1.
Boris Yeltsin
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Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin was a Soviet and Russian politician and the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999. Originally a supporter of Mikhail Gorbachev, Yeltsin emerged under the reforms as one of Gorbachevs most powerful political opponents. During the late 1980s, Yeltsin had been a member of the Politburo, no one had resigned from the Politburo before. This act branded Yeltsin as a rebel and led to his rise in popularity as an anti-establishment figure, on 29 May 1990 he was elected the chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet. However, Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after a series of economic. He vowed to transform Russias socialist economy into a capitalist market economy and implemented economic shock therapy, price liberalization, due to the sudden total economic shift, a majority of the national property and wealth fell into the hands of a small number of oligarchs. The well-off millionaire and billionaire oligarchs likened themselves to 19th century robber barons, in October 1993, troops loyal to Yeltsin stopped an armed uprising outside of the parliament building, leading to a number of deaths. Yeltsin then scrapped the existing Russian constitution, banned political opposition, on 31 December 1999, under enormous internal pressure, Yeltsin announced his resignation, leaving the presidency in the hands of his chosen successor, then-Prime Minister Vladimir Putin. Yeltsin left office widely unpopular with the Russian population, Yeltsin kept a low profile after his resignation, though he did occasionally publicly criticise his successor. Yeltsin died of heart failure on 23 April 2007. Boris Yeltsin was born in the village of Butka, Talitsky District, Sverdlovsk, USSR, growing up in rural Sverdlovsk, he studied at the Ural State Technical University, and began his career in the construction industry. In 1934 Nikolai Yeltsin was convicted of anti-Soviet agitation and sentenced to hard labour in a gulag for three years, Nikolai remained unemployed for a period of time and then worked again in construction. His mother, Klavdiya Vasilyevna Yeltsina, worked as a seamstress, Boris studied at Pushkin High School in Berezniki. In 1949 he was admitted to the Ural Polytechnic Institute in Sverdlovsk, majoring in construction, the subject of his degree paper was Construction of a Mine Shaft. From 1955 to 1957 he worked as a foreman with the building trust Uraltyazhtrubstroy, from 1957 to 1963 he worked in Sverdlovsk, and was promoted from construction site superintendent to chief of the Construction Directorate with the Yuzhgorstroy Trust. In 1963 he became chief engineer, and in 1965 head of the Sverdlovsk House-Building Combine, responsible for sewerage and he joined the ranks of the CPSU nomenklatura in 1968 when he was appointed head of construction with the Sverdlovsk Regional Party Committee. In 1975 he became secretary of the committee in charge of the regions industrial development. In 1976 the Politburo of the CPSU promoted him to the post of the first secretary of the CPSU Committee of Sverdlovsk Oblast, Yeltsin was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 17 March 1961 to 13 July 1990, and a nomenklatura member from 1968
2.
Viktor Chernomyrdin
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Viktor Stepanovich Chernomyrdin was a Russian politician. He was the first chairman of the Gazprom energy company and the longest-serving Prime Minister of Russia based on consecutive years and he was a key figure in Russian politics in the 1990s, and a participant in the Russian transition from a planned to a market economy. From 2001 to 2009, he was Russias ambassador to Ukraine, after that he was designated as a presidential adviser. Chernomyrdin is known in Russia and Russian-speaking countries for his unique style, containing numerous malapropisms. Many of his sayings became aphorisms and idioms in the Russian language, the most famous being his expression We wanted the best, Chernomyrdin died on 3 November 2010 after a long illness. He was buried beside his wife in Novodevichy Cemetery on 5 November, Chernomyrdin was born in Chernyi Otrog, Orenburg Oblast, Russian SFSR. His father was a labourer and Viktor was one of five children, Chernomyrdin completed school education in 1957 and found employment as a mechanic in an oil refinery in Orsk. He worked there until 1962, except for two years of military service from 1957 to 1960. His other occupations on the plant during this period included machinist, operator and he became a member of the CPSU in 1961. In 1962, he was admitted to Kuybyshev Industrial Institute, in his entrance exams he performed very poorly. He failed the math sections of the test and had to take the exam again and he got only one B, in Russian language, and Cs in the other tests. He was admitted only because of very poor competition, in 1966, he graduated from the institute. In 1972, he completed studies at the Department of Economics of the Union-wide Polytechnic Institute by correspondence. Chernomyrdin began developing his career as a politician when he worked for the CPSU in Orsk between 1967 and 1973, in 1973, he was appointed the director of the natural gas refining plant in Orenburg, a position which he held until 1978. Between 1978 and 1982, Chernomyrdin worked in the heavy industry arm of the CPSU Central Committee, in 1982, he was appointed deputy Minister of the natural gas industries of the Soviet Union. Concurrently, beginning from 1983, he directed Glavtyumengazprom, an association for natural gas resource development in Tyumen Oblast. During 1985–1989 he was the minister of gas industries, in August 1989, under the leadership of Chernomyrdin, the Ministry of Gas Industry was transformed into the State Gas Concern, Gazprom, which became the countrys first state-corporate enterprise. Chernomyrdin was elected its first chairman, the company was still controlled by the state, but now the control was exercised through shares of stock, 100% of which were owned by the state
3.
Ministry of Finance (Russia)
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Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation is a federal ministry, responsible for general financial policy and for general management in the field of finance of the Russian Federation. The ministry has two predecessors, the most notable one being the Ministry of Finance of the USSR who is itself the successor of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire, the agency has its headquarters in Ilinka Street 9. in Moscow. Anton Siluanov serve as current Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation since September 2011, manifesto of the Emperor Alexander I On approval of the Ministries was founded several ministries, including Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire. In the Soviet Union, the Ministry was renamed as the Ministry of Finance, from December 25,1991 to February 19,1992 the Ministry was called Ministry of Economy and Finance. By Presidential Decree of February 19,1992 №156, it was divided into two ministries - the Ministry of the Economy and Finance Ministry. Because of the 2014 Crimean crisis, a number of Western countries aimed sanctions at Russia, among these sanctioned individuals were Arkady Rotenberg and Boris Rotenberg, who also happened to be shareholders of certain Russian banks. On 24 March, MasterCard and Visa declined to permit transactions at these banks for a number of hours, Siluanov said that The payments restriction by Visa and Mastercard at one bank made us start thinking very seriously how we can secure ourselves against this kind of cases. President Vladimir Putin agreed the day in conference with legislators. We need to defend our interests and it is really too bad that certain companies have decided on restrictions. I think this will cause them to lose certain segments of the market - a very profitable market. Nihon Sōgō Kenkyūjo, The Russian economy, from stability to growth, Финансы России XIX столетия Вестник Финансов, Промышленности и Торговли. Высшие и центральные государственные учреждения России, 1801—1917 гг, Министерство финансов //Экономическая история России с древнейших времен до1917 г. Министерство финансов Российской империи в1858 -1903 гг, Диссертация на соискание ученой степени кандидата исторических наук. Министерство финансов Российской империи в начале царствования Александра II //Вестник Московского государственного областного университета, Бюрократический аппарат Министерства финансов в пореформенную эпоху //Вопросы истории. История финансовых учреждений со времени основания государства до кончины императрицы Екатерины II Д, Шилов, Государственные деятели Российской империи 1802—1917. Высшие органы власти и управления и их руководители, Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation
4.
