1.
Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina encompasses the countrys ancient heritage, architecture, literature, visual arts, music, cinema, sports and cuisine. The rock-carving by an artist found in Badanj Cave near the city of Stolac dates back to Paleolithic times and it represents the death of a horse under a rain of arrows. It is the oldest Paleolithic finding in southeast Europe, there is also a rich legacy of Neolithic culture in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Particularly beautiful items have been found in Butmir near Sarajevo, during the Bronze Age, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Illyrian tribes such as the Japods in Bihać and the Daors in Daorson, near Stolac. They were directly influenced by the Greeks, as seen in Daorson especially, the Illyrians were conquered by the Romans, who left roads, bridges, and beautiful villas with mosaics all over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The best preserved examples are at Mogorjelo near Čapljina and the mosaics at Stolac, the Christian basilica are found throughout the country, and their carved stone stonework influenced the first original medieval Bosnian art, found on tombstones – stećak. It is written in Bosnian Cyrillic and it referred to the people of Bosnia - Bosnianins. The Charter was an agreement between Bosnia and the Republic of Dubrovnik. The most important item in the National Museum in Sarajevo is the Sarajevo Haggadah, other important items include Hrvojev’s mass and Hval’s codex, both Bosnian books of liturgy produced in Croatia at the start of the 15th century, a 16th-century Kur’an and Leontiev’s New Testament. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a literary heritage. Matija Divković, Bosnian Franciscan and writer is considered to be the founder of the literature of Bosnia. Notable poets include Antun Branko Šimić, Aleksa Šantić, Jovan Dučić, the National Theater was founded 1919 in Sarajevo and its first director was famous playwright Branislav Nušić. Magazines such as Novi Plamen, Most and Sarajevske sveske are some of the more prominent publications covering cultural, the visual arts in Bosnia and Herzegovina were always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones to paintings in Kotromanić court. However, it was the Austro-Hungarian occupation in 1878 that led to the renaissance of Bosnian painting, the first artists trained in European academies emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. These included Gabrijel Jurkić, Petar Tiješić, Karlo Mijić, Špiro Bocarić, Petar Šain, Đoko Mazalić, Roman Petrović and their generation was succeeded by artists such as Ismet Mujezinović, Vojo Dimitrijević, Ivo Šeremet and Mica Todorović. The Ars Aevi museum of art in Sarajevo includes works by artists renowned worldwide. The most popular traditional Bosnian and Herzogovinian song forms of relatively recent origin are the Bosnian root music, ganga, the rera, other popular surviving forms from the Ottoman era is the sevdalinka. Bosnia is home to the composer Dušan Šestić, creator of the current national anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina and father of singer Marija Šestić, Sarajevo Film Festival, founded in 1995, has become the biggest and most influential in southeast Europe
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History of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes referred to simply as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe on the Balkan Peninsula. It has had permanent settlement since the Neolithic Age when it was peopled by Illyrians, christianity arrived in the 1st century, and by the 4th century the area became part of the Western Roman Empire. Germanic tribes invaded soon after, followed by Slavs in the 6th Century, in 1136, Béla II of Hungary invaded Bosnia and created the title Ban of Bosnia as an honorary title for his son Ladislaus II of Hungary. During this time, Bosnia became virtually autonomous, and was proclaimed a kingdom in 1377. The Ottoman Empire followed in 1463 and lasted over 400 years and they wrought great changes to the political and administrative system, introduced land reforms, and class and religious distinctions. A series of uprisings began 1831, which culminated in the Herzegovinian rebellion, the conflict eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, and Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia, three years of war began in 1992 which caused around 100,000 deaths and 2 million refugees. Bosnia has been inhabited at least since Neolithic times, in the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th and 3rd century BCE displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Christianity had already arrived in the region by the end of the 1st century, following events from the years 337 and 395 when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the Western Roman Empire. The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455, and further exchanged hands between the Alans and Huns in the years to follow, by the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had re-conquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. More South Slavs came in a wave, and according to some scholars were invited by Emperor Heraclius to drive the Avars from Dalmatia. Modern knowledge of Bosnia in the western Balkans during the Dark Ages is patchy and it was also around this time that the Bosnians were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process. It is only from the 9th century that Frankish and Byzantine sources begin to mention early Slavic polities in the region, however, they all too often found themselves in a tug-of-war between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. In the year of 1137, Hungary annexes most of Bosnia, the first recorded Ban was Ban Borić, vassal to the Hungarian king. However, he was deposed when he backed the loser in a crisis over the Hungarian throne. In 1167, Byzantium reconquered Bosnia and eventually emplaced their own vassal as Ban – the native Ban Kulin, however, this vassalage was largely nominal, and Bosnia had for all practical purposes made itself into an independent state under Kulin
