1.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
2.
Kalmar
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Kalmar is a city in the southeast of Sweden, situated by the Baltic Sea. It had 36,392 inhabitants in 2010 and is the seat of Kalmar Municipality and it is also the capital of Kalmar County, which comprises 12 municipalities with a total of 236,399 inhabitants. From the thirteenth to the centuries, Kalmar was one of Swedens most important cities. Between 1602 and 1913 it was the see of Kalmar Diocese, with a bishop. It became a city, with the Kalmar Castle as the center. After the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, Kalmars importance diminished, the city is home to parts of Linnaeus University. Kalmar is adjacent to the route to the island of Öland over the Öland Bridge. The area around Kalmar has been inhabited since ancient times, excavations have found traces of stone age gravefields. The oldest evidence for there being a town are however from the 11th century, according to a medieval folk tale, the Norwegian king Saint Olav had his ships moved to Kalmar. The oldest city seal of Kalmar is from somewhere between 1255 and 1267, making it the oldest known city seal in Scandinavia, in the 12th century the first foundations of a castle were established, with the construction of a round tower for guard and lookout. Kalmars strategic location, near the Danish border, and its harbour and trade, also involved it in several feuds. In the 1540s, first King Gustav Vasa, and later his sons Erik XIV of Sweden, Kalmar became a diocese in 1603, a position it held until 1915. In 1634, Kalmar County was founded, with Kalmar as the natural capital, in 1660, the Kalmar Cathedral was begun by drawings of Nicodemus Tessin the Elder. It would be inaugurated in 1703, in 1611–1613, it suffered in the Kalmar War, which began with a Danish siege of Kalmar Castle. 1611 is mentioned as the darkest year of Kalmars history, but by no means the only dark year, the last was during the Scanian War in the 1670s, so there have been 22 sieges altogether, however the castle was never taken. After the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the importance of Kalmar gradually diminished as the borders were redrawn further south. In 1689, the King established his main naval base further south in Karlskrona, the new city of Kalmar built on Kvarnholmen around the mid-1600s. The transfer from the old town was largely completed 1658th The new, according to this pattern were placed church and town hall across from each other at a major square Stortorget Kalmar
3.
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
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He led Sweden to military supremacy during the Thirty Years War, helping to determine the political as well as the religious balance of power in Europe. He was formally and posthumously given the name Gustavus Adolphus the Great by the Riksdag of the Estates in 1634 and he is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time, with innovative use of combined arms. His most notable victory was the Battle of Breitenfeld. He was ably assisted in his efforts by Count Axel Oxenstierna, the Lord High Chancellor of Sweden, within only a few years of his accession, Sweden had become the largest nation in Europe after Russia, Spain and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Some have called him the father of modern warfare, or the first great modern general and he was known by the epithets The Golden King and The Lion of the North by neighboring sovereigns. He made Sweden one of the powers of Europe in part by reforming the administrative structure. For example, he began Parish registration of the population, so that the government could more efficiently tax. Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm as the oldest son of Duke Charles of the Vasa dynasty and his second wife, at the time, the King of Sweden was Gustavus Adolphus cousin Sigismund. Crown Prince Gustav Adolph had Gagnef-Floda in Dalecarlia as a duchy from 1610, upon his fathers death in October 1611, a sixteen-year-old Gustavus inherited the throne, as well as an ongoing succession of occasionally belligerent dynastic disputes with his Polish cousin. Sigismund III wanted to regain the throne of Sweden and tried to force Gustavus Adolphus to renounce the title, in a round of this dynastic dispute, Gustavus invaded Livonia when he was 31, beginning the Polish-Swedish War. He intervened on behalf of the Lutherans in Germany, who opened the gates to their cities to him and his reign became famous from his actions a few years later when in June 1630 he landed in Germany, marking the Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years War. Gustavus intervened on the side, which at the time was losing to the Holy Roman Empire and its Catholic allies. Gustavus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg and he died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His early death was a loss to the Lutheran side. This resulted in parts of Germany and other countries, which had been conquered for Lutheranism. His involvement in the Thirty Years War gave rise to the saying that he was the incarnation of the Lion of the North, scholars all agree that Gustavus Adolphus was an extremely able military commander. His innovative tactical integration of infantry, cavalry, logistics and particularly his use of artillery, future commanders who studied and admired Gustav II Adolf include Napoleon I of France and Carl von Clausewitz. His advancements in military science made Sweden the dominant Baltic power for the one hundred years
4.