Ministry of Finance (RSFSR)
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It was subordinate to the Ministry of Finance of the USSR. The Narkomfin Commissar was part of Sovnarkom, nikolai Krestinsky was the first Commissar, appointed in 1918. However following the introduction of the New Economic Policy Narkomfin was made responsible for Gosbank, after the failed August Coup of 1991, Boris Yeltsin and the RSFSR Ministry of Finance claimed authority over the Ministry of Finance of the USSR, the Gosbank and Vnesheconombank. These Soviet institutions could not carry out any orders without the consent of the RSFSR Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Finance of the USSR continued functioning until the Ministry of Finance of the RSFSR issued a decree completing its takeover of the Soviet financial system. The RSFSR Ministry of Finance was succeeded by the Ministry of Economics and Finance of the Russian Federation, government of the Soviet Union – Ministries Ministry of Finance of the USSR Notes Bibliography Huskey, Eugene. Executive power and Soviet politics, the rise and decline of the Soviet state
5.
Ivan Silayev
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Ivan Stepanovich Silayev is a former Soviet official who became a Russian politician following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Responsible for overseeing the economy of the Soviet Union during the late Gorbachev Era, after graduating in the 1950s, Silayev began his political career in the Ministry of Aviation Industry in the 1970s. During the Brezhnev Era he became Minister of Aviation Industry, a Central Committee member, when Nikolai Tikhonovs Second Government was dissolved, Mikhail Gorbachev appointed him deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers in Nikolai Ryzhkovs First Government. He left all posts in the government in 1990 to focus in his post as chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR. He faced several difficulties during his tenure, and supported the majority of Boris Yeltsins policies. Having opposed Yeltsins secessionist policies during his tenure as Soviet Premier, he was removed from his post as Russian SFSR Premier, when he became Premier of the Soviet Union on 6 September 1991, Silayev opposed some of Yeltsins policies which led to the disintegration of the Soviet Union. After Silayev resigned as Soviet Premier, he continued to work for the Yeltsin administration as the Permanent Representative of Russia to the European Community until his resignation in 1994, during the 2007 legislative election Silayev ran as a candidate for the Agrarian Party of Russia. Silayev was born on 21 October 1930 in Baktyzino, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, in 1959 Silayev became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. During his tenure at the Gorky Aviation Plant, where he started in 1954, Silayev then served as Deputy Minister of Aviation Industry, and was later appointed Minister of Aviation Industry in 1981 in Nikolai Tikhonovs first government. He served briefly as Minister of Machine-Tool and Tool Building Industry of the Soviet Union from 1980 to 1981, at the 26th Congress Silayev was elected to the Central Committee. He served in these posts until he was appointed Premier of the Russian SFSR in 1990, Boris Yeltsin, the chairman of the Russian SFSR Supreme Soviet, was ordered to select candidates for the post of Premier to the Supreme Soviet. Mikhail Bocharov, a businessman and leader of the cooperative movement, rector of the Moscow Aviation Institute Yuri Ryzhkov. Ryzhkov withdrew his candidacy before the first round of voting was finished, Silayev did not have any similar economic reform plans, but was widely considered to be Yeltsins favourite for the post. In the first round of voting Silayev earned 119 votes, while Bocharov earned 86 votes, to be elected to the post, a candidate needed to win over half of the vote, neither Silayev or Bocharov succeeded in this. Seeing that Silayev was Yeltsins favourite, and had won more votes than Bocharov, Silayev ran unchallenged in the election round. Gorbachev tried to break the Silayev–Yeltsin alliance but to no avail, Silayev never forgave Pavlov and relations between the two grew colder when Pavlov became the Prime Minister. During his tenure as Premier, Silayev was never the de facto leader of the government cabinet, and was loyal to Yeltsin, in contrast to his predecessor, Aleksandr Vlasov, Silayev tried to modernise the Russian Government. Silayev decided to break with the old Soviet nomenklatura system of electing members by electing members using an objective
6.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
7.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
8.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
9.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
10.
