matthew George
Ibzan
–
Ibzan from
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum
12.
Samson
–
Samson is sometimes considered to be an Israelite version of the popular Middle Eastern Heracles figure. However, if Samsons long hair was cut, he would lose his strength, in some Jewish traditions, Samson is believed to have been buried in Tel Tzora in Israel overlooking the Sorek valley. There reside two large gravestones of Samson and his father Manoah and it is located between the cities of Zorah and Eshtaol. Samson is said to have lived during a time when the Hebrew Bible suggests God was disciplining the Israelites by giving them into the hand of the Philistines, Manoah was an Israelite from Zorah, from the family of the Danites, and his wife had been unable to conceive. The Angel of the Lord appeared to Manoahs wife and proclaimed that the couple would soon have a son, the Angel of the Lord stated that Manoahs wife was to abstain from all alcoholic beverages, and her promised child was not to shave or cut his hair. He was to be a Nazirite from birth, the wife believed the Angel of the Lord, her husband was not present, so he prayed and asked God to send the messenger once again to teach them how to raise the boy who was going to be born. After the Angel of the Lord returned, Manoah asked him his name, Manoah then prepared a sacrifice, but the Angel of the Lord would only allow it to be for God. He touched it with his staff, miraculously engulfing it in flames and this was such dramatic evidence of the nature of the Messenger that Manoah feared for his life, since it was said that no one could live after seeing God. However, his wife convinced him that, if God planned to slay them, in due time, their son Samson was born, and he was raised according to the provisions. When he was an adult, Samson left the hills of his people to see the cities of the Philistines. He fell in love with a Philistine woman from Timnah, whom he decided to marry, ignoring the objections of his parents, in the development of the narrative, the intended marriage was shown to be part of Gods plan to strike at the Philistines. According to the account, Samson was repeatedly seized by the Spirit of the Lord. The first instance of this is seen when Samson was on his way to ask for the Philistine womans hand in marriage and he simply grabbed it and ripped it apart, the spirit of God divinely empowering him. However, Samson kept it a secret, not even mentioning the miracle to his parents and he arrived at the Philistines house and became betrothed to her. He returned home, then back to Timnah some time later for the wedding. On his way, Samson saw that bees had nested in the carcass of the lion and he ate a handful of the honey and gave some to his parents. At the wedding feast, Samson told a riddle to his thirty groomsmen, if they could solve it, he would give them thirty pieces of fine linen and garments, but if they could not solve it, they would give him thirty pieces of fine linen and garments. The riddle was an account of two encounters with the lion, at which only he was present, The Philistines were infuriated by the riddle
Samson
–
Samson's Fight with the Lion by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1525
Samson
–
Rembrandt 's painting of Samson and
Delilah
Samson
–
Samson in the Treadmill, by
Carl Heinrich Bloch
Samson
–
Delilah cuts Samson's hair, by
Master E. S., 1460/1465
13.
Books of Samuel
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According to Jewish tradition the book was written by Samuel, with additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan, modern scholarly thinking is that the entire history was composed in the period c. 630–540 BC by combining a number of independent texts of various ages, Samuel begins with the prophet Samuels birth and Gods call to him as a boy. The story of the Ark of the Covenant that follows tells of Israels oppression by the Philistines, but Saul proved unworthy and Gods choice turned to David, who defeated Israels enemies and brought the Ark to Jerusalem. God then promised David and his successors an everlasting dynasty, the childless Hannah vows to Yahweh of hosts that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to him. Eli, the priest of Shiloh, blesses her, and a child named Samuel is born, Samuel is dedicated to the Lord as a Nazirite – the only one beside Samson to be identified in the Bible. Elis sons, Hophni and Phinehas, prove unworthy of the priesthood and are killed in battle during the Battle of Aphek, the Philistines capture the Ark of the Covenant from Shiloh and take it to the temple of their god Dagon, who recognises the supremacy of Yahweh. The Philistines are afflicted with plagues and return the ark to the Israelites, the Philistines attack the Israelites gathered at Mizpah in Benjamin. Samuel appeals to Yahweh, the Philistines are decisively beaten, in Samuels old age, he appoints his sons as judges, but they are unworthy, and so the people clamour for a king. God reluctantly accedes and gives them Saul of the tribe of Benjamin, Saul defeats the enemies of the Israelites, but sins against Yahweh. Yahweh tells Samuel to anoint David of Bethlehem as king, and David enters Sauls court as his armour-bearer, Sauls son and heir Jonathan befriends David and recognises him as rightful king. Saul plots Davids death, but David flees into the wilderness, David joins the Philistines, but continues secretly to champion his own people, until Saul and Jonathan are killed in battle at Mount Gilboa. At this point, David offers a eulogy, where he praises the bravery. The elders of Judah anoint David as king, but in the north Sauls son Ishbaal rules over the northern tribes. After a long war Ishbaal is murdered by Rechab and Baanah, David is then anointed King of all Israel. David captures Jerusalem and brings the Ark there, David wishes to build a temple, but Nathan tells him that one of Davids sons will be the one to build the temple. David defeats the enemies of Israel, slaughtering Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, David commits adultery with Bathsheba and plots the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite, for this Yahweh sends disasters against his house. The prophet Nathan tells David that the sword shall never depart from his house, for the remainder of his reign there are problems. Absalom kills Amnon, rebels against his father, and is killed following the Battle of the Wood of Ephraim, finally only two contenders for the succession remain, Adonijah and Bathshebas son Solomon
Books of Samuel
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Books of Samuel
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Ernst Josephson, David and Saul, 1878.
Books of Samuel
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David and Bathsheba, by
Artemisia Gentileschi. David is in the background, standing on a balcony.
