1.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
2.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
3.
Digital media
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Digital media is any media that is encoded in a machine-readable format. Digital media can be created, viewed, distributed, modified and preserved on digital electronics devices, Digital media are frequently contrasted with print media, such as printed books, newspapers and magazines, and other traditional or analog media, such as pictures, film or audio tape. Combined with the Internet and personal computing, digital media has caused disruption in publishing, journalism, entertainment, education, commerce, Digital media has a significant, wide-ranging and complex impact on society and culture. Machine-readable media predates the Internet, modern computers and electronics, machine-readable codes and information were first conceptualized by Charles Babbage in the early 1800s. Babbage imagined that these codes would provide instructions for his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine, between 1822 and 1823, Ada Lovelace, a mathematician, wrote the first instructions for calculating numbers on Babbages engines. Lovelaces instructions are now believed to be the first computer program, there are in all extensions of human power, or additions to human knowledge, various collateral influences, besides the main and primary object attained. Other early machine-readable media include the instructions for player pianos and jacquard looms, though they used machine-readable media, Babbages engines, player pianos, jacquard looms and many other early calculating machines were themselves analog computers, with physical, mechanical parts. The first truly digital media came into existence with the rise of digital computers, Digital computers use binary code and Boolean logic to store and process information, allowing one machine in one configuration to perform many different tasks. The first modern, programmable, digital computers, the Manchester Mark 1, though different in many ways from modern computers, these machines had digital software controlling their logical operations. They were encoded in binary, a system of ones and zeroes that are combined to make hundreds of characters, the 1s and 0s of binary are the digits of digital media. Bush envisioned a system of devices that could be used to help scientists, doctors, historians and others, store, analyze and communicate information. Calling this then-imaginary device a memex, Bush wrote, The owner of the memex, let us say, is interested in the origin, specifically he is studying why the short Turkish bow was apparently superior to the English long bow in the skirmishes of the Crusades. He has dozens of possibly pertinent books and articles in his memex, first he runs through an encyclopedia, finds an interesting but sketchy article, leaves it projected. Next, in a history, he finds another pertinent item, thus he goes, building a trail of many items. Occasionally he inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the trail or joining it by a side trail to a particular item. He inserts a page of longhand analysis of his own, thus he builds a trail of his interest through the maze of materials available to him. Bush hoped that the creation of this memex would be the work of scientists after World War II and it was recognized as a significant work even at the time of its publication. In the years since the invention of the first digital computers, computing power, personal computers and smartphones put the ability to access, modify, store and share digital media in the hands of billions of people
4.
E-book
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An electronic book is a book publication made available in digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other electronic devices. Although sometimes defined as a version of a printed book. Commercially produced and sold e-books are usually intended to be read on dedicated e-reader devices, however, almost any sophisticated computer device that features a controllable viewing screen can also be used to read e-books, including desktop computers, laptops, tablets and smartphones. In the 2000s, there was a trend of print and e-book sales moving to the Internet, where readers buy traditional paper books and e-books on websites using e-commerce systems. With e-books, users can browse through online, and then when they select and order titles. At the start of 2012 in the U. S. more e-books were published online than were distributed in hardcover, the main reasons that people are buying e-books online are due to possibly lower prices, increased comfort and a larger selection of titles. With e-books, lectronic bookmarks make referencing easier, and e-book readers may allow the user to annotate pages, although fiction and non-fiction books come in e-book formats, technical material is especially suited for e-book delivery because it can be searched for keywords. In addition, for programming books, code examples can be copied, E-book reading is increasing in the U. S. by 2014, 28% of adults had read an e-book, compared to 23% in 2013. This is increasing, because by 2014 50% of American adults had an e-reader or a tablet, E-books are also referred to as ebooks, eBooks, e-Books, e-journals, e-editions or as digital books. The devices that are designed specifically for reading e-books are called e-readers, the idea of an e-reader that would enable a reader to view books on a screen came to Bob Brown after watching his first talkie. In 1930, he wrote a book on this idea and titled it The Readies, although Brown came up with the idea intellectually in the 1930s, early commercial e-readers did not follow his model. Schuessler relates it to a DJ spinning bits of old songs to create a beat or a new song as opposed to just a remix of a familiar song. The inventor of the first e-book is not widely agreed upon and her idea behind the device was to decrease the number of books that her pupils carried to school. The first e-book may be the Index Thomisticus, a heavily annotated electronic index to the works of Thomas Aquinas, prepared by Roberto Busa beginning in 1949, although originally stored on a single computer, a distributable CD-ROM version appeared in 1989. In 2005, the Index was published online, augment ran on specialized hardware, while FRESS ran on IBM mainframes. All these systems also provided extensive hyperlinking, graphics, and other capabilities, van Dam is generally thought to have coined the term electronic book, and it was established enough to use in an article title by 1985. FRESS was used for reading extensive primary texts online, as well as for annotation and online discussions in several courses, browns faculty made extensive use of FRESS, for example the philosopher Roderick Chisholm used it to produce several of his books. Thus in the Preface to Person and Object he writes The book would not have been completed without the epoch-making File Retrieval, despite the extensive earlier history, several publications report Michael S. Hart as the inventor of the e-book
5.