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Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The census results are contested by the Republika Srpska statistical office and by Bosnian Serb politicians, who oppose the inclusion of non-permanent Bosnian residents in the figures. The European Unions statistics office, Eurostat, however concluded the methodology used by the Bosnian statistical agency to be in line with international recommendations. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, religion is linked to ethnicity, i. e. most Bosniaks are Muslim, Serbs are Orthodox Christian. Bosnias constitution does not specify any official languages, the equal status of Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian was verified by the Constitutional Court in 2000. As a result, the wording of the entity constitutions was changed, the three languages are mutually intelligible and are also known collectively as Serbo-Croatian. Use of one of the three varieties has become a marker of ethnic identity, michael Kelly and Catherine Baker argue, The three official languages of todays Bosnian state. represent the symbolic assertion of national identity over the pragmatism of mutual intelligibility. All standard varieties are based on the Ijekavian varieties of the Shtokavian dialect, Bosnian and Serbian are written in both Latin and Cyrillic, whereas Croatian is written only in Latin alphabet. There are also speakers of Italian, German, Turkish. Yugoslav Sign Language is used with Croatian and Serbian variants, a 2012 survey found that 54% of Bosnias Muslims are non-denominational Muslims, while 38% follow Sunnism. In Bosnia and Herzegovina religion is linked to ethnicity. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated
4.
Historical Slavic religion
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Slavic mythology is the mythological aspect of the polytheistic religion that was practised by the Slavs before Christianisation. Unlike ancient Greek, Hindu, Chinese or Egyptian mythology, there are no records for the study of Slavic mythology. It has not been proven that the Slavs had any sort of writing system before the arrival of Saints Cyril, fragments of old mythological beliefs and pagan festivals survive up to this day in folk customs, songs, stories and folk-tales of all the Slavic nations. Although Herodotus is himself not convinced by this rumour, he stresses that he has heard some swear it, the identification of Neuri with Proto-Slavs remains controversial, however. According to Procopius, these Slavs worshipped a single deity, who crafted lightning, though not named explicitly, it can be deduced this is a reference to the deity known as Perun in later historic sources, as in many Slavic languages today. Perun simply means thunder or lightning bolt and he also mentions the belief in various demons and nymphs, but does not mention any other names. The Slavic Primary Chronicle is a work with many valuable references to the pagan beliefs of Eastern Slavs. The chronicle treats the history of the early Eastern Slavic state, even though the manuscript was compiled at the beginning of the 12th century, it contains references to and copies of older documents, and describes events predating the Baptism of Kiev. Two deities, Perun and Veles/Volos, are mentioned in the text of the early 10th century peace treaties between pagan rulers of East Slavs and Byzantine Emperors, later, Nestor the Chronicler describes a state pantheon introduced by Prince Vladimir in Kiev in 980 CE. Vladimirs pantheon included Perun, Hors, Dažbog, Stribog, Simargl, the Hypatian Codex of the Primary Chronicle also mentions Svarog, compared to Greek Hephaestus. Also very interesting are the passages in the East Slavic epic The Tale of Igors Campaign referring to Veles, Dažbog, the original epic has been dated to the end of the 12th century, although there are marginal disputes over the authenticity of this work. The most numerous and richest written records are of West Slavic paganism, particularly of Wendish and Polabian tribes, the German missionaries and priests who criticized pagan religion left extensive records of old mythological systems they sought to overcome. However, they restrained themselves from pious lies, claiming pagan Slavs were idolatrous. As none of those missionaries learned any Slavic language, their records are confused and exaggerated, major works include a chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg from the beginning of the 11th century, who described a temple in the city of Riedegost where the great deity Zuarasic was worshipped. According to Thietmar, this was the most sacred place in the land of pagan Slavs, another very valuable document is the Chronica Slavorum written in the late 12th century by Helmold, a German priest. Saxo meticulously described the worship of Svantevit, the associated with it. He also mentioned multi-headed deities of other Slavic tribes, Rugievit, Porewit, according to the manuscript, the most important Slavic deity was Triglav, whose temples in the city of Szczecin were respected oracles. In the cities of Wolgast and Havelberg, the war god Gerovit was worshiped, a corruption of Jarovit