Books of Samuel
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Hannah presenting
Samuel to
Eli, by
Jan Victors, 1645.
14.
Eli (biblical figure)
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Eli was, according to the Books of Samuel, a High Priest of Shiloh. Hannah is the wife of Elkanah, Elkanah also has another wife who bore him children. Peninnah, at every chance, teases and criticises Hannah about her barrenness to the point of Hannahs deep despair and her husband sees her distress and tries to uncover her deep despair with these questions. Am I not more to you than ten sons, the story indicates that Hannah gave no answer to the questions and rose and presented herself before God weeping bitterly in the temple. When she is found in the temple by the priest she is praying silently, a priest called Eli witnesses this odd posture and concludes she is drunk. In her despair she prays to God for a child and if her prayer is granted she will give the son back to God, after Hannahs explanation of her sobriety, Eli blesses her with peace and a guarantee that God of Israel will grant her request. She went home, ate and drank with her husband, and was filled with hope, subsequently, Hannah becomes pregnant, her child is named Samuel. The time had come to offer the sacrifice at the temple. She promises to go with him to the temple when Samuel is weaned and planned to leave him with Eli to be trained as a Nazirite, the book of Samuel records Hannahs prayer to God. She rejoices and exalts the Holy One there is no father like God, therefore and this story of Hannah intertwines itself with the culture of the nation of Israel. Eli is aware of their behavior but he rebukes them too lightly and is unable to stop them, the curse alludes to a previous promise from God of Elis lineage continuing eternally. While this continuation is not revoked, a curse is placed on all of Elis male descendants forever, as a sign of the accuracy of this future, Eli is told by the man of God that his sons will die on the same day. Eli goes on to train Samuel, when Samuel hears God speaking to him, he at first thinks it is Eli, Eli, who doesnt hear God calling Samuel, eventually realizes the truth, and instructs Samuel on how to respond. Samuel is told that Gods threat will be carried out on Eli and his family, and that there is nothing that can be done to prevent it. Eli asks Samuel what he had told, insisting that he be told the whole truth. Eli, who was blind, was unaware of the event until he asked about all the commotion. Eli, sitting in a chair, was told what had happened by a soldier who had fled the battle and his daughter-in-law, the wife of Phinehas, was pregnant and near the time of delivery. When she heard the news that the Ark of God had been captured and that her father-in-law and husband were dead, she went into labour and gave birth, as she was dying, the women attending her said, Dont despair, you have given birth to a son
Eli (biblical figure)
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1645 painting by
Jan Victors of
Hannah presenting her son
Samuel to Eli, who is seated on the right.
Eli (biblical figure)
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Depiction of Eli and Samuel by
John Singleton Copley, 1780.
15.
Samuel
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Samuel, is a leader of ancient Israel in the Books of Samuel in the Hebrew Bible. He is also known as a prophet by Christians and Muslims and his status, as viewed by rabbinical literature, is that he was the last of the Hebrew Judges and the first of the major prophets who began to prophesy inside the Land of Israel. He was thus on the cusp of two eras, according to the text of the Books of Samuel, he also anointed the first two kings of the Kingdom of Israel, Saul and David. Samuels mother was Hannah and his father was Elkanah, Elkanah lived at Ramathaim in the district of Zuph. His genealogy is found in a pedigree of the Kohathites and in that of Heman. According to the tables in Chronicles, Elkanah was a Levite - a fact not mentioned in the books of Samuel. The fact that Elkanah, a Levite, was denominated an Ephraimite is analogous to the designation of a Levite belonging to Judah, according to 1 Samuel 1, 1-28, Elkanah had two wives, Peninnah and Hannah. Peninnah had children, Hannah did not, jealous, Penninah reproached Hannah for her lack of children, causing Hannah much heartache. The relationship of Penninah and Hannah recalls that between Hagar and Sarah, Elkanah was a devout man and would periodically take his family on pilgrimage to the holy site of Shiloh. The motif of Elkanah and Hannah as devout, childless parents will reoccur with Zachariah and Elizabeth and the birth of John the Baptist, and with Joachim and Anna, on one occasion Hannah went to the sanctuary and prayed for a child. In tears, she vowed that were she granted a child, Eli, who was sitting at the foot of the doorpost in the sanctuary at Shiloh, saw her apparently mumbling to herself and thought she was drunk, but was soon assured of her motivation and sobriety. Eli was the priest of Shiloh, and one of the last Israelite Judges before the rule of kings in ancient Israel and he had assumed the leadership after Samsons death. Eli blessed her and she returned home, subsequently Hannah became pregnant and gave birth to Samuel. Hannahs exultant hymn of thanksgiving resembles in several points Marys later Magnificat, after the child was weaned, she left him in Elis care, and from time to time she would come to visit her son. According to 1 Samuel 1,20, Hannah named Samuel to commemorate her prayer to God for a child, called his name Samuel, saying, Because I have asked him of the Lord. The Hebrew root rendered as asked in the KJV is sha’al, once it is even mentioned in the form sha’ul, Saul’s name in Hebrew. Biblical historian Michael Coogan suggests that Saul’s birth narrative was transferred to Samuel by the Deuteronomist historians, however, Gordon himself did not see this hypothesis as justified by the available evidence. According to the Holman Bible Dictionary, Samuel was a name in the Ancient Near East meaning, Sumu is God but understood in Israel as The name is God, God is exalted
Samuel
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The icon of the prophet Samuel from the collection of the Donetsk regional art museum (Donetskij oblastnoj hudozhestvennyj muzej). XVII.
Samuel
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Gerbrand van den Eeckhout -
Hannah presenting her son Samuel to the priest
Eli ca.1665
Samuel
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Apparition of the spirit of Samuel to
Saul, by
Salvator Rosa, 1668.