Peddler
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A peddler, in British English pedlar, also known as a canvasser, chapman, cheapjack, hawker, higler, huckster, monger, or solicitor, is a traveling vendor of goods. In England, the term was used for travellers hawking goods in the countryside to small towns and villages. In London more specific terms were used, such as costermonger, Peddlers have a long and colourful history. From antiquity, peddlers filled the gaps in the market economy by providing consumers with the convenience of door-to-door service. They operated alongside town markets and fairs where they often purchased surplus stocks which were resold to consumers. Thus, peddlers played an important role in linking these consumers, some peddlers worked as agents or travelling salesmen for larger manufacturers, thus were the precursor to the modern travelling salesman. In Europe, suspicions of dishonest or petty criminal activity was associated with peddlers and travellers. From the 16th century, peddlers were often associated with negative connotations - attitudes which persisted well into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The origin of the word, known in English since 1225, is unknown, historically, peddlers travelled on foot, carrying their wares, or by means of a person- or animal-drawn cart or wagon. Peddlers were known by a variety of names throughout the ages, including Arabber, hawker), costermonger, chapman, huckster, typically, peddlers operated door-to-door, plied the streets or stationed themselves at the fringes of formal trade venues such as open air markets or fairs. Peddlers sometimes doubled as performers, healers, or fortune-tellers, as market towns flourished in medieval Europe, peddlers found a role operating on the fringes of the formal economy. They called directly on homes, delivering produce to the door thereby saving customers time travelling to markets or fairs, however, customers paied a higher price for this convenience. Some peddlers operated out of inns or taverns, where they acted as an agent rather than a reseller. Peddlers played an important role providing services to geographically isolated districts, such as in the regions of Europe, thereby linking these districs with wider trading routes. ”By the eighteenth century, some peddlers worked for industrial producers. In England, these peddlers were known as “Manchester men. ”Employed by a factory or entrepreneur and they were the precursors to the modern sales representative. In the United States, the era of the traveling peddler probably peaked in the decades just before the American Civil War, the large advances in industrial mass production and freight transportation as a result of the war laid the groundwork for the beginnings of modern retail and distribution networks. Further, the rise of mail order catalogues offered another way for people in rural or other remote areas to obtain items not readily available in local stores. In the United States, the travelling salesman became a character in countless jokes
5.
Swedish Police Authority
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The Swedish Police Authority is the central administrative authority for the police in Sweden, responsible for law enforcement, general social order and public safety within the country. The agency is headed by the National Police Commissioner, who is appointed by the Government and has the responsibility for all activities of the police. Although formally organised under the Ministry of Justice, the Swedish police is—similar to other authorities in Sweden—essentially autonomous, the standard equipment includes a handgun, pepper spray and an expandable baton. Concurrent with this change, the Swedish Security Service formed its own agency, the new authority was created to address shortcomings in the division of duties and responsibilities, and to make it easier for the Government to demand greater accountability. The agency is organized into seven regions and eight national departments. It is one of the largest government agencies in Sweden, with more than 28,500 employees and it takes two and a half years to become a police officer in Sweden, including six months of paid workplace practice. Approximately a third of all students are women, and in 2011 women accounted for 40 percent of all employees. The first modern police force in Sweden was established in the mid-1800s, prior to that, police work werent carried out by a law enforcement agency in the modern sense. In rural areas, the kings bailiff were responsible for law, in the cities, local government were made responsible for law and order, by way of a royal decree issued by Magnus III in the 13th century. The cities financed and organized various watchmen, who patrolled the streets, in the late 1500s in Stockholm the paroling duties were in large part taken over by a special corps of salaried city guards. The city guard was organized, uniformed and armed like a military unit, responsible for interventions against various crimes and these guards were assisted by the military, fire patrolmen, and a civilian unit that didnt wear a uniform, but instead wore a small badge around their neck. The civilian unit monitored compliance with city ordinances relating to—for example—sanitation issues, traffic, in 1776, Gustav III ushered in a fundamental change in how police work was organized in Stockholm, modelled after how law enforcement was organized in Paris at the time. The reform was considered a success, as it made the streets safer, however, the system of fire patrolmen and the city guard was still kept intact and administered separately. In the mid-1800s, during a time of social unrest. In 1848, the March Unrest, broke out on the streets of Stockholm, large crowds vandalized the city, shouting slogans of reform and calling for the abolition of monarchy. King Oscar I responded with force, killing thirty. Simultaneously in the areas, local county administrators was in charge of law and order. The office was a mixture of police chief, tax official and lower-level prosecutor, increasingly, their time was spent on tax matters, instead of doing actual police work
6.