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
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The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, abbreviated in English as CPSU, was the founding and ruling political party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The party was founded in 1912 by the Bolsheviks, a group led by Vladimir Lenin which seized power in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917. The party was dissolved on 29 August 1991 on Soviet territory soon after a failed coup détat and was abolished on 6 November 1991 on Russian territory. The highest body within the CPSU was the party Congress, which convened every five years, when the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest body. Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo, the Secretariat, and the Orgburo. The party leader was the head of government and held the office of either General Secretary, Premier or head of state, or some of the three offices concurrently—but never all three at the same time. The CPSU, according to its party statute, adhered to Marxism–Leninism, a based on the writings of Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx. The party pursued state socialism, under which all industries were nationalized, a number of causes contributed to CPSUs loss of control and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Some historians have written that Gorbachevs policy of glasnost was the root cause, Gorbachev maintained that perestroika without glasnost was doomed to failure anyway. Others have blamed the stagnation and subsequent loss of faith by the general populace in communist ideology. The Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the worlds first constitutionally socialist state, was established by the Bolsheviks in the aftermath of the October Revolution. Immediately after the Revolution, the new, Lenin-led government implemented socialist reforms, including the transfer of estates, in this context, in 1918, RSDLP became Russian Communist Party and remained so until 1997. Lenin supported world revolution he sought peace with the Central Powers. The treaty was voided after the Allied victory in World War I, in 1921, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy, a system of state capitalism that started the process of industrialization and recovery from the Civil War. On 30 December 1922, the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Russian Empire in the Soviet Union, on 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke, which incapacitated him and effectively ended his role in government. He died on 21 January 1924 and was succeeded by Joseph Stalin, after emerging victorious from a power struggle with Trotsky, Stalin obtained full control of the party and Stalinism was installed as the only ideology of the party. The partys official name was All-Union Communist Party in 1925, Stalins political purge greatly affected the partys configuration, as many party members were executed or sentenced for slave labour. Happening during the timespan of the Great Purge, fascism had ascened to power in Italy, seeing this as a potential threat, the Party actively sought to form collective security alliances with Anti-fascist western powers such as France and Britain
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Economist
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An economist is a practitioner in the social science discipline of economics. The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. A generally accepted interpretation in academia is that an economist is one who has attained a Ph. D. in economics, teaches economic science, the professionalization of economics, reflected in academia, has been described as the main change in economics since around 1900. Economists debate the path they believe their profession should take, surveys among economists indicate a preference for a shift toward the latter. Most major universities have a faculty, school or department. However, many prominent economists come from a background in mathematics, business, political science, law, sociology, getting a PhD in economics takes six years, on average, with a median of 5.3 years. The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, established by Sveriges Riksbank in 1968, is a prize awarded to each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field of economics. The prize winners are announced in October every year and they receive their awards on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobels death. In contrast to regulated professions such as engineering, law or medicine, in academia, to be called an economist requires a Ph. D. degree in Economics. A professional working inside of one of many fields of economics or having a degree in this subject is often considered to be an economist. In addition to government and academia, economists are employed in banking, finance, accountancy, commerce, marketing, business administration, lobbying. Politicians often consult economists before enacting economic policy, many statesmen have academic degrees in economics. Economics graduates are employable in varying degrees depending on the regional economic scenario, small numbers go on to undertake postgraduate studies, either in economics, research, teacher training or further qualifications in specialist areas. Nearly 135 colleges and universities grant around 900 new Ph. D. s every year, incomes are highest for those in the private sector, followed by the federal government, with academia paying the lowest incomes. As of January 2013, PayScale. com showed Ph. D. economists salary ranges as follows, all Ph. D. economists, $61,000 to $160,000, Ph. D. The largest single grouping of economists in the UK are the more than 1000 members of the Government Economic Service. This figure compares very favourably with the picture, with 64 percent of economics graduates in employment. Some current well-known economists include, Ben Bernanke, Chairman of the Federal Reserve from 2006 to 2014, milton Friedman, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate in Economics
12.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
13.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
14.
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
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The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies, initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in more than 30 countries from central Europe to central Asia. Besides Europe, member countries of the EBRD are from five continents, with the biggest shareholder being the United States, headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 65 countries and two EU institutions. Despite its public shareholders, it invests mainly in private enterprises. The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank, EBRD is also distinct from the Council of Europe Development Bank. In 2006, EBRD stated it would cease spending in the Baltic and central European nations by 2010, in 2010, due to the Great Recession, this process was postponed. The EBRD was founded to support countries of the former Eastern Bloc in the process of establishing their private sectors, to that end, it offers project financing for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatization, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s, the EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are committed to democratic principles. Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful, among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia. NGOs have criticized the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies. ”For example. The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, the European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. As of 2014 Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries, in 2013, the Russian Federation received 1.8 billion € for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD, a 300 million € plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. In 2015, the EBRD invested an amount in the Central Asian region. The total investment in 2015 rose by 75% reaching €1,402.3 billion, Kazakhstan reported the largest total volumes of investment. reaching 790 million euro in 2015. The following presidents have served the EBRD to date, the EBRD publishes its tenders and contracts on its own website and in Development Business. A publication launched in 1978 by the United Nations with the World Bank, direct investments range from €5 million to €230 million
15.
World Bank
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The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries of the world for capital programs. It comprises two institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Development Association, the World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group, which is part of the United Nations system. The World Banks stated official goal is the reduction of poverty, the president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D. C. and work closely with each other, although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. Before 1974 the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small, the Banks staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria, the first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Banks president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile, the loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed, the French government complied with this diktat and removed the Communist coalition government - the so-called tripartisme. Within hours, the loan to France was approved, when the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries, in 1960, the International Development Association was formed, providing soft loans to developing countries. From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and these changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson. McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the bond market to increase the capital available to the bank. One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an annual rate of 20%
16.
State Duma
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The State Duma in the Russian Federation is the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia, the upper house being the Federation Council of Russia. The Duma headquarters are located in central Moscow, a few steps from Manege Square and its members are referred to as deputies. The State Duma was introduced in 1906 and was Russias first elected parliament, the first two attempts by Tsar Nicholas II to make it active were ineffective. Subsequently, each of these Dumas was dissolved only a few months. The third Duma was the one to last to the end of its 5-year term. After the 1907 electoral reform, the third Duma, elected in November 1907, was made up of members of the upper classes. The establishment of the Duma after the 1905 Revolution was to herald significant changes to the Russian autocratic system, in the December 1993 elections pro-Yeltsin parties won 175 seats in the Duma versus 125 seats for the left bloc. The balance of power lay with the sixty four deputies of the ultranationalist Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, only parties that won more than five percent of the vote were given party-list seats, eight passed the threshold in 1993. In addition to eight parties, a pool of thirty five deputies was entitled to form a registered group to reflect regional or sectoral interests. Business was governed by a committee, the Duma Council. The most important task was dividing up the positions in the Duma’s twenty three committees, which was done as part of a power-sharing package deal. During the second half of the 1990s the Duma became an important forum for lobbying by regional leaders and businessmen looking for tax breaks and legislative favors. The work of the committees, such as those for defense, foreign affairs, or budget, attracted a good deal of media attention. In the early 2000s, following the 1999 parliamentary elections, the pro-presidential Unity party, a 2016 exposé by Dissernet showed that 1 in 9 members of the State Duma had obtained academic degrees with theses that were substantially plagiarized and likely ghostwritten. The State Duma has special powers enumerated by the Constitution of Russia, decrees of the State Duma are adopted by a majority of the total number of deputies of the State Duma, unless another procedure is envisaged by the Constitution. All bills are first approved by the State Duma and are debated and approved by the Federation Council. Relatively few roll call votes have been published that identify individual deputies votes, the votes of individuals are recorded only if the voting is open and the electronic method is used. While not all votes are officially roll call votes, every time a deputy electronically votes a computer registers the individual deputys vote, the State Duma forms committees and commissions
17.