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Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisine
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Bosnian cuisine is closely related to other former Yugoslav cuisines, especially Serbian and Croatian. Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, but usually in moderate quantities, most dishes are light, as they are cooked in lots of water, the sauces are fully natural, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical meat dishes include beef and lamb. Some local specialties are ćevapi, burek, dolma, sarma, pilav, gulaš, ajvar, the best local wines come from Herzegovina where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Plum or apple rakija, is produced in Bosnia, kajmak - a Turkish creamy dairy product, similar to clotted cream Pavlaka - a soured cream product like crème fraîche Ajvar Ramadan pita Vegeta Somun and Ramadan somun. Pogača Djevrek Lepinja Uštipci Meze Wines are produced mainly in Herzegovina, in the regions of Mostar, Čitluk, Ljubuški, Stolac, Domanovići, medovina Kruškovac Pelinkovac Rakija Blatina Žilavka Local spirits are distilled from plums, pears, or grapes, with alcohol content of 45% and higher. Culinary cultures of Europe, identity, diversity and dialogue
6.
Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina
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However, local authorities sometimes restricted the right to worship of adherents of religious groups in areas where such persons are in the minority. 43% of Herzegovinian and Bosnian Muslims are non-denominational Muslims, societal abuses and discrimination based on religious belief and practice persisted. Religious intolerance directly reflected ethnic intolerance because of the virtually indistinguishable identification of ethnicity with religious background, discrimination against religious minorities occurred in nearly all parts of the country. In some communities local religious leaders and politicians contributed to intolerance, a number of illegally constructed religious objects continued to cause ethnic/religious tension and conflict in various communities. Religious symbols were often misused for political purposes, in a 2009 Gallup poll, 77% of respondents in Bosnia and Herzegovina answered yes to the question Is religion an important part of your daily life. In 1800 40% of Bosnians were Orthodox and nearly half were Muslim, Islam peaked in 1600 when three-quarters of Bosnians followed it. Bosniaks are generally associated with Islam, Bosnian Croats with the Roman Catholic Church, today, Muslims constitute 51% of the population, Christians 46%, and other groups 3%. Younger believers who grew up in the post-communist period also have more freedom to practice their religion, ethnic cleansing during the 1992–95 war caused internal migration and refugee flows, which segregated the population into separate ethnoreligious areas. Within the Federation, distinct Muslim and Catholic majority areas remain, for example, the prewar population of the eastern RS town of Bratunac was 64% Bosniak. In 1995 the population was almost completely Serb, in 2007, after the return of 6,500 Bosniaks, similarly, in Prijedor Municipality in the RS, approximately half of the prewar Bosniak population of 49,500 returned, partially reversing the effects of ethnic cleansing. The Serb Orthodox Church maintains its greatest influence in the RS, with the most influential bishops residing in Banja Luka, Trebinje, the Jewish community, like most other small religious groups in Bosnia, including Protestants, has its strongest membership in Sarajevo. There are several small Christian denominations throughout the country, in late 2011, a Rodnover association named Svaroži Krug, was established in the nation as a part of the panslavic Praskozorje movement. There are eight muftis located in municipalities, Sarajevo, Bihać, Travnik, Tuzla, Goražde, Zenica, Mostar. The more conservative Islamic communities in Bosnia are located in such as Travnik, Bocinja/Zavidovici, Tesanj, Maglaj, Bugojno. 38% of Herzegovinian and Bosnian Muslims described themselves as Sunni Muslims while 54% described themselves as nondenominational Muslims, however 7% of Muslims either refused to answer which Muslim branch they belonged to, said they belonged to no Muslim branch or said they did not know. The law also provides the basis for the establishment of relations between the state and religious communities, as a result of the governmental structure created by the Dayton Accords, parliamentary seats and most government positions are apportioned specifically to members of the three constituent peoples. These stipulations often result in discrimination against others and sympathizers of certain religious communities that do not fit neatly into the three groups. Their claims were not addressed during the reporting period, Bosnias state-level government does not officially recognize any religious holy days as an official holiday, and Parliament continued to disagree on a state law on national holidays
7.