Samuel
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Grave of the Prophet Samuel, Jerusalem
16.
Torah
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The Torah is the central reference of Judaism. It has a range of meanings and it can most specifically mean the first five books of the twenty-four books of the Tanakh, and it usually includes the rabbinic commentaries. In rabbinic literature the word Torah denotes both the five books and the Oral Torah, the Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash. According to the Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a scribe in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days in the presence of a congregation, reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish communal life. The word Torah in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, the meaning of the word is therefore teaching, doctrine, or instruction, the commonly accepted law gives a wrong impression. Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance, the earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been The Torah of Moses. This title, however, is neither in the Torah itself. It appears in Joshua and Kings, but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus, in contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were The Book of Moses and The Book of the Torah, Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the Pentateuch, a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria, meaning five books, or as the Law. The Torah starts from the beginning of Gods creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and it ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the teachings given explicitly or implicitly embedded in the narrative. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs, Joseph and the four matriarchs, God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt. Exodus begins the story of Gods revelation to his people of Israel through Moses, Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant to the people of Israel. It also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf was constructed, Exodus includes the instructions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction. Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards for following Gods commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not following them. Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai, set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan, even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land
Torah
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Sefer Torah at old
Glockengasse Synagogue (reconstruction),
Cologne
Torah
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Silver Torah Case,
Ottoman Empire Museum of Jewish Art and History
Torah
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Reading of the Torah
Torah
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Tanakh (Judaism)
17.
Book of Genesis
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The Book of Genesis is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. The basic narrative expresses the theme, God creates the world and appoints man as his regent. The new post-Flood world is also corrupt, God does not destroy it, instead calling one man, Abraham, to be the seed of its salvation. At Gods command Abraham descends from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God, Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus. The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, the books author or authors appear to have structured it around ten toledot sections, but modern commentators see it in terms of a primeval history followed by the cycle of Patriarchal stories. In Judaism, the importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking God to his chosen people. It is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, while the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book. The primeval history has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6–9, God creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh as a day of rest. God creates the first humans Adam and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A talking serpent portrayed as a creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway. Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel, Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abels offering but not Cains. Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abels place, after many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by the sin of man and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe out mankind. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build a huge boat, then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises that he not destroy the world a second time with water with the rainbow as the symbol of his promise. But upon seeing mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, God instructs Abram to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. Abrams name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah, because Sarah is old, she tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife. God resolves to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people, Abraham protests and gets God to agree not to destroy the cities if 10 righteous men can be found. Angels save Abrahams nephew Lot and his family, but his wife back on the destruction against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt
Book of Genesis
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Genesis
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The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac (
Rembrandt, 1635)
Book of Genesis
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Abram's Journey from
Ur to
Canaan (
József Molnár, 1850)
Book of Genesis
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Joseph recognized by his brothers (Léon Pierre Urbain Bourgeois, 1863)
18.
Book of Exodus
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The Book of Exodus or, simply, Exodus, is the second book of the Torah and the Hebrew Bible. The book tells how the Israelites leave slavery in Egypt through the strength of Yahweh, led by their prophet Moses they journey through the wilderness to Mount Sinai, where Yahweh promises them the land of Canaan in return for their faithfulness. There is no agreement among scholars on the structure of Exodus. One strong possibility is that it is a diptych, with the division between parts 1 and 2 at the crossing of the Red Sea or at the beginning of the theophany in chapter 19. On this plan, the first part tells of Gods rescue of his people from Egypt and their journey under his care to Sinai, jacobs sons and their families join their brother, Joseph, in Egypt. Once there, the Israelites begin to grow in number, several generations later, Egypts Pharaoh, fearful that the Israelites could be a fifth column, orders that all newborn boys be thrown into the Nile. A Levite woman saves her baby by setting him adrift on the river Nile in an ark of bulrushes, the Pharaohs daughter finds the child, names him Moses, and brings him up as her own. But Moses is aware of his origins, and one day, there he marries Zipporah, the daughter of Midianite priest Jethro, and encounters God in a burning bush. Moses asks God for his name, God replies, I AM that I AM, God tells Moses to return to Egypt and lead the Hebrews into Canaan, the land promised to Abraham. Moses returns to Egypt and fails to convince the Pharaoh to release the Israelites, God smites the Egyptians with 10 terrible plagues including a river of blood, many frogs, and the death of first-born sons. Moses leads the Israelites out of bondage after a chase when the Pharaoh reneges on his coerced consent. The desert proves arduous, and the Israelites complain and long for Egypt, the Israelites arrive at the mountain of God, where Moses father-in-law Jethro visits Moses, at his suggestion Moses appoints judges over Israel. God asks whether they agree to be his people. Moses is told to ascend the mountain, God pronounces the Ten Commandments in the hearing of all Israel. Moses goes up the mountain into the presence of God, who pronounces the Covenant Code, Moses comes down the mountain and writes down Gods words and the people agree to keep them. God calls Moses up the mountain where he remains for 40 days and 40 nights, at the conclusion of the 40 days and 40 nights, Moses returns holding the set of stone tablets. Aaron is appointed as the first hereditary high priest, God gives Moses the two tablets of stone containing the words of the ten commandments, written with the finger of God. While Moses is with God, Aaron makes a golden calf, God informs Moses of their apostasy and threatens to kill them all, but relents when Moses pleads for them
Book of Exodus
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Exodus
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Moses with the Ten Commandments, by
Rembrandt (1659)
Book of Exodus
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"Departure of the Israelites", by
David Roberts, 1829
Book of Exodus
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"Crossing of the Red Sea",
Nicholas Poussin
19.