Sheep shearing
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Sheep shearing is the process by which the woollen fleece of a sheep is cut off. The person who removes the wool is called a shearer. Typically each adult sheep is shorn once each year, the annual shearing most often occurs in a shearing shed, a facility especially designed to process often hundreds and sometimes more than 3,000 sheep per day. Sheep are shorn in all seasons, depending on the climate, management requirements, ewes are normally shorn prior to lambing, but consideration is typically made as to the welfare of the lambs by not shearing during cold climate winters. Shorn sheep tolerate frosts well, but young sheep especially will suffer in cold, in this event they are shedded for several nights until the weather clears. Some sheep may also be shorn with stud combs which leave more wool on the animal, Sheep shearing is also considered a sport with competitions held around the world. The wealth of ancient Knossos, Europes oldest city, derived from its wool industry. The largest group of Linear B tablets is the great archive principally of shearing records though also of sheep breeding, the medieval English wool trade was one of the most important factors in the English economy. The main sheep-shearing was an annual event in medieval England culminating in the sheep-shearing feast. It had always been conventional practice to wash sheep, Australias fine wools In Australia, up until the 1870s, squatters washed their sheep in nearby creeks prior to shearing. Later some expensive hot water installations were constructed on some of the stations for the washing. Australian growers were influenced by the Spanish practice of washing their very fine wool after shearing, Wool in Australia was carted by bullock team or horse teams and charged by weight. Washed wool was lighter and did not cost as much to transport, the practice of washing the wool rather than the sheep evolved from the fact that hotter water could be used to wash the wool, than that used to wash the sheep. When the practice of selling wool in the grease occurred in the 1890s, Australia and New Zealand had to discard the old methods of wool harvesting and evolve more efficient systems to cope with the huge numbers of sheep involved. Shearing was revolutionized by the invention of an Australian sheepgrower, Frederick York Wolseley and his machines made in Birmingham England by his business The Wolseley Sheep Shearing Machine Company were introduced after 1888, reducing second cuts and shearing time. By 1915 most large sheep station sheds in Australia had installed machines, Shearing tables were invented in the 1950s and have not proved popular, although some are still used for crutching. In the US, the shortage of shearers is becoming a consideration for those wanting to expand wool production. With sheep numbers declining in that country the profession sees significantly less interest in becoming a qualified shearer, importing labour during the Australian off-season has also become problematic because of delays in obtaining work visa and because shearers numbers are limited worldwide
7.