Bosnia and Herzegovina art
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Bosnia and Herzegovina art is the genesis and heritage, from the region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and its constituent ethno-religious groups from prehistoric times to today. In the boundaries of today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina there have many layers of prehistory cultures and their creation. Paleolithic in Bosnia and Herzegovina is marked with the oldest monument of Paleolithic in southeastern Europe - engravings in a cave named Badanj near Stolac in Herzegovina, most famous being the Horse attacked by arrows, preserved in fragments and dated around 14500-12000 B. C. During the time when Neolithic and Copper cultures were starting to appear, in Bosnia and Herzegovina began interesting mixture of Mediterranean cultures and those of Panonian cultures. Herzegovina was under the influence of ceramics from western Mediterranean as seen in Green Cave near Mostar, Čairi near Stolac, Lisičići near Konjic. People used to live in caves or simple settlements on hilltops, in the upper mainstream of Bosna river and northeast parts of Bosnia people used to live in wooden houses built along rivers. In that culture we can see influences from Adriatic cultures on south, original expressions of that culture are ceramic pots on four legs, so called – riton. We can find the also in Danilo culture on the Croatian coast, thanks to these pieces, Kakanj culture is considered a part of wide circle of Neolithic nations that followed a cult of life force. Butmir Culture near Sarajevo is distinctive with fine glazed ceramics with miscellaneous geometrical decorations, figures from Butmir are unique sculptures modeled with hand, heads are almost like portraits with emphasized parts of body. Bronze Age settlements in Herzegovina were built like citadels, and in Bosnia we have necropolises with stone tumuli, during that time, bronze arms, decorated plates, flat necklaces and fibulas were decorated with specific geometrical style of engraved ornaments. From 7th century BC bronze is replaced by iron, and only jewelry, Bronze culture of Illyrians, ethnic group with distinct culture and art form started to organize itself on today’s Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Different Illyrian tribes, under the influence of Halstat cultures from north, with the notable exception of Pod near Bugojno in the upper valley of the Vrbas River, nothing is known of their settlements. In eastern Bosnia in the cemeteries of Belotić and Bela Crkva, metal implements appear here side-by-side with stone implements. Most of the remains belong to the fully developed Middle Bronze Age, very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, which is seen in their careful burials and burial ceremonies, as well as richness of the burial cites. In 4th century BC first outbreak of Celts is recorded and they brought the technique of the pottery wheel, new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia, in the Neretva Delta in the south there was important Hellenistic influence of Illyrian tribe Daors. Daors have made their unique bronze coins and sculptures, finally, Romans subdued the Illyrians in first century BC, and after that the history of these parts is history of Illyrian provinces of Rome and Byzantium. In Bosnia and Herzegovina Romans built several small temples decorated with reliefs, the complex of step sanctuary in Gradac near Posušje from year 184 AD had marble temple dedicated to recently deceased emperor Marcus Aurelius
8.
Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Like the surrounding Balkan countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina has had a turbulent past marked by frequent foreign invasions and occupation. As a result, Bosnian music is now a mixture of the national Slavic folklore with some Turkish influences along with influences from the part of the world. Rural folk traditions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include the shouted, polyphonic ganga and ravne pjesme styles, as well as instruments like a droneless bagpipe, wooden flute, the gusle, an instrument found throughout the Balkans, is also used to accompany ancient Slavic epic poems. There are also Bosnian folk songs in Ladino, derived from the areas Jewish population, Bosnian roots music came from the Middle Bosnia, Posavina, Drina valley and Kalesija. It is usually performed by singers with two violinists and a šargija player and these bands first appeared around World War I and became popular in the 1960s. This is the third oldest music following after the sevdalinka and ilahija and it is thought to be brought from Persia-Kalesi tribe that settled in the area of present Sprecanski valleys and hence probably the name Kalesija. In this part of Bosnia it is the most common, again, it became the leader of First World War onwards, as well as 60 years in the field Sprecanski doline. In Kalesija its maintained each year with the Bosnian Festival Original music, studio Kemix firm Dzemal Dzihanovic from Živinice together with his artists brought this kind of music to perfection at the end 20th century. With its entirely new form of modernity, it is most common in the Tuzla Canton, sevdalinkas were traditionally performed with a saz, a Turkish string instrument, which was later replaced by the accordion. However the more modern arrangement, to the derision of some purists, is typically a vocalist accompanied by the accordion along with drums, upright bass, guitars, clarinets. Sevdalinkas are unique to Bosnia and Herzegovina and they arose in Ottoman Bosnia as urban Bosnian music with often oriental and sometimes Sefardi influences. Examples are Kad ja pođoh na Benbašu, the anthem of the city of Sarajevo. Ilahije are religious songs that came after or before sevdalinkas and these songs usually deal with religion, but some of them tell tales of how two lovers come together. Modern folk was referred to as novokomponovana narodna muzika for a while and it is based on various influences, sevdah stories with music of Serbia and/or Turkey often with incorporated elements of pop music. During the time of former Yugoslavia, the genre developed jointly in Bosnia and Serbia, Bosnian composers of film scores include Saša Lošić and Nihad Hrustanbegovic Rock music has been very popular in Bosnia and Herzegovina since the mid-20th century. In the mid 80s, two bands were formed in capital Sarajevo, Bombarder and Parasite from which D. throne emerged as next generation in 1991. One of the pioneer trash metal bands Monolit was founded in Mostar also during the 80s, modern extreme metal scene originate from city of Tuzla. Some notable acts include, Bosnian electronic/dance music has also very popular in Bosnia
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Media of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The media of Bosnia and Herzegovina refers to mass media outlets based in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Television, radio, magazines and newspapers are all operated by both state-owned and for-profit corporations which depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. As a country in transition with a legacy and a complex domestic political structure, Bosnia. Yet, internationally backed positive developments have been obstructed by domestic elites. High levels of partisanship and linkages between the media and the political systems hinder the adherence to professional code of conducts, during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, most media became propaganda tools of the authorities, armies, and factions - with the exception of Sarajevos Oslobodjenje. Since then, efforts have been made - with limited success - to develop media which bridge ethnic boundaries, freedom of expression and media freedom is guaranteed by the entity constitutions too. Other relevant laws are the Law on Protection from Defamation, which regulates libel and defamation, Defamation was decriminalised in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2002. The law provides for freedom of speech and press, however, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina law prohibits hate speech. The Republika Srpska law does not specifically proscribe hate speech, although the law prohibits causing ethnic, racial, independent analysts note a continuing tendency of politicians and other leaders to label unwanted criticism as hate speech. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, the Communications Law also regulates media concentration and ownership issues. The CRA has adopted a Rule on Media Concentration and Cross-ownership, as referred by the Communications Law, the Competition Law provides further rules on market concentration. In practice, though, the process can be cumbersone and discourage journalists from requesting official information. “ The laws regulating public broadcasters foresee similar standards, despite of these codes, there are still concerns about the proper following of professional standards. The BiH Electoral Commission has adopted in 2005 the Rules on Media Presentation of Political Subjects in the Election Period, there is no registrar of on-line media in Bosnia Herzegovina and they do not require an operating licence. In the last years, the Press Council in BIH has committed itself to drafting a regulation in this area that would be based on the principle of self-regulation. In 2013, the Ministry of Communication started to draft a New Media Law, including the regulation of the internet and this initiative raised some concerns, as it was expected to include limitations such as permits and licences Professionalism and quality journalism are rare in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journalists receive relatively lower salaries, despite holding higher degrees, work overload and time pressure pushes journalists to present unsupported evidence or use unreliable sources. Online media also often fail to respect copyright standards, many journalists work without proper work contracts, often hired to work regular working hours, or even longer, without having their health care and pension funds covered. The Communications Regulatory Agency is charged with regulating the countrys radio and television media, the Law on Communications guarantees its independence and prevents Council of Ministers, individual ministers, or any other person to influence its decisions
10.
Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The national flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow right triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag. The remainder of the flag is blue with seven full five-pointed white stars. The three points of the stand for the three constituent peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. The triangle represents the shape of the territory of Bosnia. The stars, representing Europe are meant to be infinite in number, the flag features colours often associated with neutrality and peace – white, blue, and yellow. They are also traditionally associated with Bosnia. The blue background is suggestive of the flag of Europe, the present scheme is being used by both the Council of Europe which owns the flag and the European Union which adopted the Council of Europes flag in 1985. The green flag with the crescent and star pointing to the left was used by Bosniak landlords in border parts in southern and western Herzegovina. The flag was most commonly used in wars and it also accompanied the troops of the Eyalet of Bosnia during the second siege of Khotyn in Bukowina. It differs from Ottoman flag by size and direction of crescent, in the 1830s revolt by Husein Gradaščević the green flag with a yellow crescent and star was used. The revolts aim was for Bosnia to gain autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, in 1878 Bosnia existed briefly as an independent nation. Its flag was similar to the flag used by Husein Gradaščevićs revolt of 1830. It was green with a crescent and star, but had more curvature to a typical Islamic crescent moon symbol. The green/golden flag was in use for only two months. When the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina the flag was changed, the province of Bosnia used the flag that was red and yellow horizontally, but the province of Herzegovina used the same flag but with reversed colors. The coat of arms is one of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, Bosnian noble, the original medieval coat of arms had a white background and two red stripes in the top of the shield. Bosnia and Herzegovina also had a new coat of arms during the Yugoslav period and it was a symbol of industrialism in Bosnia at the time. On 6 April 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina gained its independence from Yugoslavia, the flag chosen in 1992 has a white background with the Bosnian Fleur-de-lis in the centre
11.
Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina was adopted in 1998, replacing the previous design that had been in use since 1992 when Bosnia and Herzegovina gained independence. It follows the design of the national flag, the three pointed shield is used to symbolize the three major ethnic groups of Bosnia, as well as allude to the shape of the country. One of the earliest, if not the earliest, coats of arms attributed to Bosnia come from the Fojnica armorial, the Fojnički arms are shown upon a gold shield, two black ragged staffs are crossed in saltire with two Moors heads surmounting the upper portion of each staff. Overall is a red inescutcheon that was charged with an eight-pointed star, in the subsequent centuries, European sources would attribute arms to Bosnia that were heavily influenced by this depiction. The crest is a plume of feathers that sit within a coronet of fleur de lys. The House of Kotromanić reigned until 1463 when the Ottomans conquered the region, the heraldic display of the kings would later be the basis for the arms adopted by the republic in 1992. After Herzegovina and Bosnia were occupied by the Austrian-Hungarian Empire in 1878, the heraldic achievement of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača served as inspiration, who was a fifteenth-century nobleman that ruled over the region as Grand Duke of Bosnia and Herzeg of St. Sava. His armorial bearings displayed both a red armoured arm brandishing a sword and a red lion rampant upon a white shield, Herzegovina would be given a red shield with a bare arm holding a broken lance for its coat of arms in this same fashion. The coat of arms of Bosnia would be gold with a red armoured arm issuing out of clouds, though both condominia fell under the crown of Hungary, only Bosnia would be included in the greater arms of the Hungarian Kings. The emblem, along with the flag, of the socialist Republic of Bosnia, the description of the emblem was similar to the other Yugoslav republics. The device had two crossing stems of wheat in front of scheme of a neighborhood with two factory chimneys out of there is smoke. Around the decorative branches and wheat, there is a red track that spirals around, at the top of the emblem is a red star with a golden frame. The red star symbolizes the socialism and communism of Yugoslavia at the time, the device represents the industry Bosnia and Herzegovina had at the time. The factory chimneys show the industry of several important Bosnian, then Yugoslav, towns, all of the Yugoslav republics had similar emblems, but Bosnia and Herzegovina was the only that did not portray nationalistic symbols, representing its multiethnic composition. This was the first emblem ever in the history of both the regions of Herzegovina and Bosnia that was specific to the modern country of Bosnia. The coat of arms of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was similar to that of the Kotromanić dynasty and it had a blue background divided by a white line. The diagonal white line is supposed to symbolize the sword of Tvrtko, the coat of arms was designed in a hurry, right at the beginning of the Bosnian War, which lasted for three years. At the end of the war, there came uproar from the Bosnian Serbs arguing that the coat of arms solely represented Bosniaks, the international community within Bosnia and Herzegovina was the instrument to solve the controversy