Book of Leviticus
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The Book of Leviticus is the third book of the Old Testament from the Bible, included in the Christian biblical canons, and the third of five books of the Pentateuch. The Hebrew name of the book of the Jewish Bible. Its Greek name Levitikon, things pertaining to the Levites, and its Latin name Leviticus, are based on the term torat kohanim, instruction of the priests from early rabbinic times. The English name is from the Latin Leviticus, taken in turn from Greek and a reference to the Levites, the book, however, addresses all the people of Israel though some passages address the priests specifically. Most of its chapters consist of Gods speeches to Moses which he is commanded to repeat to the Israelites and this takes place within the story of the Israelites Exodus after they escaped Egypt and reached Mt. Sinai. The Book of Exodus narrates how Moses led the Israelites in building the Tabernacle based on Gods instructions, then in Leviticus, God tells the Israelites and their priests how to make offerings in the Tabernacle and how to conduct themselves while camped around the holy tent sanctuary. Leviticus takes place during the month or month-and-a-half between the completion of the Tabernacle and the Israelites departure from Sinai, the instructions of Leviticus emphasize ritual, legal and moral practices rather than beliefs. Nevertheless, they reflect the view of the creation story in Genesis 1 that God wishes to live with humans. The book teaches that faithful performance of the sanctuary rituals can make possible, so long as the people avoid sin. Scholars debate whether it was primarily for Jewish worship in exile that centered on reading or preaching, or was aimed instead at worshipers at temples in Jerusalem. But they are unanimous that the book had a long period of growth. Instructions for the laity on bringing offerings 1–5, the types of offering, burnt, cereal, peace, purification, reparation offerings B. The various offerings, with the addition of the priests cereal offering 7, institution of the priesthood A. Ordination of Aaron and his sons B. Aaron makes the first sacrifices C, judgement on Nadab and Abihu III. Cleansing of diseases E. Unclean discharges IV, Day of Atonement, purification of the tabernacle from the effects of uncleanliness and sin V. Blasphemy J. Sabbatical and Jubilee years K. Exhortation to obey the law, blessing, redemption of votive gifts Chapters 1–5 describe the various sacrifices from the sacrificers point of view, although the priests are essential for handling the blood. Sacrifices are to be divided between God, the priest, and the offerers, although in cases the entire sacrifice is a single portion consigned to God—i. e. Chapters 8–10 describe the consecration by Moses of Aaron and his sons as the first priests, the first sacrifices, the purpose is to underline the character of altar priesthood as an Aaronite privilege, and the responsibilities and dangers of their position
Book of Leviticus
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Leviticus
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Vaikro – Book of Leviticus, Warsaw edition, 1860, page 1
Book of Leviticus
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The
Tabernacle and the Camp (19th Century drawing)
Book of Leviticus
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The Scapegoat (painting) (1854 painting by
William Holman Hunt)
20.
Book of Numbers
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The Book of Numbers is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah. The book has a long and complex history, but its form is probably due to a Priestly redaction of a Yahwistic source made some time in the early Persian period. The name of the book comes from the two taken of the Israelites. Numbers begins at Mount Sinai, where the Israelites have received their laws, the task before them is to take possession of the Promised Land. The people are numbered and preparations are made for resuming their march, the Israelites begin the journey, but they murmur at the hardships along the way, and about the authority of Moses and Aaron. For these acts, God destroys approximately 15,000 of them through various means and they arrive at the borders of Canaan and send spies into the land. Upon hearing the spies fearful report concerning the conditions in Canaan, God condemns them to death in the wilderness until a new generation can grow up and carry out the task. The book ends with the new generation of Israelites in the Plain of Moab ready for the crossing of the Jordan River, Numbers is the culmination of the story of Israels exodus from oppression in Egypt and their journey to take possession of the land God promised their fathers. Numbers also demonstrates the importance of holiness, faithfulness and trust, despite Gods presence and his priests, Israel lacks faith and the possession of the land is left to a new generation. God orders Moses, in the wilderness of Sinai, to number those able to bear all the men from twenty years old and upward. A total of 603,550 Israelites are found to be fit for military service, the tribe of Levi is exempted from military service and therefore not included in the census. Moses consecrates the Levites for the service of the Tabernacle in the place of the first-born sons, the Levites are divided into three families, the Gershonites, the Kohathites, and the Merarites, each under a chief. The Kohathites were headed by Eleazar, son of Aaron, while the Gershonites and Merarites were headed by Aarons other son, preparations are then made for resuming the march to the Promised Land. Various ordinances and laws are decreed, the Israelites set out from Sinai. The people murmur against God and are punished by fire, Moses complains of their stubbornness and is ordered to choose seventy elders to assist him in the government of the people, twelve spies are sent out into Canaan and come back to report to Moses. Yahweh decrees that the Israelites will be punished for their loss of faith by having to wander in the wilderness for 40 years, Moses is ordered by God to make plates to cover the altar. The children of Israel murmur against Moses and Aaron on account of the destruction of Korahs men and are stricken with the plague, Aaron and his family are declared by God to be responsible for any iniquity committed in connection with the sanctuary. The Levites are again appointed to help in the keeping of the Tabernacle, the Levites are ordered to surrender to the priests a part of the tithes taken to them
Book of Numbers
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Numbers
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Priest,
Levite, and furnishings of the
Tabernacle
Book of Numbers
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A Plague Inflicted on Israel While Eating the Quail (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible)
21.