Ericsson
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Ericsson is a multinational networking and telecommunications equipment and services company headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. Ericsson had 35% market share in the 2G/3G/4G mobile network infrastructure market in 2012, the company was founded in 1876 by Lars Magnus Ericsson, as of 2016 it is headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. The company employs around 113,000 people and operates in around 180 countries, Ericsson holds over 39,000 granted patents as of May 2015, including many in wireless communications. Lars Magnus Ericsson began his association with telephones in his youth as an instrument maker and he worked for a firm that made telegraph equipment for the Swedish government agency Telegrafverket. In 1876, at the age of 30, he started a repair shop with help from his friend Carl Johan Andersson in central Stockholm. In 1878 Ericsson began making and selling his own telephone equipment and his telephones were not technically innovative. In 1878 he made an agreement to supply telephones and switchboards to Swedens first telecommunications operating company, also in 1878, local telephone importer Numa Peterson hired Ericsson to adjust some telephones from the Bell Telephone Company. He bought a number of Siemens telephones and analyzed the technology and he was familiar with Bell and Siemens Halske telephones through his firms repair work for Telegrafverket and Swedish Railways. He improved these designs to produce a higher-quality instrument to be used by new companies such as Rikstelefon to provide cheaper service than the Bell Group. Ericsson had no patent or royalty problems because Bell had not patented their inventions in Scandinavia and his training as an instrument maker was reflected in the standard of finish and the ornate design of Ericsson telephones of this period. At the end of the year he started to manufacture telephones much like those of Siemens, Ericsson became a major supplier of telephone equipment to Scandinavia. Its factory could not keep up with demand, joinery and metal-plating were contracted out, much of its raw materials were imported, in the following decades Ericsson bought into a number of firms to ensure supplies of brass, wire, ebonite, and magnet steel. Much of the wood used for cabinets was imported from the United States. Stockholms telephone network expanded that year and the company reformed into a telephone manufacturer, when Bell bought the biggest telephone network in Stockholm, it only allowed its own telephones to be used with it. Ericssons equipment was mainly to free telephone associations in the Swedish countryside. The prices of Bell equipment and services led Henrik Tore Cedergren to form an independent telephone company called Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag in 1883, as Bell would not deliver equipment to competitors, he formed a pact with Ericsson to supply the equipment for his new telephone network. In 1918 the companies were merged into Allmänna Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson, in 1884, a multiple-switchboard manual telephone exchange was mostly copied from a design by C. E. Scribner at Western Electric. This was legal because the device was not patented in Sweden, a single switchboard could handle up to 10,000 lines
8.
Factory
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Factories arose with the introduction of machinery during the Industrial Revolution when the capital and space requirements became too great for cottage industry or workshops. Early factories that contained small amounts of machinery, such as one or two spinning mules, and fewer than a dozen workers have been called glorified workshops, most modern factories have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, with some having rail, highway, factories may either make discrete products or some type of material continuously produced such as chemicals, pulp and paper, or refined oil products. Oil refineries have most of their equipment outdoors, discrete products may be final consumer goods, or parts and sub-assemblies which are made into final products elsewhere. Factories may be supplied parts from elsewhere or make them from raw materials, continuous production industries typically use heat or electricity to transform streams of raw materials into finished products. The term mill originally referred to the milling of grain, which usually used natural resources such as water or wind power until those were displaced by steam power in the 19th century. Because many processes like spinning and weaving, iron rolling, and paper manufacturing were originally powered by water, according to translations of Demosthenes and Herodotus, Naucratis was a, or the only, factory in the entirety of ancient Egypt. A source of 1983, states the largest factory production in ancient times was of 120 slaves within 4th century BC Athens, although The Cambridge Online Dictionary definition of factory states, a building or set of buildings where large amounts of goods are made using machines elsewhere. The wheel was invented circa 3000 BC, the spoked wheel c.2000 BC, the Iron Age began approximately 1200-1000 BC. However, other sources define machinery as a means of production, according to one text the water-mill was first made in 555 A. D. by Belisarius, although according to another they were known to Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius in the first century B. C. By the time of the 4th century A. D. mills with a capacity to grind 3 tonnes of cereal an hour, the Venice Arsenal provides one of the first examples of a factory in the modern sense of the word. Founded in 1104 in Venice, Republic of Venice, several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, the Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people. One of the earliest factories was John Lombes water-powered silk mill at Derby, by 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood in Staffordshire and Matthew Boulton at his Soho Manufactory were other prominent early industrialists, the factory system began widespread use somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanized. Richard Arkwright is the credited with inventing the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill, in Derbyshire, England, the factory system was a new way of organizing labour made necessary by the development of machines which were too large to house in a workers cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer, overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities
9.