Deutsche Bank
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Deutsche Bank AG is a German global banking and financial services company with its headquarters in the Deutsche Bank Twin Towers in Frankfurt. It has more than 100,000 employees in over 70 countries, and has a presence in Europe, the Americas, Asia-Pacific. In 2009, Deutsche Bank was the largest foreign exchange dealer in the world with a share of 21 percent. The company was a component of the STOXX Europe 50 stock market index until being replaced on that index on August 8,2016, the bank offers financial products and services for corporate and institutional clients along with private and business clients. Deutsche Bank’s core business is investment banking, which represents 50% of equity, 75% of leverage assets, in January 2014, Deutsche Bank reported a €1.2 billion pre-tax loss for the fourth quarter of 2013. This came after analysts had predicted a profit of nearly €600 million, revenues slipped by 16% versus the prior year. On 7 June 2015, the then co-CEOs, Juergen Fitschen and Anshu Jain, Anshu Jains resignation took effect on 30 June 2015, but he provided consultancy to the bank until January 2016. Juergen Fitschen temporarily continued as joint CEO until 19 May 2016, the appointment of John Cryan as joint CEO was announced, effective 1 July 2016, he became sole CEO at the end of Juergen Fitschens term. In January 2016, Deutsche Bank pre-announced a 2015 loss before income taxes of approximately €6.1 billion, Deutsche Bank was founded in Berlin in 1870 as a specialist bank for foreign trade. The banks statute was adopted on 22 January 1870, and on 10 March 1870 the Prussian government granted it a banking licence, three of the founders were Georg Siemens whose fathers cousin had founded Siemens and Halske, Adelbert Delbrück and L. Bamberger. Its first foray overseas came shortly afterwards, in Shanghai and London followed sometime by South America, major projects in the early years of the bank included the Northern Pacific Railroad in the US and the Baghdad Railway. In Germany, the bank was instrumental in the financing of bond offerings of steel company Krupp, the second half of the 1890s saw the beginning of a new period of expansion at Deutsche Bank. The bank formed alliances with large banks, giving itself an entrée into Germanys main industrial regions. Joint ventures were symptomatic of the then under way in the German banking industry. In addition, the bank rapidly perceived the value of specialist institutions for the promotion of foreign business, the immediate postwar period was a time of liquidations. Having already lost most of its assets, Deutsche Bank was obliged to sell other holdings. A great deal of energy went into shoring up what had been achieved, but there was new business, too, some of which was to have an impact for a long time to come. The bank played a significant role in the establishment of the production company, UFA
18.
Gazprom
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Public Joint Stock Company Gazprom is a large Russian company founded in 1989, which carries on the business of extraction, production, transport, and sale of natural gas. The company name is a portmanteau of the Russian words Gazovaya Promyshlennost, the headquarters of Gazprom are in Moscow. Gazprom was created in 1989 when the Soviet Ministry of Gas Industry was converted to a corporation, although it is a private company, the Russian Government holds a majority stake in the company. Gazprom is involved in the Russian Governments diplomatic efforts, setting of gas prices, Gazproms production fields are located around the Gulf of Ob in Western Siberia. Plans have also made to mine the Yamal Peninsula. Gazproms gas transport system includes 158,200 kilometres of gas trunk lines, projects include Nord Stream and South Stream. In 2011, Gazprom produced about 513.2 billion cubic metres of natural gas, Gazprom also produced about 32.3 million tons of crude oil and nearly 12.1 million tons of gas condensate. The company has subsidiaries in industrial sectors including finance, media and aviation, in 1943, during World War II, the government of the Soviet Union created a gas industry. In 1965, it centralized gas exploration, development, and distribution within the Ministry of Gas Industry, in the 1970s and 1980s, the Ministry of Gas Industry found large natural gas reserves in Siberia, the Ural region and the Volga region. The Soviet Union became a gas producer. In August 1989, under the leadership of Viktor Chernomyrdin, the Ministry of Gas Industry was renamed the State Gas Concern Gazprom, in late 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved, gas industry assets were transferred to newly established national companies, such as Ukrgazprom and Turkmengazprom. Gazprom kept assets located in Russia and secured a monopoly in the gas sector, in December 1992, when Boris Yeltsin, the Russian President, appointed Chernomyrdin, Gazproms Chairman, his Prime Minister, the companys political influence increased. Rem Viakhirev took the chairmanship of Gazproms Board of Directors and Managing Committee, following the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 5 November 1992 and the Resolution of the Government of Russia of 17 February 1993, Gazprom became a joint-stock company. Gazprom began to distribute shares under the voucher method, by 1994, 33% of Gazproms shares had been bought by 747,000 members of the public, mostly in exchange for vouchers. Fifteen percent of the stock was allocated to Gazprom employees, the state retained 40% of the shares. That amount was lowered to thirty-eight percent. Trading of Gazproms shares was heavily regulated, foreigners were prohibited from owning more than nine-percent of the shares. In October 1996, 1% of Gazproms equity was offered for sale to foreigners as Global Depository Receipts, in 1997, Gazprom offered a bond issue of US$2.5 billion
19.
Pyotr Stolypin
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Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin, chairman of the Council of Ministers, served as Prime Minister, and Minister of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire from 1906 to 1911. His tenure was marked by efforts to counter revolutionary groups and by the implementation of agrarian reforms. Stolypin was a monarchist and hoped to strengthen the throne and he is considered one of the last major statesmen of Imperial Russia with clearly defined public policies and the determination to undertake major reforms. Stolypin seems to have born in Dresden on 14 April 1862. Arkady Dmitrievich Stolypin, his father, was a general in the Russian artillery, Pyotr grew up on the family estate Serednikovo, once inhabited by Mikhail Lermontov, and near Moscow. From 1869, Stolypin spent his years in Kalnaberžė manor, built by his father. In 1876, the Stolypin family moved to Vilnius, where he studied at the grammar school. In 1879 the family moved to Oryol, Stolypin and his brother Aleksandr studied at the Oryol Boys College where he was described by his teacher, B. Fedorova as ‘standing out amongst his peers for his rationalism and character. ’ In 1881 he studied agriculture at St. Petersburg University where one of his teachers was Dmitri Mendeleev. He entered government service upon graduating in 1885, writing his thesis on tobacco growing in the south of Russia and it is unclear if he joined the Ministry of State Property or Internal Affairs. Stolypin served as marshal of the Kovno Governorate between 1889 and 1902 and this public service gave him an inside view of local needs and allowed him to develop administrative skills. He was fascinated by the lifestyle of the Northwestern Krai and sought to propagate their privately owned. Stolypin’s service in Kovno was recognised as a success by the Russian government – he was promoted seven times, four of his daughters were also born during this period – his daughter Maria recalled “this was the most calm period his life”. In 1884, Stolypin married Olga Borisovna Neidhart – whose family was of a similar standing to Stolypin’s and they married whilst Stolypin was still a student – an uncommon occurrence at the time. The marriage began in tragic circumstances, Olga had been engaged to Stolypin’s brother, Mikhail and their marriage was a happy one, devoid of scandal, the couple had five daughters and one son. In May 1902 Stolypin was appointed governor in Grodno, where he was the youngest person appointed to this position. In February 1903 he became governor of Saratov, Stolypin is known for suppressing strikers and peasant unrest in January 1905. According to Orlando Figes its peasants were among the poorest and most rebellious in the whole of the country and it seems he cooperated with the zemstvos, the local government
20.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
21.