Book of Deuteronomy
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The Book of Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Torah and the Christian Old Testament. The Hebrew title is taken from the opening phrase Eleh ha-devarim, the English title is from a Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew phrase mishneh haTorah hazoth, a copy of this law, in Deuteronomy 17,18, as to deuteronomion touto – this second law. The book consists of three sermons or speeches delivered to the Israelites by Moses on the plains of Moab, shortly before they enter the Promised Land. Many scholars see the book as reflecting the needs and social status of the Levite caste. One of its most significant verses is Deuteronomy 6,4, the Shema Yisrael, which has become the definitive statement of Jewish identity, Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one. Verses 6, 4–5 were also quoted by Jesus in Mark 12, Patrick D. Miller in his commentary on Deuteronomy suggests that different views of the structure of the book will lead to different views on what it is about. Chapters 1–4, The journey through the wilderness from Horeb to Kadesh, chapters 4–11, After a second introduction at 4, 44–49 the events at Mount Horeb are recalled, with the giving of the Ten Commandments. Chapters 12–26, the Deuteronomic code, Laws governing Israels worship, the appointment and regulation of community and religious leaders, social regulation, chapters 27–28, Blessings and curses for those who keep and break the law. Chapters 29–30, Concluding discourse on the covenant in the land of Moab, including all the laws in the Deuteronomic code after those given at Horeb, Israel is again exhorted to obedience. Chapters 31–34, Joshua is installed as Mosess successor, Moses delivers the law to the Levites, and ascends Mount Nebo or Pisgah, the narrative of these events is interrupted by two poems, the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses. Deuteronomy 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code, is its oldest part of the book and it is a series of mitzvot to the Israelites regarding how they ought to conduct themselves in Canaan, the land promised by Yahweh, God of Israel. The following list organizes most of the laws into thematic groups, The worship of Canaanite gods is forbidden, native mourning practices such as deliberate disfigurement are forbidden. The worship at Asherah groves and setting up of ritual pillars are forbidden, all sacrifices are to be brought and vows are to be made at a central sanctuary. Sacrificed animals must be without blemish, first-born male livestock must be sacrificed. The procedure for tithing produce or donating its equivalent is given, the Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot are instituted. A catalog of which animals are permitted and which forbidden for consumption is given, the consumption of animals which are found dead and have not been slaughtered is prohibited. Judges are to be appointed in every city, judges are to be impartial and bribery is forbidden. Should the Israelites choose to be ruled by a King, regulations for the office are given, Regulations of the rights, and revenue, of the Levites are given
Book of Deuteronomy
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Deuteronomy
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Moses receiving the Law (top) and reading the Law to the Israelites
Book of Deuteronomy
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Moses viewing the Promised Land, Deuteronomy 34:1–5 (Tissot)
22.
Books of Kings
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In the Hebrew Bible, Kings is a single book called the Book of Kings. The fourth book of Neviim, the division of the Tanakh. In the Septuagint, Samuel and Kings was divided into four books and Kings became III, the two Books of Kings presents a history of ancient Israel and Judah from the death of David to the release of Jehoiachin from imprisonment in Babylon, a period of some 400 years. Solomon comes to the throne after Davids death, at the beginning of his reign he assumes Gods promises to David and brings splendour to Israel and peace and prosperity to his people. The centrepiece of Solomons reign is the building of the First Temple, at the end, however, he follows other gods and oppresses Israel. The kings who follow Rehoboam in Jerusalem continue the line of David, in the north, however, dynasties follow each other in rapid succession. At length God brings the Assyrians to destroy the northern kingdom, Yahweh saves Jerusalem and the kingdom from an invasion by Assyria. But Manasseh, the king, reverses the reforms. Manassehs righteous grandson Josiah reinstitutes the reforms of Hezekiah, but it is too late, God, speaking through the prophetess Huldah, affirms that Jerusalem is to be destroyed. God brings the Babylonians against Jerusalem, Yahweh deserts his people, Jerusalem is razed and the Temple destroyed, in the original Hebrew Bible First and Second Kings are a single book, as are First and Second Samuel. When this was translated into Greek in the last few centuries BCE, then, what it is now commonly known as 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel are called by the Vulgate, in imitation of the Septuagint,1 Kings and 2 Kings respectively. What it is now known as 1 Kings and 2 Kings would be 3 Kings and 4 Kings in old Bibles before the year 1516 such as the Vulgate. The division we know today, used by Protestant Bibles and adopted by Catholics, some Bibles still preserve the old denomination, for example, Douay Rheims bible. According to Jewish tradition the author of Kings was Jeremiah, who would have been alive during the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. The Deuteronomic perspective is particularly evident in prayers and speeches spoken by key figures at major transition points, a third source, or set of sources, were cycles of stories about various prophets, plus a few smaller miscellaneous traditions. The conclusion of the book was based on personal knowledge. A few sections were editorial additions not based on sources, judgement is not punishment, but simply the natural consequence of Israels failure to worship Yahweh alone. Another and related theme is that of prophecy, the main point of the prophetic stories is that Gods prophecies are always fulfilled, so that any not yet fulfilled will be so in the future
Books of Kings
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Books of Kings
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Solomon greeting the Queen of Sheba – gate of
Florence Baptistry
Books of Kings
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Rembrandt, "Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem", c. 1630
Books of Kings
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James Tissot, The Flight of the Prisoners – the fall of Jerusalem, 586 BCE.
23.