H&M
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H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB is a Swedish multinational clothing-retail company, known for its fast-fashion clothing for men, women, teenagers and children. H&M and its associated brands operate in 62 countries with over 4,000 stores and, as of 2015 and it is the second largest global clothing retailer, just behind Spain-based Inditex. The company was founded by Erling Persson in 1947, when he opened his first shop in Västerås, the shop, called Hennes, exclusively sold womens clothing. In 1968, Persson acquired the hunting apparel retailer Mauritz Widforss, which led to the inclusion of a collection in the product range. The company was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1974, shortly after, in 1976, the first store outside of Scandinavia opened in London. H&M continued to expand in Europe, and began to online in 1998. The two-letter domain was registered in the early 1990s, but data on the first registration is lost, the first US store opened in 2000 on Fifth Avenue, New York. In 2008, the company announced in a release that it would begin selling home furnishings. Initially distributed through the online catalogue, there are now H&M Home stores located internationally. Its worth was estimated at $12–16 billion, H&M operated 2,325 stores at the end of 2011, and 2,629 stores at the end of August 2012. Its 3, 000th store opened in September 2013 in Chengdu, the first H&M store to open outside of Sweden was in Norway in 1964, and the first to open outside of Scandinavia was in the United Kingdom in 1976. H&Ms expansion outside of Europe started with the US in 2000, in November 2004, selected company stores offered an exclusive collection by fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld. In November 2005, the company launched a collection by Stella McCartney and, in November 2006, in March 2007, it launched another collaboration designed by the pop star Madonna. In June 2007 the company worked with game developers Maxis to create a stuff pack for the latters The Sims 2 computer game, in November 2007, the company launched a collection by Italian designer Roberto Cavalli. It was reported that the sold out very quickly. Also in 2007, another design with Kylie Minogue was launched in Shanghai, in the spring of 2008 the Finnish company Marimekko was selected as guest designer and was followed by Japanese Comme des Garçons in the fall. In 2008, H&M used the song Hang On by British singer-songwriter Lettie as background music to its UK website. For spring and summer 2009, the British designer Matthew Williamson created two exclusive ranges for the company – the first being a collection of womens clothes released in selected stores, the second collection saw Williamson branch into menswear for the first time, only in selected stores
10.
Atomic clock
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The principle of operation of an atomic clock is not based on nuclear physics, but rather on atomic physics, it uses the microwave signal that electrons in atoms emit when they change energy levels. Early atomic clocks were based on masers at room temperature, currently, the most accurate atomic clocks first cool the atoms to near absolute zero temperature by slowing them with lasers and probing them in atomic fountains in a microwave-filled cavity. An example of this is the NIST-F1 atomic clock, one of the primary time. The accuracy of an atomic clock depends on two factors, the first factor is temperature of the sample atoms—colder atoms move much more slowly, allowing longer probe times. The second factor is the frequency and intrinsic width of the electronic transition, higher frequencies and narrow lines increase the precision. National standards agencies in many countries maintain a network of atomic clocks which are intercompared and these clocks collectively define a continuous and stable time scale, International Atomic Time. For civil time, another time scale is disseminated, Coordinated Universal Time, UTC is derived from TAI, but approximately synchronised, by using leap seconds, to UT1, which is based on actual rotation of the Earth with respect to the solar time. The idea of using atomic transitions to measure time was suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1879, magnetic resonance, developed in the 1930s by Isidor Rabi, became the practical method for doing this. In 1945, Rabi first publicly suggested that atomic beam magnetic resonance might be used as the basis of a clock, the first atomic clock was an ammonia maser device built in 1949 at the U. S. National Bureau of Standards. It was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, but served to demonstrate the concept, calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ephemeris time. This led to the agreed definition of the latest SI second being based on atomic time. Equality of the ET second with the SI second has been verified to within 1 part in 1010, the SI second thus inherits the effect of decisions by the original designers of the ephemeris time scale, determining the length of the ET second. Since the beginning of development in the 1950s, atomic clocks have been based on the transitions in hydrogen-1, caesium-133. The first commercial atomic clock was the Atomichron, manufactured by the National Company, more than 50 were sold between 1956 and 1960. This bulky and expensive instrument was replaced by much smaller rack-mountable devices, such as the Hewlett-Packard model 5060 caesium frequency standard. In August 2004, NIST scientists demonstrated a chip-scale atomic clock, according to the researchers, the clock was believed to be one-hundredth the size of any other. It requires no more than 125 mW, making it suitable for battery-driven applications and this technology became available commercially in 2011. Ion trap experimental optical clocks are more precise than the current caesium standard, in March 2017, NASA plans to deploy the Deep Space Atomic Clock, a miniaturized, ultra-precise mercury-ion atomic clock, into outer space
11.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
12.