Image scanner
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Commonly used in offices are variations of the desktop flatbed scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Mechanically driven scanners that move the document are typically used for large-format documents, a rotary scanner, used for high-speed document scanning, is a type of drum scanner that uses a CCD array instead of a photomultiplier. Non-contact planetary scanners essentially photograph delicate books and documents, all these scanners produce two-dimensional images of subjects that are usually flat, but sometimes solid, 3D scanners produce information on the three-dimensional structure of solid objects. Digital cameras can be used for the same purposes as dedicated scanners, when compared to a true scanner, a camera image is subject to a degree of distortion, reflections, shadows, low contrast, and blur due to camera shake. Resolution is sufficient for less demanding applications, Digital cameras offer advantages of speed, portability and non-contact digitizing of thick documents without damaging the book spine. As of 2010 scanning technologies were combining 3D scanners with digital cameras to create full-color, in the biomedical research area, detection devices for DNA microarrays are called scanners as well. These scanners are high-resolution systems, similar to microscopes, the detection is done via CCD or a photomultiplier tube. Modern scanners are considered the successors of early telephotography and fax input devices and it used electromagnets to drive and synchronize movement of pendulums at the source and the distant location, to scan and reproduce images. It could transmit handwriting, signatures, or drawings within an area of up to 150 x 100mm, Édouard Belins Belinograph of 1913, scanned using a photocell and transmitted over ordinary phone lines, formed the basis for the AT&T Wirephoto service. In Europe, services similar to a wirephoto were called a Belino and it was used by news agencies from the 1920s to the mid-1990s, and consisted of a rotating drum with a single photodetector at a standard speed of 60 or 120 rpm. They send a linear analog AM signal through standard telephone lines to receptors. Color photos were sent as three separated RGB filtered images consecutively, but only for special events due to transmission costs, Drum scanners capture image information with photomultiplier tubes, rather than the charge-coupled device arrays found in flatbed scanners and inexpensive film scanners. Modern color drum scanners use three matched PMTs, which red, blue, and green light, respectively. Light from the artwork is split into separate red, blue. Photomultipliers offer superior dynamic range and for this reason drum scanners can extract more detail from very dark areas of a transparency than flatbed scanners using CCD sensors. The smaller dynamic range of the CCD sensors, versus photomultiplier tubes, can lead to loss of shadow detail, while mechanics vary by manufacturer, most drum scanners pass light from halogen lamps though a focusing system to illuminate both reflective and transmissive originals. The drum scanner gets its name from the clear acrylic cylinder, depending on size, it is possible to mount originals up to 20x28, but maximum size varies by manufacturer. One of the features of drum scanners is the ability to control sample area
6.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
7.
ASCII
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ASCII, abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices, most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. ASCII was developed from telegraph code and its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6,1960, the first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting of lists, and added features for other than teleprinters. Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, for example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters,33 are non-printing control characters that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, of these, the IANA encourages use of the name US-ASCII for Internet uses of ASCII. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute and ultimately the American National Standards Institute, there was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting, the X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters, renaming some control characters and moving or removing others. ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3. 4-1967, then USAS X3. 4-1968, ANSI X3. 4-1977 and they proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems, like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols. This allows digital devices to communicate each other and to process, store. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters,10 numerical digits, ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a function, which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is reliable for data transmission. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code, the committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal
8.
Dots per inch
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Dots per inch is a measure of spatial printing or video dot density, in particular the number of individual dots that can be placed in a line within the span of 1 inch. Monitors do not have dots, but do have pixels, the related concept for monitors. Many resources, including the Android developer guide, use the terms DPI and PPI interchangeably, old CRT type video displays were almost universally rated in dot pitch, which refers to the spacing between the sub-pixel red, green and blue dots which made up the pixels themselves. Monitor manufacturers used the term dot trio pitch, the measurement of the distance between the centers of adjacent groups of three dots/rectangles/squares on the CRT screen. Monitors commonly used dot pitches of 0.39,0.33,0.32,0.29,0.27,0.25, LCD monitors have a trio of sub pixels, which are more easily measured. This is caused by the spreading of ink on the surface of the media, up to a point, printers with higher DPI produce clearer and more detailed output. A printer does not necessarily have a single DPI measurement, it is dependent on print mode, the range of DPI supported by a printer is most dependent on the print head technology it uses. A dot matrix printer, for example, applies ink via tiny rods striking an ink ribbon, an inkjet printer sprays ink through tiny nozzles, and is typically capable of 300–720 DPI. A laser printer applies toner through an electrostatic charge. The DP measurement of a printer often needs to be higher than the pixels per inch measurement of a video display in order to produce similar-quality output. This is due to the range of colors for each dot typically available on a printer. Higher-end inkjet printers can offer 5,6 or 7 ink colors giving 32,64 or 128 possible tones per dot location, contrast this to a standard sRGB monitor where each pixel produces 256 intensities of light in each of three channels. While some color printers can produce variable drop volumes at each dot position, and may use additional ink-color channels and this dithered printing process could require a region of four to six dots in order to faithfully reproduce the color in a single pixel. Fittingly,600 dpi is now the output resolution of entry-level laser printers and some utility inkjet printers, with 1200/1440. In printing, DPI refers to the resolution of a printer or imagesetter. DPI refers to the dot density of an image when it is reproduced as a real physical entity. A digitally stored image has no inherent physical dimensions, measured in inches or centimeters, some digital file formats record a DPI value, or more commonly a PPI value, which is to be used when printing the image. This number lets the printer or software know the size of the image, or in the case of scanned images
9.