Yegor Gaidar
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Yegor Timurovich Gaidar was a Soviet and Russian economist, politician, and author, and was the Acting Prime Minister of Russia from 15 June 1992 to 14 December 1992. He was the architect of the shock therapy reforms administered in Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. He participated in the preparation of the Bialowieza agreements, Gaidar died of pulmonary edema, provoked by myocardial ischemia on 16 December 2009. His paternal grandfather was Soviet writer Arkady Gaidar and his grandfather was writer Pavel Bazhov. Gaidar married the daughter of writer Arkady Strugatsky during his time at the university and his daughter, Maria Gaidar, was one of the leaders of the Russian democratic opposition. From July 2009 till June 2011 she was Deputy Chair of the Government of Kirov oblast, since July 2015 she is a vice-governor of Odessa Oblast in Ukraine. Gaidar graduated with honors from the Moscow State University, Faculty of Economics, in 1978, a long-time member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and an editor of the CPSU ideological journal Communist during the perestroika, he joined Boris Yeltsins camp during Perestroika. In 1991 he quit the Communist Party and was promoted to Yeltsins government, while in government, Gaidar advocated free market economic reforms according to the principle of shock therapy. His best-known decision was to abolish price regulation by the state and he also cut military procurement and industrial subsidies, and reduced the budget deficit. Gaidar was the First Vice-Premier of the Russian Government and Minister of Economics from 1991 until 1992, Gaidar continued to advise the new government. On 18 September 1993, he was appointed the First Vice-Premier under Chernomyrdin as a deliberate snub to the opposition. He played a role in the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993. In the 1993 Duma elections, in the aftermath of the crisis, however, due to the blocs failure to win the plurality of votes in the election, Gaidars role in the government diminished and he finally resigned on 20 January 1994. During 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia Yegor Gaidar, Boris Nemtsov and Boris Fyodorov were in Belgrade, Gaidar was often criticized for imposing ruthless reforms in 1992 with little care for their social impact. Many of Gaidars economic reforms led to deterioration in living standards. Millions of Russians were thrown into poverty due to their savings being devalued by massive hyperinflation, because they stashed billions of dollars in Swiss bank accounts rather than investing in the Russian economy, these oligarchs were dubbed kleptocrats. As society grew to despise these figures and resent the economic and social turmoil caused by the reforms, Gaidars supporters contend that although many mistakes were made, he had few choices in the matter and ultimately saved the country both from bankruptcy and from starvation. According to the BBCs Andrei Ostalski, There were only two solutions – either introduce martial law and severe rationing, or radically liberalize the economy, the first option meant going all the way back to the Stalinist system of mass repression
22.
Andrey Vavilov
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Andrey Petrovich Vavilov is a Russian politician and businessman, senator and a former first deputy finance minister of Russia, and the former Russian secretary of state. In 1991, he headed a laboratory at the newly founded Institute for Market Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences, from 1991 to 1992 he worked as a researcher at the Institute for International Economics in Washington D. C. In 1992-1997, Vavilov occupied the post of first deputy minister of Russia. While in office at the Finance Ministry, one of his responsibilities was negotiating with the International Monetary Fund, under the supervision of Mr. Vavilov the Russian Federation was assigned to its first international investment ratings in 1996. He has initiated and arranged the issue of the first Russian eurobonds on the international market, Mr. Vavilov has participated in the preparation of the G7 meetings concerning the financial aspects of the summit that resulted in relieving the financial burden of Russia by $25 billion per year. In 1997 he became the President the MFK Bank, between 1998-2002 he was the Head of the Institute for Financial Studies. Between 2000-2002 he was the Chairman of the Board of Severnaya Neft, in 2002 he was elected as a member of the Federation Council of Russia representing the Penza Region Legislative Assembly. He is the author of the 2010 book, “The Russian Public Debt, official site Biography on Lenta. ru site
23.
Anatoly Chubais
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Anatoly Borisovich Chubais is a Russian politician and businessman who was responsible for privatization in Russia as an influential member of Boris Yeltsins administration in the early 1990s. During this period, he was a key figure in introducing market economy, from 1998 to 2008, he headed the state-owned electrical power monopoly RAO UES. A2004 survey conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers and the Financial Times named him the worlds 54th most respected business leader, currently, he is the head of the Russian Nanotechnology Corporation. He has been a member of the Advisory Council for JPMorgan Chase since September 2008, Chubais was born on 16 June 1955 in the town of Borisov in Belarus, which was then part of the Soviet Union. His father Boris Matveyevich Chubais, an army colonel and veteran of World War II. Anatoly Chubais has an older brother Igor Chubais, philosopher, in 1977, Chubais graduated from the Leningrad Institute of Engineering and Economics in present-day St. Petersburg and joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union until 1991 when he left it. Reforma also engaged in drafting reformist legislation, an important step down the road when Chubais would work in the city government, starting in the early 1980s, Chubais became a leader of an informal circle of market-oriented economists in Leningrad. In 1982, Chubais was introduced to the future Prime Minister of Russia Yegor Gaidar, by 1987, Chubais had become the organizer of the Leningrad chapter of the club Perestroyka whose mission was to promote and discuss democratic ideas among the local intelligentsia. The dissident economists organized a tulip farm to finance their seminars, in the four days before the International Womens Day they managed to get income equivalent to the price of several Lada cars. The tulip money was used to finance the elections of Anatoly Sobchak, Yury Boldyrev, as a result, 2/3 of the deputies winning the 1990 elections to Leningrad Soviet were from the opposition. Chubais himself later stated that he personally did not participate in growing or selling of the flowers, at the end of 1980, the economist Vitaly Nayshul proposed the idea of using vouchers to facilitate mass privatization in order to transform the Soviet Union into a market economy. Chubais strongly criticized the scheme at the time, citing the inevitable inequality, ironically, Chubais would later become the champion of the same concept just several years later. In 1990, upon the election of Anatoly Sobchak as Chairman of the Leningrad City Council and he was trying to implement Sobchaks idea of creating a Free Economic Zone in Leningrad. In 1991, Chubais declined the offer to become the Chairman of Leningrad Ispolkom to instead become an advisor to the administration in Leningrad where Sobchak had just been elected mayor. At the same time, Chubais worked as the president of newly established Wassily Leontief Center for Research in Economics, in November 1991, Chubais became a minister in the Yeltsin Cabinet where he managed the portfolio of Rosimushchestvo which was handling privatization in Russia. Chubais originally advocated rapid privatization in order to raise revenue, similar to the used in Hungary. However, the Congress of Peoples Deputies of Russia rejected this model, eventually, a compromise was proposed in the form of a voucher privatization program akin to the program used in the Czech Republic at the time. On 11 June 1991 the Supreme Soviet of Russia adopted this compromise and this privatization program later came under heavy criticism
24.