Book of Isaiah
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The Book of Isaiah is the first of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible and the first of the Major Prophets in the Christian Old Testament. While virtually no one today attributes the entire book, or even most of it, to one person, Isaiah 1–33 promises judgment and restoration for Judah, Jerusalem and the nations, and chapters 34–66 presume that judgment has been pronounced and restoration follows soon. It can thus be read as a meditation on the destiny of Jerusalem into. Isaiah speaks out against corrupt leaders and for the disadvantaged, Isaiah 44,6 contains the first clear statement of monotheism, I am the first and I am the last, besides me there is no god. This model of monotheism became the characteristic of post-Exilic Judaism. Isaiah was one of the most popular works among Jews in the Second Temple period, the scholarly consensus which held sway through most of the 20th century saw three separate collections of oracles in the book of Isaiah. God has a plan which will be realised on the Day of Yahweh, on that day all the nations of the world will come to Zion for instruction, but first the city must be punished and cleansed of evil. Israel is invited to join in this plan, chapters 5–12 explain the significance of the Assyrian judgment against Israel, righteous rule by the Davidic king will follow after the arrogant Assyrian monarch is brought down. The oppressor is about to fall, chapters 34–35 tell how Yahweh will return the redeemed exiles to Jerusalem. Chapters 36–39 tell of the faithfulness of king Hezekiah to Yahweh during the Assyrian siege as a model for the restored community, chapters 55–66 are an exhortation to Israel to keep the covenant. Gods eternal promise to David is now made to the people of Israel/Judah at large, the book ends by enjoining righteousness as the final stages of Gods plan come to pass, including the pilgrimage of the nations to Zion and the realisation of Yahwehs kingship. Chapters 56–66 assume an even later situation, in which the people are returned to Jerusalem. Anonymity → Isaiahs name suddenly stops being used after chapter 39, style → There is a sudden change in style and theology after chapter 40, numerous key words and phrases found in one section are not found in the other. These observations led scholars to the conclusion that the book can be divided into three sections, labeled Proto-Isaiah, Deutero-Isaiah, and Trito-Isaiah. Early modern-period scholars treated Isaiah as independent collections of sayings by three individual prophets, brought together at a later period, about 70 BCE, to form the present book. The second half of the 20th century saw a change in approach. The conquest of Jerusalem by Babylon and the exile of its elite in 586 BCE ushered in the stage in the formation of the book. Deutero-Isaiah addresses himself to the Jews in exile, offering them the hope of return, deutero-Isaiahs predictions of the imminent fall of Babylon and his glorification of Cyrus as the deliverer of Israel date his prophecies to 550–539 BCE, and probably towards the end of this period
Book of Isaiah
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Isaiah
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The
Isaiah scroll, the oldest surviving manuscript of Isaiah: found among the
Dead Sea Scrolls and dating from about 150 to 100 BCE, it contains almost the whole Book of Isaiah and is substantially identical with the modern
Masoretic text.
Book of Isaiah
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Michelangelo (c. 1508–12), Isaiah,
Vatican City:
Sistine Chapel ceiling
Book of Isaiah
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detail of entrance to 30 Rockefeller Plaza showing verse from Isaiah 33:6
Rockefeller Center,
New York
24.
Book of Jeremiah
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The Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, and the second of the Prophets in the Christian Old Testament. Of all the prophets, Jeremiah comes through most clearly as a person, Jeremiah is written in a very complex and poetic Hebrew. It has come down in two distinct though related versions, one in Hebrew, the other known from a Greek translation. Scholars have had differing opinions as to how to reconstruct the historical aspects of the Book of Jeremiah due to the differences each version contains when compared with each other. It is difficult to discern any structure in Jeremiah, probably because the book had such a long, the book can be conveniently divided into biographical, prose and poetic strands, each of which can be summarised separately. The poetic material found is found largely in chapters 1–25 and consists of oracles in which the prophet speaks as Gods messenger. Allied to them, and also probably a reflection of the authentic Jeremiah, are further poetic passages of a personal nature. In these poems the prophet agonises over the apparent failure of his mission, is consumed by bitterness at those who oppose or ignore him, and accuses God of betraying him. It is generally agreed that the three types of material interspersed through the book – poetic, narrative, and biographical – come from different sources or circles. Equivalents of both versions were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, so that is clear that the differences mark important stages in the transmission of the text. Most scholars hold that the Hebrew text underlying the Septuagint version is older than the Masoretic text, the Book of Jeremiah grew over a long period of time. According to its opening verses the book records the prophetic utterances of the priest Jeremiah son of Hilkiah, to whom the word of YHWH came in the days of king Josiah and after. He engages in performance art, walking about in the streets with a yoke about his neck. He is taunted and retaliates, is thrown in jail as the result, the Deuteronomists were a school or movement who edited the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings into a more or less unified history of Israel during the Jewish exile in Babylon. From the Deuteronomistic perspective the prophetic role implied, more than anything else, concern with law, the books superscription claims that Jeremiah was active for forty years, from the thirteenth year of Josiah to the fall of Jerusalem in 587. It is clear from the last chapters of the book, however, that he continued to speak in Egypt after the assassination of Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of Judah, in 582. Much of Jeremiahs prophetic preaching is based on the theme of the covenant between God and Israel, Jeremiah insists that the covenant is conditional, and can be broken by Israels apostasy. The people, says Jeremiah, are like a wife and rebellious children, their infidelity
Book of Jeremiah
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Jeremiah
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Rembrandt van Rijn, "Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem", c. 1630
25.