Do-it-yourself
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Do it yourself is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things without the direct aid of experts or professionals. DIY behavior can be triggered by various motivations previously categorized as marketplace motivations, the term do-it-yourself has been associated with consumers since at least 1912 primarily in the domain of home improvement and maintenance activities. Subsequently, the term DIY has taken on a meaning that covers a wide range of skill sets. DIY is associated with the alternative rock, punk rock, and indie rock music scenes, indymedia networks, pirate radio stations. In this context, DIY is related to the Arts and Crafts movement, italian archaeologists unearthed the ruins of a 6th-century BC Greek structure in southern Italy that came with detailed assembly instructions and is being called an ancient IKEA building. Professor Christopher Smith, director of the British School at Rome and it looks as if someone was instructing others how to mass-produce components and put them together in this way. Much like the instruction booklets, various sections of the building were inscribed with coded symbols showing how the pieces slotted together. The characteristics of these inscriptions indicate they date back to around the 6th century BC, the building was built by Greek artisans coming from the Spartan colony of Taranto in Apulia. The philosopher Alan Watts reflected a sentiment, In the 1970s, DIY spread through the North American population of college-. In part, this movement involved the renovation of affordable, rundown older homes, but it also related to various projects expressing the social and environmental vision of the 1960s and early 1970s. The first Catalog, and its successors, used a definition of the term tools. There were informational tools, such as books, professional journals, courses, classes, there were specialized, designed items, such as carpenters and masons tools, garden tools, welding equipment, chainsaws, fiberglass materials and so on, even early personal computers. The designer J. Baldwin acted as editor to include such items, the Catalogs publication both emerged from and spurred the great wave of experimentalism, convention-breaking, and do-it-yourself attitude of the late 1960s. Often copied, the Catalog appealed to a wide cross-section of people in North America and had a broad influence, for decades, magazines such as Popular Mechanics and Mechanix Illustrated offered a way for readers to keep current on useful practical skills and techniques. DIY home improvement books began to flourish in the 1970s, first created as collections of magazine articles, an early, extensive line of DIY how-to books was created by Sunset Books, based upon previously published articles from their magazine, Sunset, based in California. Time-Life, Better Homes and Gardens, and other publishers soon followed suit, in the mid-1990s, DIY home-improvement content began to find its way onto the World Wide Web. HouseNet was the earliest bulletin-board style site where users could share information, homeTips. com, established in early 1995, was among the first Web-based sites to deliver free extensive DIY home-improvement content created by expert authors. Since the late 1990s, DIY has exploded on the Web through thousands of sites, in the 1970s, when home video came along, DIY instructors quickly grasped its potential for demonstrating processes by audio-visual means
10.
Digital camera
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A digital camera or digicam is a camera that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a screen and printed. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs, Digital and movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, however, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound, some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The history of the camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts position, unfortunately, as with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcocks filmless camera in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975, earlier ones used a camera tube, later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were military and scientific, followed by medical. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers, by the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had a digital camera. The two major types of image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier, compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS sensor, overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. The resolution of a camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into that discrete signals. The brighter the image at a point on the sensor. Depending on the structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the cameras pixel count, in a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, final quality of an image depends on all optical transformations in the chain of producing the image
11.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
12.
Google Books
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Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Googles library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of publishers to digitize their archives. The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004, the Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004. But it has also criticized for potential copyright violations. As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them. Results from Google Books show up in both the universal Google Search as well as in the dedicated Google Books search website, if Google believes the book is still under copyright, a user sees snippets of text around the queried search terms. All instances of the terms in the book text appear with a yellow highlight. The four access levels used on Google Books are, Full view, Books in the domain are available for full view. In-print books acquired through the Partner Program are also available for full view if the publisher has given permission, usually, the publisher can set the percentage of the book available for preview. Users are restricted from copying, downloading or printing book previews, a watermark reading Copyrighted material appears at the bottom of pages. All books acquired through the Partner Program are available for preview and this could be because Google cannot identify the owner or the owner declined permission. If a search term appears many times in a book, Google displays no more than three snippets, thus preventing the user from viewing too much of the book. Also, Google does not display any snippets for certain reference books, such as dictionaries, Google maintains that no permission is required under copyright law to display the snippet view. No preview, Google also displays search results for books that have not been digitized, in effect, this is similar to an online library card catalog. Google also stated that it would not scan any in-copyright books between August and 1 November 2005, to provide the owners with the opportunity to decide which books to exclude from the Project. It can let Google scan the book under the Library Project and it can opt out of the Library Project, in which case Google will not scan the book. If the book has already been scanned, Google will reset its access level as No preview and this information is collated through automated methods, and sometimes data from third-party sources is used. This information provides an insight into the book, particularly useful when only a view is available
13.
Open Content Alliance
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The Open Content Alliance is a consortium of organizations contributing to a permanent, publicly accessible archive of digitized texts. Its creation was announced in October 2005 by Yahoo, the Internet Archive, the University of California, the University of Toronto and others. Scanning for the Open Content Alliance is administered by the Internet Archive, the OCA is, in part, a response to Google Book Search, which was announced in October 2004. OCAs approach to seeking permission from copyright holders differs significantly from that of Google Book Search, OCA digitizes copyrighted works only after asking and receiving permission from the copyright holder. By contrast, Google Book Search digitizes copyrighted works unless explicitly told not to do so, Microsoft had a special relationship with the Open Content Alliance until May 2008. Microsoft joined the Open Content Alliance in October 2005 as part of its Live Book Search project, however, in May 2008 Microsoft announced it would be ending the Live Book Search project and no longer funding the scanning of books through the Internet Archive. Between about 2006 and 2008 Microsoft sponsored the scanning of over 750,000 books,300,000 of which are now part of the Internet Archives on-line collections. Brewster Kahle, a founder of the Open Content Alliance, actively opposed the proposed Google Book Settlement until its defeat in March 2011
14.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
16.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
17.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
18.
Automatic document feeder
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Most copiers allow scanning on the flatbed or platen or through a document feeder. The vast majority of fax machines have an ADF, allowing the sending of multi-page faxes. Due to the ubiquity of ADF in fax machines, some fax machine owners use the fax machine as a scanner, document feeders are described by speed, in pages per minute or ppm, and capacity, usually in a range from 10 sheets to 200. There are two kinds of document feeders capable of two-sided scanning, an automatic document feeder or RADF scans one side of a page, then flips it. A duplexing automatic document feeder or DADF scans both sides in one pass, the advantage of the DADF is faster speed for two-sided originals. RADFs and DADFs are rated in images per minute, the number of sides they can scan each minute, this may depend upon the resolution being used
19.