IF Elfsborg
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Idrottsföreningen Elfsborg, also known as IF Elfsborg or simply Elfsborg, is a professional football club based in Borås, Sweden, and is affiliated to the Västergötlands Fotbollförbund. They play in the Allsvenskan and have spent most of their history in the top tier of Swedish football and their homeground is Borås Arena, where they have played since 17 April 2005. The club was founded in 1904 by a group of 19 youngsters which all were 14–15 years old, Borås Fotbollslag was formed in Ordenshuset at Landala on 26 June 1904. The main protagonist in the formation, Carl Larson, who in addition to football also practiced athletics, claimed the reason was that the main sports club in the city, Borås Athletic and Sports Society, would not exert football in their program. Carl Larson, however, found there were too many clubs containing the city name Borås which contributed to the name change in 1906 by Riksidrottsförbundet to the current. The name is derived from Älvsborg County where instead of making use of the modern spelling Älvsborg, the same goes for the club colours, reflected in their crest and kit, yellow and black. Colors that are taken from Älvsborgs regemente, Elfsborg would not only represent a city, a recurring motto of the club is Vi Tillsammans. The clubs homeground Borås Arena is also called Elfsborg Fortress, since Elfsborg is Allsvenskan home strongest team in the 2000s, the club have won six national championships, the latest in 2012, and three national cups. Borås Fotbollslag was formed on 26 June 1904, by a group of youngsters, in 1906 the name was changed to IF Elfsborg, because the founders felt there were too many teams with Borås in their name. In 1926 Elfsborg won Västsvenska Serien, and defeated Halmstad BK in the play off, during the 1930s Elfsborg managed to build a very strong team led by striker Sven Jonasson, who appeared in both the 1934 and 1938 World Cup. In 1936 Elfsborg won Allsvenskan for the first time, and two more followed soon after. During this period Elfsborg had as many as seven players in the Swedish national team, in 1941 Elfsborg left Ramnavallen to play their home games at the newly constructed Ryavallen. In the mid-1940s Elfsborg came close to winning Allsvenskan again, by the late 1940s Elfsborgs glory days were over, and the club was eventually relegated in 1954. This was under the leadership of the legendary Sven Andreasson as chairman, in 1977 Elfsborg reached second place, but the following years proved difficult for the club. In 1987 Elfsborg finished last in Allsvenskan, and did not return to the top flight until 1997, the team that won promotion contained several future Swedish internationals including Anders Svensson and Tobias Linderoth. Even though Elfsborg won their first two cup titles, the club struggled to stay in Allsvenskan in the following years, in 2005 Elfsborg spent a lot of money on building Borås Arena, and bringing back former players. The investments paid off and the fifth Championship was won in 2006 – the clubs first Allsvenskan title for 41 years. The year after Elfsborg appeared in the Champions League qualifying stage for the first time, the club won the last round of qualifications for the Uefa Cup against FC Dinamo Bucureşti
listen)) is a city (officially, a locality) and the seat of Borås Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden. It had 66,273 inhabitants in 2010.[1]
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
Borås travel guide from Wikivoyage