Book of Ezekiel
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The Book of Ezekiel is the third of the Latter Prophets in the Tanakh and one of the major prophetic books in the Old Testament, following Isaiah and Jeremiah. The visions, and the book, are structured around three themes, Judgment on Israel, Judgment on the nations, and Future blessings for Israel. Its themes include the concepts of the presence of God, purity, Israel as a divine community and its later influence has included the development of mystical and apocalyptic traditions in Second Temple and rabbinic Judaism and Christianity. Inaugural vision, God approaches Ezekiel as the warrior, riding in his battle chariot. The chariot is drawn by four living creatures, each having four faces, beside each living creature is a wheel within a wheel, with tall and awesome rims full of eyes all around. God commissions Ezekiel as a prophet and as a watchman in Israel, Son of man, I am sending you to the Israelites. Building a new city, The Jewish exile will come to an end, a new city and new Temple will be built, and the Israelites will be gathered and blessed as never before. Most scholars today accept the authenticity of the book. According to the book that bears his name, Ezekiel ben-Buzi was born into a family of Jerusalem c.623 BCE. Josiah was killed in 609 and Judah became a vassal of the new regional power, in 597, following a rebellion against Babylon, Ezekiel was among the large group of Judeans taken into captivity by the Babylonians. He appears to have spent the rest of his life in Mesopotamia, the various dates given in the book suggest that Ezekiel was 25 when he went into exile,30 when he received his prophetic call, and 52 at the time of the last vision c.571. The Jewish scriptures were translated into Greek in the two immediately before the birth of Christ. The Greek version of books is called the Septuagint. The Jewish Bible in Hebrew is called the Masoretic text, ecclesiasticus 49,8 refers to it, so does Josephus. It is mentioned as part of the canon in Melitos catalogue, cited by Eusebius, also in Origen, Jerome, the first half of the 20th century saw several attempts to deny the authorship and authenticity of the book, with scholars such as C. C. Torrey and Morton Smith placing it variously in the 3rd century BCE, the pendulum swung back in the post-war period, with an increasing acceptance of the books essential unity and historical placement in the Exile. The most influential modern work on Ezekiel, Walther Zimmerlis two-volume commentary, appeared in German in 1969. Ezekiel depicts the destruction of Jerusalem as a sacrifice upon the altar
Book of Ezekiel
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Ezekiel
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A mid-12th century
Flemish piece of copperwork depicting Ezekiel's Vision of the Sign "Tau" from Ezekiel IX:2–7. The item is currently held by the
Walters Museum.
Book of Ezekiel
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Monument to
Holocaust survivors at
Yad Vashem in
Jerusalem; the quote is Ezekiel 37:14
Book of Ezekiel
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The Visionary Ezekiel Temple plan drawn by the 19th-century French architect and Bible scholar
Charles Chipiez.
26.
Book of Hosea
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The Book of Hosea is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible. According to the order of most Hebrew Bibles, it is the first of the twelve Minor Prophets. According to the narrative, the relationship between Hosea and his unfaithful wife Gomer is comparable to the relationship between Yahweh and his unfaithful people Israel. The eventual reconciliation of Hosea and Gomer is treated as a metaphor for the eventual reconciliation between Yahweh and Israel. Hosea prophesied during a dark and melancholic era of Israels history, the apostasy of the people was rampant, having turned away from God in order to serve both the calves of Jeroboam and Baal, a Canaanite god. During Hoseas lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their supporters. Forsaking the worship of God, they worshiped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite storm god, and Asherah, other sins followed, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin. Hosea declares that unless they repent of sins, God will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria. The prophecy of Hosea centers around Gods unending love towards a sinful Israel, in this text, Gods agony is expressed over the betrayal of Israel. The Book of Hosea contains a number of YHWH prophecies and messages for both Judah and Northern Israel and these are delivered by the prophet Hosea. Chapter 3, Account of Hoseas marriage autobiographically and this is possibly a marriage to different women Chapters 4–14, 9/14,10, Oracle judging Israel, Ephraim in particular, for not living up to the covenant. No further breakdown of ideas is clear in 4–14, 9/14,10 Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed and this divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between God and the Northern Kingdom. However, it is probable that this was again an act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity. He ends this prophecy with the declaration that God will one day renew the covenant, in Chapter three, at Gods command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more. Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, Chapters 4–14 spell out the allegory at length. Chapters 1–3 speaks of Hoseas family, and the issues with Gomer, Chapters 4–10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why God is rejecting the Northern Kingdom. Chapter 11 is Gods lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a part of the people of Israel. God promises not to them up entirely
Book of Hosea
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Tanakh (Judaism)
27.
Book of Joel
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The Book of Joel is part of the Hebrew Bible. Joel is part of a group of twelve prophetic books known as the Twelve Minor Prophets, a more apocalyptic passage comparing the locusts to an army, and revealing that they are God’s army. A call to national repentance in the face of Gods judgment, Promise of future blessings Banishment of the locusts and restoration of agricultural productivity as a divine response to national penitence. Future prophetic gifts to all God’s people, and the safety of God’s people in the face of cosmic cataclysm, Coming judgment on God’s enemies and the vindication of Israel. As there are no references in the book to datable persons or events. The main positions are, Ninth century BC, particularly in the reign of Joash – a position especially popular among nineteenth-century scholars Early eight century BC, 630–587 BC, in the last decades of the kingdom of Judah c. 520–500 BC, contemporary with the return of the exiles and the careers of Zechariah, the decades around 400 BC, during the Persian period Evidence produced for these positions are allusions in the book to the wider world, similarities with other prophets, and linguistic details. Other commentators, such as John Calvin, attach no great importance to the precise dating, the preservation of the book of Joel indicates that it was accorded special status by its contemporaries as “the word of the Lord”. Its history as part of the Jewish and Christian canons followed that of the scroll of the Minor Prophets. The Masoretic text places Joel between Hosea and Amos, while the Septuagint order is Hosea–Amos–Micah–Joel–Obadiah–Jonah. The Hebrew text of Joel seems to have suffered little from scribal transmission, but is at a few points supplemented by the Septuagint, Syriac, while the book purports to describe a plague of locusts, some ancient Jewish opinion saw the locusts as allegorical interpretations of Israels enemies. This allegorical interpretation was applied to the church by many church fathers, Calvin took a literal interpretation of ch.1, but allegorical view of chapter 2, a position echoed by some modern interpreters. Most modern interpreters, however, see Joel speaking of a literal locust plague given a prophetic/ apocalyptic interpretation, mentions in the first half of the book to the day of the Lord were also ascribed to this continuator. 3, 4-8/4, 4-8 could be seen as even later, details of exact ascriptions differed between scholars. The authenticity of 3, 4–8 has presented more challenges, although a number of scholars still defend it, there are many parallels of language between Joel and other Old Testament prophets. They may represent Joel’s literary use of other prophets, or vice versa, in the New Testament, his prophecy of the outpouring of God′s Holy Spirit upon all people was notably quoted by Saint Peter in his Pentecost sermon. The table below represents some of the more explicit quotes and allusions between specific passages in Joel and passages from the Old and New Testaments, plange quasi virgo, the third responsory for Holy Saturday, is loosely based on some verses of the Book of Joel. See also works on the Minor Prophets as a whole, ahlström, Gösta W. Joel and the Temple Cult of Jerusalem
Book of Joel
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Joel
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The Prophet Joel as imagined by
Michelangelo (
Fresco,
Sistine Chapel Ceiling, 1508–1512)
Book of Joel
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Russian icon of the prophet Joel (
Iconostasis of
Kizhi monastery, c. 1700–1725)
28.