Paper cutter
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A paper cutter is a tool often found in offices and classrooms, designed to cut a large set of paper at once with a straight edge. Paper cutters, similar to those of today, were patented in 1844 and 1852 by Guillaume Massiquot and they have been around since the late 1830s, when, in 1837, Thirault built a model with a fixed blade to a flat surface. Since the middle of the 19th century considerable improvements have made by Fomm and Krause of Germany, Furnival in England. Paper cutters vary in size, usually from about 30 centimetres in length on each side for work to 841 millimetres in design workshops. The surface will usually have a grid either painted or inscribed on it, often in half-inch increments, at the very least, it must have a flat edge against which the user may line up the paper at right-angles before passing it under the blade. It is usually heavy, so that it will remain steady while in use. On the right-hand edge is a long, curved blade, often referred to as a knife. Larger versions have a compression coil spring as part of the attachment mechanism that pulls the knife against the stationary edge as the knife is drawn down to cut the paper. The other end of the unit is a handle. The stationary right edge of the base is also steel, with an exposed, when the knife is pulled down to cut paper, the action resembles that of a pair of scissors, only instead of two knives moving against each other, one is stationary. The combination of a blade mounted to a base produces clean and straight cuts. Paper cutters are used for cutting thin sheet metal, cardboard. The blade on a cutter is made of steel which makes it almost impossible to break. A variant design uses a blade mounted on a sliding shuttle attached to a rail. This type of paper cutter is known as a paper cutter. Advantages of this design include being able to make cuts, perforations or just score the paper without cutting. It is also almost impossible for the user to cut him/herself and this makes it safer for home use. Higher-end versions of rotary paper cutters are used for paper cutting and are popular for cutting down photographs
20.
Vise
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A vise or vice is a mechanical apparatus used to secure an object to allow work to be performed on it. Vises have two jaws, one fixed and the other movable, threaded in and out by a screw. Woodworking vises are attached to a workbench, typically flush with its work surface and their jaws are made of wood or metal, the latter usually faced with wood, called cheeks, to avoid marring the work. The movable jaw may include a dog to hold work against a bench dog. Quick-release vises employ a split nut that allows the screw to engage or disengage with a half-turn of the handle, when disengaged the movable jaw may be moved in or out throughout its entire range of motion, vastly speeding up the process of adjustment. Common thread types are Acme and buttress, traditional workbench vises are commonly either face vises, attached to the front of the workbench, near the left end or end vises, attached to or forming part of the right end of the bench. An engineers vise, also known as a metalworking vise or machinists vise, is used to clamp metal instead of wood and it is used to hold metal when filing or cutting. It is sometimes made of cast steel or malleable cast iron, however, most heavy duty vises are 55,000 psi cast steel or 65,000 psi ductile iron. Some vises have a cast iron body but a steel channel bar, cast iron is popular because it is typically 30 ksi grey iron which is rigid, strong and inexpensive. The jaws are separate and replaceable, usually engraved with serrated or diamond teeth. Soft jaw covers made of aluminum, copper, wood or plastic may be used to protect delicate work, the jaw opening of an engineers vise is almost always the same size as the jaw width, if not bigger. An engineers vise is bolted onto the top surface of a workbench, the vise may include other features such as a small anvil on the back of its body. Most engineers vises have a swivel base, some engineers vises marketed as Homeowner Grade are not made of steel or cast iron, but of pot metal or a very low grade of iron, typically with a tensile strength of under 10 ksi. Most homeowners bench vises have an exposed screw, machine vises are mounted on drill presses, grinding machines and milling machines. Abrasive chop saws have a type of machine vise built into the saw. Some hobbyists use a machine vise as a bench vise because of the low cost, a vacuum vise is a hobbyists tool, commonly used to hold circuit boards, model airplanes and other small work. They are mounted with a cup and often have an articulated joint in the middle to allow the vise to pivot. Jewelers also use vacuum vises to hold jewelry, pipe vises are a plumbers tool, often used to hold pipes in place for threading and cutting
21.
Kaolinite
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Kaolinite /ˈkeɪəlᵻˌnaɪt/ is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O54. It is a silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra. Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as kaolin /ˈkeɪəlᵻn/ or china clay, the name kaolin is derived from Gaoling, a Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeastern Chinas Jiangxi Province. The name entered English in 1727 from the French version of the word, kaolin, kaolinite has a low shrink–swell capacity and a low cation-exchange capacity. It is a soft, earthy, usually white, mineral, in many parts of the world it is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow, or light orange colors, alternating layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, United States. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as dry powder, kaolinite group clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air at atmospheric pressure. Below 100 °C, exposure to dry air will slowly remove liquid water from the kaolin, the end-state for this transformation is referred to as leather dry. Between 100 °C and about 550 °C, any remaining water is expelled from kaolinite. The end state for this transformation is referred to as bone dry, throughout this temperature range, the expulsion of water is reversible, if the kaolin is exposed to liquid water, it will be reabsorbed and disintegrate into its fine particulate form. Subsequent transformations are not reversible, and represent permanent chemical changes, endothermic dehydration of kaolinite begins at 550–600 °C producing disordered metakaolin, but continuous hydroxyl loss is observed up to 900 °C. Al2Si2O54 → Al2Si2O7 +2 H2O, further heating to 925–950 °C converts metakaolin to an aluminium-silicon spinel which is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure,2 Al2Si2O7 → Si3Al4O12 + SiO2. Upon calcination above 1050 °C, the spinel phase nucleates and transforms to platelet mullite, finally, at 1400 °C the needle form of mullite appears, offering substantial increases in structural strength and heat resistance. This is a structural but not chemical transformation, see stoneware for more information on this form. Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the weathering of rocks in hot. Such climatically-related differences in mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in the geological past. In the Institut National pour lEtude Agronomique au Congo Belge classification system, in the US the main kaolin deposits are found in central Georgia, on a stretch of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line between Augusta and Macon. The deposits were formed between the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene, about 100 million to 45 million years ago, in sediments derived from weathered igneous, Kaolin production in the US during 2011 was 5.5 million tonnes
22.
Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
23.
Phil Zimmermann
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Philip R. Phil Zimmermann, Jr. is the creator of Pretty Good Privacy, the most widely used email encryption software in the world. He is also known for his work in VoIP encryption protocols, notably ZRTP, Zimmermann is co-founder and Chief Scientist of the global encrypted communications firm, Silent Circle. He was born in Camden, New Jersey and his father was a concrete mixer truck driver. Zimmermann received a B. S. degree in science from Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida in 1978. In the 1980s, Zimmermann worked in Boulder, Colorado as a engineer and was a part of the Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign as a military policy analyst. In 1991, he wrote the popular Pretty Good Privacy program, and made it available through public FTP for download, shortly thereafter, it became available overseas via the Internet, though Zimmermann has said he had no part in its distribution outside the United States. The very first version of PGP included an encryption algorithm, BassOmatic, the United States Government had long regarded cryptographic software as a munition, and thus subject to arms trafficking export controls. At that time, the boundary between what cryptography was permitted and impermissible for export from the United States was placed such that PGP fell on the side of the boundary. The boundary for legal export has since been raised and now allows PGP to be exported, the investigation lasted three years, but was finally dropped without filing charges. After the government dropped its case without indictment in early 1996, Zimmermann founded PGP Inc. and released a version of PGP. That company was acquired by Network Associates in December 1997, NAI decided to drop the product line and in 2002, PGP was acquired from NAI by a new company called PGP Corporation. Zimmermann served as an advisor and consultant to that firm until Symantec acquired PGP Corporation in 2010. Zimmermann is also a fellow at the Stanford Law Schools Center for Internet and he was a principal designer of the cryptographic key agreement protocol for the Wireless USB standard. Along with Mike Janke, in 2012 he created Silent Circle, in October 2013, Zimmermann, along with other key employees from Silent Circle, teamed up with Lavabit founder Ladar Levison to create the Dark Mail Alliance. The goal of the organization is to work on a new protocol to replace PGP that will encrypt metadata, Zimmermann has received numerous technical and humanitarian awards for his pioneering work in cryptography, In 2012, Zimmermann was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society. In 2008, PC World named Zimmermann one of the Top 50 Tech Visionaries of the last 50 years, in 2006, eWeek ranked PGP 9th in the 25 Most Influential and Innovative Products introduced since the invention of the PC in 1981. In 2003, Reason named him a Hero of Freedom In 2001, in 2000, InfoWorld named him one of the Top 10 Innovators in E-business. In 1999, he received the Louis Brandeis Award from Privacy International, in 1998, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award from Secure Computing Magazine
24.
First Amendment to the United States Constitution
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It was adopted on December 15,1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification, initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York, the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states—a process known as incorporation—through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation. The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, in Near v. Minnesota and New York Times v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, eight of the other thirteen states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered mere admonitions to state legislatures, after a brief debate, Masons proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations. For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions, opposition to ratification was partly based on the Constitutions lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states and this language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendments intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25,1789, and adopted on December 15,1791. In Reynolds v. United States the Supreme Court used these words to declare that it may be accepted almost as a declaration of the scope. Congress was deprived of all power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. In these two sentences is found the distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State. Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregationalist until the 1830s. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, in the words of Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and State. That wall must be high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach, in Torcaso v. Watkins, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office
25.
Pretty Good Privacy
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Pretty Good Privacy encryption program provides cryptographic privacy and authentication for data communication. PGP is used for signing, encrypting, and decrypting texts, e-mails, files, directories, phil Zimmermann developed PGP in 1991. PGP and similar software follow the OpenPGP standard for encrypting and decrypting data, PGP encryption uses a serial combination of hashing, data compression, symmetric-key cryptography, and finally public-key cryptography, each step uses one of several supported algorithms. Each public key is bound to a user name and/or an e-mail address, current versions of PGP encryption include both options through an automated key management server. As PGP evolves, versions that support features and algorithms are able to create encrypted messages that older PGP systems cannot decrypt. Therefore, it is essential that partners in PGP communication understand each others capabilities or at least agree on PGP settings, PGP can be used to send messages confidentially. For this, PGP combines symmetric-key encryption and public-key encryption, the message is encrypted using a symmetric encryption algorithm, which requires a symmetric key. Each symmetric key is used once and is also called a session key. The message and its key are sent to the receiver. The session key must be sent to the receiver so they know how to decrypt the message, only the private key belonging to the receiver can decrypt the session key. PGP supports message authentication and integrity checking, the latter is used to detect whether a message has been altered since it was completed and the former to determine whether it was actually sent by the person or entity claimed to be the sender. Because the content is encrypted, any changes in the message will result in failure of the decryption with the appropriate key, the sender uses PGP to create a digital signature for the message with either the RSA or DSA algorithms. To do so, PGP computes a hash from the plaintext, both when encrypting messages and when verifying signatures, it is critical that the public key used to send messages to someone or some entity actually does belong to the intended recipient. Simply downloading a public key from somewhere is not an assurance of that association. However, merely making a certificate which is impossible to modify without being detected is insufficient, users must also ensure by some means that the public key in a certificate actually does belong to the person or entity claiming it. From its first release, PGP products have included an internal certificate vetting scheme to assist with this, a given public key may be digitally signed by a third party user to attest to the association between someone and the key. There are several levels of confidence which can be included in such signatures, although many programs read and write this information, few include this level of certification when calculating whether to trust a key. Users have been willing to accept certificates and check their validity manually or to accept them
26.