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Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
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Western culture
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The term also applies beyond Europe, to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization, or influence. For example, Western Culture includes countries in the Americas and Australasia, whose language, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of Western culture, with the worlds first democratic system of government and major advances in philosophy, science, Greece was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization. European culture developed with a range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism, and mysticism. Rational thinking developed through an age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment. More often an ideology is what will be used to categorize it as a Western society. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today but were Eastern in the past. Since the context is highly biased and context-dependent, there is no agreed definition what the West is and it is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all cultures are, to some extent. Stereotyped views of the West have been labeled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism—the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of the East, as Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly considered the Orient became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Meiji Japan and Qing China for the first time. Thus, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 occurred in the Far East, the Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbors, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom, Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all cultures, it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity. Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves as something between the wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle-Easterners. In the meantime, however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, the Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity
14.
Eastern world
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The term originally had a literal geographic meaning. It contrasted Asia with the cultures and civilizations of Western Europe, traditionally, This includes Central Asia, the Far East, the Middle East or Western Asia, Siberia, and the Indian subcontinent. Most of the people of Asia prefer to identify with their individual nations rather than with their continent, region, or each other and these attitudes can be found throughout the continent. The division between East and West is a product of European cultural history, and of the distinction between European Christendom and the cultures beyond it to the East, with the European colonization of the Americas the East/West distinction became global. The concept of an Eastern, Indian or Oriental sphere was emphasized by ideas of racial as well as religious, such distinctions were articulated by Westerners in the scholarly tradition known as Orientalism and Indology. An intriguing fact to be noted is that Orientalism has been the only Western concept that was about a unified Eastern world and not about any specific region, but rather all of Asia together. People from the Eastern world are known by certain regions in the West as Oriental, while in others, the concept is often another term for the Far East – a region that bears considerable cultural and religious commonality. Eastern philosophy, art, literature, and other traditions, are found throughout the region in places of high importance, such as popular culture, architecture. The spread of Buddhism and Hindu Yoga is partly responsible for this, Eastern culture has developed many themes and traditions. Islam — the majority of the world Muslim population have lived in Asia. Judaism — an ethnic culture and religion originating with the Ancient Israelites/Hebrews in the Fertile Crescent, or what is now Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria and they eventually evolved into the Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jews of the diaspora. Zoroastrianism — the monotheistic religion of Sassanid Persia. Hinduism Jainism Sikhism — a religion that developed in the plains of Punjab in an atmosphere of ideological clash between Islam and Hinduism. Its followers retain spiritual as well as martial qualities, vol.1, Coexisting contemporary civilizations, Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western
15.