Book of Amos
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The Book of Amos is the third of the Twelve Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and the second in the Greek Septuagint tradition. Amos, a contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah, was active c.750 BC during the reign of Jeroboam II. Amos lived in the kingdom of Judah but preached in the kingdom of Israel. His major themes of justice, Gods omnipotence, and divine judgment became staples of prophecy. Amos prophesied during the reign of Jeroboam II, King of Israel, and of Uzziah of Judah, according to the books superscription he was from Tekoa, a town in Judah south of Jerusalem, but his prophetic mission was in the northern kingdom. He is called a shepherd and a dresser of sycamore trees, scholars have long recognized that Amos utilized an ancient hymn within his prophecy, verses of which are found at 4.13,5. 8–9,8.8,9. 5–6. This hymn is best understood as praising YHWH for His judgment, recent scholarship has shown Amos hymn is an ancient narrative text, has identified a new verse at 7.4, and has compared the hymn to the Genesis Flood account and Job 9, 5–10. The central idea of the book of Amos is that God puts his people on the level as the surrounding nations – God expects the same purity of them all. As it is with all nations that rise up against the kingdom of God, even Israel and Judah will not be exempt from the judgment of God because of their idolatry and unjust ways. The nation that represents YHWH must be pure of anything or anyone that profanes the name of God. Amos is the first prophet to use the term the Day of the Lord and this phrase becomes important within future prophetic and apocalyptic literature. For the people of Israel the day of the LORD is the day when God will fight against his and their enemies, and it will be a day of victory for Israel. However, Amos and other prophets include Israel as an enemy of God, as Israel is guilty of injustice toward the innocent, poor, to Amos the day of the Lord will be a day of doom
Book of Amos
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Book of Amos
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POxy 846: Amos 2 (LXX)
29.
Book of Obadiah
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The Book of Obadiah is an oracle concerning the divine judgment of Edom and the restoration of Israel. The text consists of a chapter, divided into 21 verses. In Judaism and Christianity, its authorship is attributed to a prophet who lived in the Assyrian Period and named himself in the first verse and his name means “servant of Yahweh”. In Christianity, the Book of Obadiah is classified as a prophet of the Old Testament. In Judaism, Obadiah is considered a “later prophet” and this Masoretic Text is chronologically placed in the Tanakh under the section Neviim in the last category called The Twelve Prophets. The book of Obadiah is based on a vision concerning the fall of Edom. Obadiah describes an encounter with God who addresses Edom’s arrogance and charges them for their violent actions against their brother nation, the western half of ancient Edom is the Negev desert all the way to Eilat, all part of modern Israel. The eastern half is possessed by the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan, in the days of Obadiah, the Edomites lived along the cliffs and mountaintops of the arid land south of the Dead Sea, all the way to the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea. There was very little in the way of land, so the Edomites made their living supporting the main caravan route between Egypt and Babylon that passed through their whole land. Throughout most of the history of Judah, Edom was controlled absolutely from Jerusalem as a vassal state, among the regions great powers, Edom was held in low regard. Obadiah said that the elevation of their dwelling place in the mountains of Seir had gone to their head. Though you soar like the eagle and make your nest among the stars, from there I will bring you down, in 597 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II sacked Jerusalem, carted away the King of Judea and installed a puppet ruler. The Edomites helped the Babylonians loot the city, Obadiah, writing this prophecy around 590 BCE, suggests the Edomites should have remembered that blood was thicker than water. On the day you stood aloof while strangers carried off his wealth and foreigners entered his gates and cast lots for Jerusalem, Obadiah said in judgement God would wipe out the house of Esau forever, and not even a remnant would remain. The Edomites land would be possessed by Egypt and they would cease to exist as a people, but the Day of the Lord was at hand for all nations, and someday the children of Israel would return from their exile and possess the land of Edom. The date of composition is disputed and is difficult to due to the lack of personal information about Obadiah, his family. The date of composition must therefore be determined based on the prophecy itself, Edom is to be destroyed due to its lack of defense for its brother nation, Israel, when it was under attack. There are two major historical contexts within which the Edomites could have committed such an act, the earlier period would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet Elijah as reflected in 1 Kings 18, 1-16
Book of Obadiah
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Tanakh (Judaism)
Bible: Judges public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "article name needed". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