Export of cryptography from the United States
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The export of cryptographic technology and devices from the United States was severely restricted by U. S. law until 1992, but was gradually eased until 2000, some restrictions still remain. Munitions List as an Auxiliary Military Equipment, due to the enormous impact of cryptanalysis in World War II, these governments saw the military value in denying current and potential enemies access to cryptographic systems. Since the U. S. and U. K. believed they had better cryptographic capabilities than others and they also wished to monitor the diplomatic communications of other nations, including those emerging in the post-colonial period and whose position on Cold War issues was vital. This policy was adopted elsewhere for various reasons. S. NSA officials anticipated that the American encryption software backed by an extensive infrastructure, in 1997, Louis Freeh, then the Director of the FBI, said For law enforcement, framing the issue is simple. In this time of dazzling telecommunications and computer technology where information can have extraordinary value, No one in law enforcement disputes that. Clearly, in world and more so in the future. As is so often the case, however, there is another aspect to the issue that if left unaddressed will have severe public safety. Law enforcement is in agreement that the widespread use of robust non-key recovery encryption ultimately will devastate our ability to fight crime. Uncrackable encryption will allow drug lords, spies, terrorists and even violent gangs to communicate about their crimes and we will lose one of the few remaining vulnerabilities of the worst criminals and terrorists upon which law enforcement depends to successfully investigate and often prevent the worst crimes. For this reason, the law enforcement community is unanimous in calling for a solution to this problem. All export of technology classed as critical required a license, CoCom was organized to coordinate Western export controls. Two types of technology were protected, technology associated only with weapons of war and dual use technology, in the U. S. dual use technology export was controlled by the Department of Commerce, while munitions were controlled by the State Department. Since in the immediate post WWII period the market for cryptography was almost entirely military, the multinational control of the export of cryptography on the Western side of the cold war divide was done via the mechanisms of CoCom. By the 1960s, however, financial organizations were beginning to require strong commercial encryption on the growing field of wired money transfer. Governments introduction of the Data Encryption Standard in 1975 meant that commercial uses of high quality encryption would become common, generally these were dealt with through case-by-case export license request proceedings brought by computer manufacturers, such as IBM, and by their large corporate customers. Encryption export controls became a matter of concern with the introduction of the personal computer. Phil Zimmermanns PGP cryptosystem and its distribution on the Internet in 1991 was the first major individual level challenge to controls on export of cryptography, the growth of electronic commerce in the 1990s created additional pressure for reduced restrictions
27.
Ultrasonic transducer
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Ultrasonic transducers are divided into three broad categories, transmitters, receivers and transceivers. Transmitters convert electrical signals into ultrasound, receivers convert ultrasound into electrical signals, in a similar way to radar and sonar, ultrasonic transducers are used in systems which evaluate targets by interpreting the reflected signals. For example, by measuring the time between sending a signal and receiving an echo the distance of an object can be calculated, passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present under certain conditions. Ultrasonic probes and ultrasonic baths apply ultrasonic energy to agitate particles in a range of materials. Ultrasound can be used for measuring wind speed and direction, tank or channel fluid level, for measuring speed or direction, a device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the relative distances to particulates in the air or water. To measure tank or channel level, the measures the distance to the surface of the fluid. Further applications include, humidifiers, sonar, medical ultrasonography, burglar alarms, non-destructive testing, the technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the density or consistency of the material. Foam, in particular, can distort surface level readings and this technology, as well, can detect approaching objects and track their positions. Ultrasonic transducers convert AC into ultrasound, as well as the reverse, ultrasonics, typically refers to piezoelectric transducers or capacitive transducers. Piezoelectric crystals change size and shape when a voltage is applied, AC voltage makes them oscillate at the same frequency, capacitive transducers use electrostatic fields between a conductive diaphragm and a backing plate. The beam pattern of a transducer can be determined by the active area and shape, the ultrasound wavelength. The diagrams show the fields of an unfocused and a focusing ultrasonic transducer in water. Since piezoelectric materials generate a voltage when force is applied to them, some systems use separate transmitters and receivers, while others combine both functions into a single piezoelectric transceiver. Ultrasound transmitters can also use non-piezoelectric principles, materials with this property change size slightly when exposed to a magnetic field, and make practical transducers. A capacitor microphone has a diaphragm that responds to ultrasound waves. Changes in the field between the diaphragm and a closely spaced backing plate convert sound signals to electric currents, which can be amplified. The diaphragm principle is used in the relatively new micro-machined ultrasonic transducers. These devices are fabricated using silicon micro-machining technology, which is useful for the fabrication of transducer arrays
28.