Mikhail Kasyanov
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Mikhail Mikhailovich Kasyanov is a Russian statesman and politician, who was the Prime Minister of Russia from May 2000 to February 2004 and minister of finance in 1999-2000. Currently, he is a chair of the political party Peoples Freedom Party, the leader of movement Peoples Democratic Union, Kasyanov was one of the leaders of the opposition coalition The Other Russia and an active participant of Dissenters Marches. In 2008 he was refused registration as a candidate in the election of President of Russia, in 2010 he co-founded the coalition For Russia without Lawlessness and Corruption and was co-chair of the Peoples Freedom Party. Since 2012 Mikhail Kasyanov has been a co-chair of the political party. He is a speaker during protest rallies For Fair Elections. In 1976 Kasyanov graduated from the Moscow Automobile and Road University and he is married to Irina Kasyanova, whom he met in school in the eighth grade. Kasyanov was dismissed, along with the entire Russian cabinet, by President Vladimir Putin on 24 February 2004 after more than three years in office, inflation was reduced significantly and the Russian economy grew by almost one third. At the same time, the urgent policy of economic diversification had just started and was not fully implemented, on the first anniversary of his dismissal Kasyanov gave a press conference at which he said that he might run for president in the 2008 elections. His bid was supported by Leonid Nevzlin and Boris Berezovsky and Garry Kasparov, in April 2006 Mikhail Kasyanov was elected Chairman of the People’s Democratic Union, a newly launched NGO. PDU was one of the co-founders of the first The Other Russia conference in July 2006, Kasyanov and the PDU were actively involved in the coalitions work and took part in the Dissenters Marches in Moscow and St. Petersburg – the first protest manifestations in many years. On 3 March 2007, Kasparov and Kasyanov spoke against Putins government to thousands of supporters at the Saint Petersburg Dissenters March, at a presentation in International Institute for Strategic Studies 26 June 2006, Kasyanov criticized Putins administration. The government and parliament cannot function any longer without daily instructions, independent TV does not exist any more at the federal level and is being quickly uprooted in the regions. Moreover, the companies and the state itself increase their grip over the electronic. Responsibility of the level of power is totally destroyed by the abolishment of direct elections for the governors. Now PDU had regional branches in 75 regions of Russia, in June 2007 Kasyanov was nominated by the PDU as a candidate for the presidential elections. In September 2007 the new political party People for Democracy and Justice was established on the basis of the PDU, in 2006 Kasyanov stated his desire to run for President of Russia in 2008. Kasyanov left The Other Russia in July 2007 due to the failure to agree on a single presidential candidate. Kasyanov was nominated as a candidate in December 2007 and on 16 January 2008 he stated that he had finished collecting the 2 million signatures necessary to run as a candidate
25.
Alexei Kudrin
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Alexei Leonidovich Kudrin is a Russian political figure who served in the government of Russia as Minister of Finance from 18 May 2000 to 26 September 2011. After graduating with degrees in finance and economics, Kudrin worked in the administration of Saint Petersburgs liberal Mayor Anatoly Sobchak, in 1996 he started working in the Presidential Administration of Boris Yeltsin. He was appointed as Finance Minister on 28 May 2000 and held the post for 11 years, in addition, he was Deputy Prime Minister in 2000–2004 and again beginning in 2007. As Finance Minister, Kudrin was widely credited with prudent fiscal management, commitment to tax and budget reform and championing the free market. Under Kudrin, Russias government paid most of the foreign debt it had accumulated in the 1990s. Much of the revenue from exports was accumulated at the Stabilization Fund which helped Russia to come out of the 2008–2009 global financial crisis in a better state than many experts expected. During his career, Kudrin has won awards, including the Finance Minister of the Year 2010 prize from Euromoney magazine. He was asked to resign from his position on 26 September 2011 by President Dmitry Medvedev, currently, he is the Dean of the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences in St. Petersburg State University. As of 2016, he is co-chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Mariinsky Theatre, alexei Kudrin was born on 12 October 1960 in Dobele, Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic. He graduated in 1983, and got an internship at the Leningrad Institute of Social, in December 1985, he entered the internal postgraduate school at the Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, where he later received his PhD. He then worked as a researcher at the Institute of Social, Kudrin has authored over 15 scientific works in the fields economics and finance, including topics such as competition and anti-monopoly policy in the Soviet economy of the transition period. From 1990 to 1996, Kudrin worked in the Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg City Administration under the liberal mayor and his first position was Vice Chairman of the Committee for Economic Reform. Until 1993, he worked in financial positions in the city administration, before he was promoted to Deputy Mayor. Future President Vladimir Putin was the other top Deputy Mayor of Saint Petersburg at the time, Kudrin was also Chairman of the City Administration’s Economic and Finance Committee. In August 1996, Kudrin was appointed Deputy Chief of Boris Yeltsins presidential administration, as well as Chief of the Administration on Trade, Economic and Scientific-Technological Cooperation. In March 1997, he became First Deputy Finance Minister, and on 28 May 2000, in addition to his role as Finance Minister, Kudrin served as one of the Deputy Prime Ministers of Russia in 2000-2004 and again beginning in September 2007. Kudrin has been married twice, having a son from his current marriage and his hobbies include tennis, swimming and music. Kudrin served as minister from May 2000 to September 2011
26.