Photoelectric sensor
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A photoelectric sensor, or photo eye, is an equipment used to discover the distance, absence, or presence of an object by using a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric receiver. They are largely used in industrial manufacturing, there are three different useful types, opposed, retro-reflective, and proximity-sensing. A self-contained photoelectric sensor contains the optics, along with the electronics and it requires only a power source. The sensor performs its own modulation, demodulation, amplification, some self-contained sensors provide such options as built-in control timers or counters. Because of technological progress, self-contained photoelectric sensors have become increasingly smaller, remote photoelectric sensors used for remote sensing contain only the optical components of a sensor. The circuitry for power input, amplification, and output switching are located elsewhere and this allows the sensor, itself, to be very small. Also, the controls for the sensor are more accessible, since they may be bigger, when space is restricted or the environment too hostile even for remote sensors, fiber optics may be used. Fiber optics are passive mechanical sensing components and they may be used with either remote or self-contained sensors. They have no electrical circuitry and no moving parts, and can safely pipe light into, a through beam arrangement consists of a receiver located within the line-of-sight of the transmitter. In this mode, an object is detected when the beam is blocked from getting to the receiver from the transmitter. A retroreflective arrangement places the transmitter and receiver at the same location, an object is sensed when the beam is interrupted and fails to reach the receiver. A proximity-sensing arrangement is one in which the radiation must reflect off the object in order to reach the receiver. In this mode, an object is detected when the sees the transmitted source rather than when it fails to see it. As in retro-reflective sensors, diffuse sensor emitters and receivers are located in the same housing, but the target acts as the reflector, so that detection of light is reflected off the disturbance object. The emitter sends out a beam of light that diffuses in all directions, the target then enters the area and deflects part of the beam back to the receiver. Detection occurs and output is turned on or off when sufficient light falls on the receiver, some photo eyes have two different operational types, light operate and dark operate. Light operate photo eyes become operational when the receiver receives the transmitter signal, dark operate photo eyes become operational when the receiver does not receive the transmitter signal. The detecting range of a sensor is its field of view, or the maximum distance from which the sensor can retrieve information
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Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
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Printer (computing)
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In computing, a printer is a peripheral which makes a persistent human-readable representation of graphics or text on paper or similar physical media. The worlds first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his difference engine, the plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints. Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, by 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed, expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap. The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as laser printer in terms of flexibility, inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market. By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the price point. Even the desire for printed output for offline reading while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers, today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral. Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest and these devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace. Personal printers are designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer. These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a copy of a given document. However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute, however, this is offset by the on-demand convenience. Some printers can print documents stored on cards or from digital cameras. Networked or shared printers are designed for high-volume, high-speed printing and they are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm. The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm, a virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer. It is called a printer by analogy with a printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper. The choice of print technology has an effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents. Some printer technologies dont work with certain types of physical media, cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected. The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink, banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly. The following printing technologies are found in modern printers, A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text
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Author
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An author is narrowly defined as the originator of any written work and can thus also be described as a writer. More broadly defined, an author is the person who originated or gave existence to anything, in the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States to authors of works of authorship. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, however, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time its created, an interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another upon ones death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the issue of fan fiction. If the media responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music. Additionally, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books, what powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction. In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting, in the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author and he writes, in his essay Death of the Author, that it is language which speaks, not the author. The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, with this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak. Michel Foucault argues in his essay What is an author and that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that a letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author. For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to certain standards upon the text which. Foucaults author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a work, a part of its structure
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Bookbinding
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Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive, for protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, a cover is adhered to the boards and a label with identifying information is attached to the covers along with additional decoration. Bookbinding is a trade that relies on basic operations of measuring, cutting. A finished book depends on a minimum of two dozen operations to complete but sometimes more than double that according to the specific style. All operations have an order and each one relies on accurate completion of the previous step with little room for back tracking. An extremely durable binding can be achieved by using the best hand techniques, Bookbinding combines skills from other trades such as paper and fabric crafts, leather work, model making, and graphic arts. It requires knowledge about numerous varieties of book structures along with all the internal and external details of assembly, a working knowledge of the materials involved is required. Bookbinding is a craft of great antiquity, and at the same time. The division between craft and industry is not so wide as might at first be imagined and it is interesting to observe that the main problems faced by the mass-production bookbinder are the same as those that confronted the medieval craftsman or the modern hand binder. Before the computer age, the bookbinding trade involved two divisions, second was Letterpress binding which deals with making new books intended to be read from and includes fine binding, library binding, edition binding, and publishers bindings. A result of the new bindings is a third division dealing with the repair, restoration, with the digital age, personal computers have replaced the pen and paper based accounting that used to drive most of the work in the stationery binding industry. There is a grey area between the two divisions. There are cases where the printing and binding jobs are combined in one shop, a step up to the next level of mechanization is determined by economics of scale until you reach production runs of ten thousand copies or more in a factory employing a dozen or more workers. The craft of bookbinding probably originated in India, where religious sutras were copied on to palm leaves with a metal stylus, the leaf was then dried and rubbed with ink, which would form a stain in the wound. The finished leaves were given numbers, and two long twines were threaded through each end through wooden boards, making a palm-leaf book, when the book was closed, the excess twine would be wrapped around the boards to protect the manuscript leaves. Buddhist monks took the idea through Afghanistan to China in the first century BC, similar techniques can also be found in ancient Egypt where priestly texts were compiled on scrolls and books of papyrus. Another version of bookmaking can be seen through the ancient Mayan codex, writers in the Hellenistic-Roman culture wrote longer texts as scrolls, these were stored in boxes or shelving with small cubbyholes, similar to a modern winerack
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Book cover
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A book cover is any protective covering used to bind together the pages of a book. This article is concerned with modern mechanically produced covers, before the early nineteenth century, books were hand-bound, in the case of luxury medieval manuscripts using materials such as gold, silver and jewels. For hundreds of years, book bindings had functioned as a device for the expensively printed or hand-made pages. In the 1820s great changes began to occur in how a book might be covered, not only were the new types of book-covers cheaper to produce, they were also printable, using multi-colour lithography, and later, half-tone illustration processes. Techniques borrowed from the nineteenth-century poster-artists gradually infiltrated the book industry, the book cover became more than just a protection for the pages, taking on the function of advertising, and communicating information about the text inside. Some of the first radically modern cover designs were produced in the Soviet Union during the 1920s by avant-gardists such as Alexander Rodchenko, another highly influential early book cover designer was Aubrey Beardsley, thanks to his striking covers for the first four volumes of The Yellow Book. In the post-war era, book covers have become important as the book industry has become commercially competitive. Covers now give detailed hints about the style, genre and subject of the book and this can differ from country to country because of other tastes of the markets. So translated books can also have different book-accessories such as belonging to childrens books. The era of internet sales has not diminished the importance of the book cover, as it now continues its role in a two-dimensional digital form, helping to identify. The Book Cover Archive *Decorated Publishers Bindings-Grand Valley State University Archives, on the topic of cover art
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Dust jacket
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The dust jacket of a book is the detachable outer cover, usually made of paper and printed with text and illustrations. This outer cover has folded flaps that hold it to the front, in addition to its promotional role, the dust jacket protects the book covers from damage. At this date, publishers did not have their books bound in uniform house bindings, at the end of the 18th century publishers began to issue books in plain paper-covered boards, sometimes with a printed spine-label, this form of binding was intended to be temporary. Some collections of prints were issued at this period in printed paper wrappings. These small boxes are sometimes loosely and erroneously referred to as the first dust jackets. True publishers bindings in cloth and leather, in all, or a substantial part of. After publishers cloth bindings started coming into use on all types of books in the 1820s. The earliest known examples were issued on English literary annuals which were popular from the 1820s to the 1850s and these books often had fancy bindings that needed protection. The jackets that were used at this time completely enclosed the books like wrapping paper and were sealed shut with wax or glue, the oldest publishers dust jacket now on record was issued in 1829 on an English annual, Friendships Offering for 1830. It was discovered at the Bodleian Library in Oxford by Michael Turner and its existence was announced by Oxford in 2009. It is three years older than the previous oldest known jacket, which was discovered in 1934 by the English bookman John Carter on another English annual, both jackets are of the type that completely enclosed the books. This is the jacket that became standard in the industry and is still in use today. There are, however, enough surviving examples from the 1890s to state unequivocally that dust jackets were all and they were probably issued more often than not by the 1860s and 1870s in Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. Throughout the nineteenth century, nearly all dust jackets were discarded at or soon after purchase. Many were probably discarded in bookstores as the books were put out for display, or when they were sold, even late in the nineteenth century there were still some publishers who were not using dust jackets at all. Some firms, such as subscription houses which sold millions of cheap books door-to-door, cloth dust jackets became popular late in the nineteenth century. These jackets, with the outer cloth usually reinforced with an underlayer of paper, were issued mostly on ornate gift editions, other types of publishers boxes were also popular in the second half of the nineteenth century, including many made to hold multi-volume sets of books. The jackets on boxed volumes were often plain, sometimes with cutouts on the spine to allow the title or volume numbers of the books to be seen
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Book design
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Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various components and elements of a book into a coherent whole. In the words of Swiss typographer Jan Tschichold, book design, though largely forgotten today, methods, to produce perfect books, these rules have to be brought back to life and applied. Richard Hendel describes book design as a subject, and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means. Front matter, or preliminaries, is the first section of a book, the pages are numbered in lower-case Roman numerals. Each page is counted, but no folio or page number is expressed, or printed, front matter generally only appears in the first volume in a multi-volume work, although some elements may appear in each volume. The following table will help distinguish some of the different types of front matter, The structure of a work is often described hierarchically. Volumes A volume is a set of leaves that are bound together, thus each work is either a volume, or is divided into volumes. Books and parts A single volume may embody either a part of a book or the whole of a book, in works, parts include multiple books. Chapters and sections A chapter or section may be contained within a part and/or a book, when both chapters and sections are used in the same work, the sections are more often contained within chapters than the reverse. Modules and units In some books the chapters are grouped into bigger parts, the numbering of the chapters can begin again at the start of every module. In educational books, especially, the chapters are often called units, the first page of the actual text of a book is the opening page, which often incorporates special design features, such as initials. The following are two examples, The Lord of the Rings has three parts, with each part containing two books, each containing, in turn, multiple chapters. The front cover contains at least the title and/or author. On the inside of the page, extending to the facing page is the front endpaper sometimes referred as FEP. The free half of the end paper is called a flyleaf, traditionally, in hand-bound books, the endpaper was just a sheet of blank or ornamented paper physically masking and reinforcing the connection between the cover and the body of the book. These books have an audience and traditions of their own where the design and immediacy is especially important and publishing tradition. The spine is the edge of a book as it normally stands on a bookshelf. It is customary for it to have printed text on it, in books from continental Europe, vertical spine text traditionally runs from the bottom up, though this convention has been changing lately
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Editing
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Editing is the process of selecting and preparing written, visual, audible, and film media used to convey information. The editing process can involve correction, condensation, organization, and many other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and complete work. The editing process begins with the authors idea for the work itself. As such, editing can involve creative skills, human relations, there are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to the editorial staff. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product for its final release, the smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The top editor at many publications may be known as the chief editor, a frequent and highly regarded contributor to a magazine may acquire the title of editor-at-large or contributing editor. Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help to manage sections, such as business, sports, in U. S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor. Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an editor or a commissioning editor in a publishing house. Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibilities of a sponsoring editor, copy editors correct spelling, grammar and align writings to house style. Changes to the industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors. At newspapers and wire services, copy editors write headlines and work on substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion, at U. K. and Australian newspapers, the term is sub-editor. They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer and these editors may have the title of layout or design editor or makeup editor. However, another editor is sometimes involved in the creation of research articles. Called the authors editor, this works with authors to get a manuscript fit for purpose before it is submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. K, technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. Large companies dedicate experienced writers to the editing function