Anton Siluanov
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Anton Germanovich Siluanov is a Russian politician and economist. On 27 September 2011 appointed Acting Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, in 1985 Siluanov graduated from the Moscow Finance Institute with a degree in Finance and credit. In 1994 he obtained a PhD degree in economics, from August 1985 to March 1987 Siluanov served as a senior economist for the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. From March 1987 to May 1989 he was drafted and served in the Soviet Army, from May 1989 to January 1992 he was a senior economist, a department head and a chief consultant and adviser for the Ministry of Finance. In February 1992 he was appointed as Deputy Head of the Ministry of Economics, from February 1992 to October 1997 he was the Deputy Head of Budget Office and Deputy Head of Budget Department of the Russian Ministry of Finance. From October 1997 to July 2003 Siluanov led macro-economic policy and banking activities at the Russian Ministry of Finance, on March 22,2001 he became a member of the Board of the Ministry of Finance. On September 27,2011 the Prime Minister of Russia, Vladimir Putin, appointed him as Acting Minister of Finance of Russia, replacing in office the long-term minister, Alexei Kudrin. Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, who announced the appointment at a government meeting in September 27,2011 after it was approved by Medvedev, said Siluanov was a “good, solid specialist. ”First Deputy Prime Minister Igor Shuvalov will take over the responsibilities Kudrin had as the deputy prime minister in charge of the economy. Alexey Kudrin will be replaced by Anton Siluanov in International Monetary Fund, World Bank, on 26 March 2014, the IMF secured an $18bn bailout fund for the provisional government of the Ukraine in the aftermath of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution. It remains unclear whether Siluanov approved the use of Russian monies for this purpose, Russia has a seat to itself amongst 24 on the Executive Board of the IMF, whereas its monetary contribution to the IMF is inferior to two countries who have no such seat. Diploma of the Ministry of Finance Prize of the Minister of Finance Order For Merit to the Fatherland IV degree Meet Russias New Finance Minister Profile, Anton Siluanov
27.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
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The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
28.
Ivan Skvortsov-Stepanov
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Ivan Ivanovich Skvortsov-Stepanov was a prominent Russian Bolshevik. Skvortsov-Stepanov was one of the oldest participants in the Russian revolutionary movement, Ivan was the son of a Moscow factory clerical worker based in Bogorodsk. He joined the movement in 1892 and became a Bolshevik in the winter of 1904. When Borba was published in November 1905, Skvortsov-Stepanov was a member of the editorial board, in 1906 he was a delegate to the Fourth Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, where he supported Lenin. During the period 1907–10, he favoured the Mezhraiontsy faction, and he was repeatedly arrested and exiled for his revolutionary activities. Following the Revolution of 1917 he became the Peoples Commissar for Finance of the RSFSR, upon his death in October 1928, Stepanov was commemorated by Stalin as a staunch and steadfast Leninist. Izbrannye ateisticheskie proizvedeniia Letter from Lenin to Ivan Skvortsov-Stepanov,2 December 1909
29.
Vyacheslav Menzhinsky
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Vyacheslav Rudolfovich Menzhinsky was a Polish-Russian revolutionary, a Soviet statesman and Party official who served as chairman of the OGPU from 1926 to 1934. He was fluent in over 10 languages, vyacheslav Menzhinsky, a hereditary dvoryanin, was born into a Polish-Russian family of teachers. He graduated from the Faculty of Law at Saint Petersburg University in 1898 and he joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1902. In 1905 he became a member of the organization of the Petersburg Committee of the RSDLP. In 1906 Menzhinsky was arrested, but was able to escape from Russia and he lived in Belgium, Switzerland, France, United States, working in foreign branches of the RSDLP. After the February Revolution of 1917, Menzhinsky returned to Russia in the summer of that year, according to G. von Schantz, Menzhinsky personally conducted the wrecking of the Russian banks, a maneuver that deprived all opponents of Bolshevikism of their financial means of warfare. From 1919 he was a member of the Presidium of Cheka, and five years became a deputy chairman of its successor. After Felix Dzerzhinskys death in July 1926 Menzhinsky became the chairman of the OGPU, at the same time, as a senior Chekist, Menzhinsky was loyal to Joseph Stalin, whose personality cult had already begun to form, coinciding with several important purges in 1930-1931. Trotsky, who had met him before the revolution, thought him unremarkable, He seemed more like the shadow of some other unrealized man, Menzhinsky spent his last years as an invalid, suffering from acute angina since the late 1920s, which rendered him incapable of physical exertion. He conducted the affairs of the OGPU while lying upon a couch in his office at the Lubyanka, Stalin tended to deal with his first deputy Genrikh Yagoda, who essentially took over as head of the organization in all but name beginning in the late 1920s. Menzhinsky died of causes in 1934. When his successor, Yagoda, made his confession under duress at the Moscow Trial of the Twenty One in 1938. Great Soviet Encyclopedia A Pince-nez Among Leather Jackets, an article at the FSB website The German-Bolshevik Conspiracy
30.
Nikolay Krestinsky
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Nikolay Nikolayevich Krestinsky was a Russian Bolshevik revolutionary and Soviet politician. Like most Old Bolsheviks, he did not survive the Great Purge, Krestinsky was born in the town of Mogilev, in what is now Mahilyow Voblast of Belarus. According to Russian archivist A. B, roginsky, Krestinsky was of ethnic Russian origin. Other sources suggest ethnic Ukrainian origins, while according to Felix Chuev, Krestinsky joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in 1903 and sided with its Bolshevik faction. After the February Revolution, which overthrew monarchy in Russia, he proved to be a capable organizer and was elected to the Central Committee of the Bolshevik party on 3 August 1917. He was made a member of the first Soviet Orgburo on 16 January 1919 and he was also made a member of the Central Committee Secretariat on 29 November 1919 and served as the partys Responsible Secretary for the next year and a half. In late 1920 to early 1921, after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War, after Vladimir Lenins victory at the tenth party congress in March 1921, Krestinsky lost his Politburo, Orgburo and Secretariat posts and became Soviet ambassador to Germany. The post was an important and sensitive one because of Soviet Russias crucial and delicate relationship with Germany at the time, Krestinsky supported Trotsky and the Left Opposition in 1923 – early 1927, but distanced himself from Trotsky later in 1927. He completely broke with the opposition in April 1928, Krestinsky continued working as a diplomat until 1937, when he was arrested during the Great Purges. He was put on trial on 12 March 1938, while almost all other defendants admitted their guilt during the Moscow Show Trials, Krestinsky at first denied everything, but reversed himself the following day. On 2 March he said to the judge, Vasili Ulrikh. I was never a member of the right-winger and Trotskyite bloc, nor have I committed a single one of the crimes imputed to me, personally, and in particular I am not guilty of having maintained relations with the German Secret Service. And instead of saying, Yes, I am guilty, I almost mechanically answered, No, such a reversion was a rare episode in the show trials of the late 1930s. Krestinsky was sentenced to death and executed in March 1938 and he was partially exonerated during Nikita Khrushchevs partial destalinization and was cleared of all charges during perestroika
31.
Grigori Sokolnikov
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Grigori Yakovlevich Sokolnikov was a Russian old Bolshevik revolutionary, economist, and Soviet politician. Grigori Sokolnikov was born Girsh Yankelevich Brilliant to a doctor in Romny on 15 August 1888. He moved to Moscow as a teenager and joined the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1905 and he served time in prison and studied economics whilst at the Sorbonne. He returned to Russia in April 1917 along with Vladimir Lenin in the sealed train, grigori Sokolnikov was a member of the first Politburo, with seven members, Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Stalin, Sokolnikov and Bubnov. After the October Revolution, he held government positions. He was a member of the Joffe led delegation for peace negotiations with Germany, later, alongside Rosalia Zemlyachka, he became commissar of the Eighth army, using this position to order mass shootings during the Russian Civil War. He was appointed Peoples Commissar of Finance following the introduction of the New Economic Policy, bajanov also notes that despite Sokolnikovs past in the Red Army, he was not ruthless in his personality. Privately, Sokolnikov lost faith in the Soviet Union under Stalin, Sokolnikov was appointed instead as vice-chairman of Gosplan, the new economic planning agency and later as head of an oil company. He was the Soviet ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1929 to 1932, during the Great Purge, Sokolnikov was arrested in 1937 and tried at the Trial of the Seventeen. He was sentenced to ten years of imprisonment, reportedly, he was killed in a prison by other convicts on 21 May 1939. A post-Stalin investigation during the Khrushchev Thaw revealed that the murder was orchestrated by the NKVD, in 1988, during perestroika, he was rehabilitated along with many other victims of the Great Purge. Soviet Policy in Public Finance, 1917–1928, by Gregory Y, Sokolnikov & Associates, translated by Elena Varneck, edited by Lincoln Hutchinson & Carl C. Grigory Sokolnikov Archive, part of Marxists Internet Archive, grigorii Yakovlevich Sokolnikov and the development of the Soviet state, 1921–1929
32.
Nikolay Alexandrovich Milyutin
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Nikolay Alexandrovich Milyutin, alternatively transliterated as Miliutin was a Russian trade union and Bolshevik activist, participant in the October Revolution in Petrograd. Milyutin is, however, remembered as a planner and an amateur architect, author of Sotsgorod concept. Despite fathers wishes, teenager Nikolay was not inclined to business, rather, he tried to get an education and at the same time was involved in politics. Around 1904 he made contacts with socialist democrats, he took part in the Bloody Sunday rally of January 221905, Milyutin looked for a training in architecture but lacked the secondary education required by established state colleges. Through all these years Milyutin held a variety of jobs to make a living, he joined the Bolshevik faction of socialist-democrats in 1908. After the beginning of World War I the government shut down the unions and crushed Bolshevik local cells, in 1915 he was drafted into the army but never saw active combat service, always stationed near Saint Peterburg and engaged in Bolshevik operations. Milyutin made personal contact with Vladimir Lenin on the day of his return from emigration in April 1917, later he and his company held defences against Kornilov threat and stormed the Winter Palace on the night of October Revolution. In the beginning of 1918 Milyutin volunteered into Red Guards but the Petrograd Soviet called him back to civilian duties, Milyutin, as the Commissar of Finance, was the client and sponsor of the Narkomfin Building by Moisei Ginzburg and Ignaty Milinis. Since 1928 Milyutin also chaired the Commission on New town Planning and collaborated with theoreticians Moisei Ginzburg and Mikhail Okhitovich on the planned housing and development policies. Since 1930 he chaired the Housing Commission within the Communist Academy and edited Sovetskaya Arkhitektura magazine, unlike the latter, which was the voice of OSA Group, Milytins magazine provided space for rival groups at the same time being in opposition to outright revivalism and eclecticism. In the second half of 1930s Milyutin gradually stepped aside from duties, he continued writing his General Theory of Architecture. His last significant appointment was that of director on the construction site of the Palace of Soviets in Moscow. In 1940 he finally obtained a diploma at the Moscow Architectural Institute. Milyutin was confined to bed by summer of 1941, he died in Moscow in October 1942, later, his life story was contaminated with the events of the life of his contemporary Vladimir Milyutin, Commissar of Agriculture and also a Central Planning theoretician and executive. Vladimir Milyutin was executed for counter-revolutionary charges, Nikolay Milyutin died in his own bed, Milyutins concept of city development outlined in his 1930 book, Sotsgorod, was superficially similar to an earlier de-urbanist concept of a linear city put forward by Mikhail Okhitovich. Unlike Okhitovich, whose city was terminated with industrial hubs and thus limited in growth. Milyutin proposed various floorplans for low-cost communal housing and patented a low-cost girderless ceiling structure, one of his proposals, published in 1932, materialized in practice. The building themselves were working class barracks of a transitional type – high density cells without the amenities of traditional urban apartments, each building consisted of two blocks, set back against each other and merging at a common staircase
33.
Varvara Yakovleva (politician)
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Varvara Nikolaevna Yakovleva was a prominent Bolshevik party member and Soviet government official who later supported Leon Trotskys attempt to democratize the party. She was sentenced to 20 years in prison in 1938 for membership in a diversionary terrorist organization and she was shot in the Oryol Central Prison on either September 11,1941 or December 21,1944. Yakovleva was born to parents in Moscow in 1884 and joined the Bolshevik Party when she was 20. During the 1905 Revolution, she was assaulted by the breasts. She was a candidate for membership in the Bolshevik Central Committee in 1917 and she took notes at the meeting that set the date for the October Revolution of 1917. From March 1918 on she was a member of the board of the NKVD and worked in the Moscow Cheka, from January 1919, as a board member of the Peoples Commissariat of Food, she led food inspections and parties that requisitioned food as a punitive measure. She was known for her severity in this matter, in October 1918 she opposed peace with the Germans. She was regarded as a left-wing Communist, in 1922 she became the Acting Minister for Education for the Russian Federation and in 1929 was named the Minister of Finance. Yakovleva was in favor of the politician Nikolai Bukharins position on trade unions in 1920–1921, in 1923 she signed the Letter of the 46, along with forty-five others, in support of Trotskys attempt to reform the Communist party. Following the Third Moscow Trial in 1937, she was arrested and accused of being a member of a terrorist group. She was sentenced to 20 years in prison and, after the start of World War II, was shot to death on the orders of Lavrentiy Beria in the Oryol central prison, different records give her date of death as 1941 or 1944. Her reputation was rehabilitated in 1958
34.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
35.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