Middle Eastern cuisine
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Middle Eastern cuisine is the cuisine of the various countries and peoples of the Middle East. The cuisine of the region is diverse while having a degree of homogeneity, some popular dishes include Kebabs, Dolma, and Doner Kebab. The Middle East includes the formerly known as the Fertile Crescent. Fermentation was also discovered here to leaven bread and make beer in Mesopotamia, as a crossroads between Europe, Asia, the Caucasus and North Africa, this area has long been a hub of food and recipe exchange. During the Persian Empire, the foundation was laid for modern Middle-Eastern food when rice, poultry, figs, dates and nuts were brought by merchants to conquered lands, and spices were brought back from the Orient. Religion has also influenced the cuisine, neither Jews nor Muslims eat pork, chateau Ksara is also very popular for its arak, an alcoholic drink produced in the Levant and Iraq. Al-Maza is Lebanons primary brewery, which was also, at one time, Lebanon has always been well known in the region for its wines and arak, making it an exception when it comes to lack of alcohol in the region. Under the Ottoman Empire, sweet pastries of paper thin phyllo dough, cereals constitute the basis of the Middle Eastern diet, both historically and today. Wheat and rice are the major and preferred sources of staple foods, barley is also widely used in the region and maize has become common in some areas as well. Bread is a universal staple – eaten in one form or another by all classes, aside from bread, wheat is also used in the forms of bulghur and couscous. Burghul is cracked wheat, made by cooking the wheat grains in water, drying it in an oven or in the sun, then breaking it into pieces. Typically, it is cooked in water, with flavorings, much like rice, burghul is also used in making meat pies and as an ingredient in salads, notably in tabbouleh, with chopped parsley, tomato, lemon, and oil. Freekeh is another common grain, made from green wheat. There are many types of produced and consumed in the region. Plain rice is served under grilled meats or with meat/vegetable stews, in more complex rice dishes, there are layers of meat, vegetables, sauces, nuts, or dried fruits. Butter and clarified butter are, traditionally, the medium of cooking. Olive oil is prevalent in the Mediterranean coastal areas, christians use it during Lent, when meat and dairy products are excluded, and Jews use it in place of animal fats such as butter to avoid mixing meat and dairy products. Most regions in the Middle East use spices, typically, a stew will include a small amount of cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, cumin, and coriander
16.
Balkans
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The Balkan Peninsula, or the Balkans, is a peninsula and a cultural area in Eastern and Southeastern Europe with various and disputed borders. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the Serbia-Bulgaria border to the Black Sea, the highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala 2,925 metres in the Rila mountain range. In Turkish, Balkan means a chain of wooded mountains, the name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. A less popular hypothesis regarding its etymology is that it derived from the Persian Balā-Khāna, from Antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains had been called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment, a reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, a third possibility is that Haemus derives from the Greek word haema meaning blood. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhons blood fell on the mountains, from which they got their name. The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, the Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, there is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its meaning of mountain, as in Kod̲j̲a-Balkan, Čatal-Balkan, and Ungurus-Balkani̊. The concept of the Balkans was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, during the 1820s, Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers. Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term, zeunes goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and, to a large extent, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term Balkans again received a negative meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, even in casual usage. A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has an area of about 470,000 km2. It is more or less identical to the known as Southeastern Europe. As of 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria, the current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, the Western Balkans is a neologism coined to describe the countries of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania
17.
Spice
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A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, sometimes, spices may be ground into a powder for convenience. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics or perfume production, the spice trade developed throughout South Asia and Middle East by at least 2000 BCE with cinnamon and black pepper, and in East Asia with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for mummification and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. The word spice comes from the Old French word espice, which became epice, and which came from the Latin root spec, by 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, archaeological excavations have uncovered clove burnt onto the floor of a kitchen, dated to 1700 BCE, at the Mesopotamian site of Terqa, in modern-day Syria. The ancient Indian epic Ramayana mentions cloves, the Romans had cloves in the 1st century CE, as Pliny the Elder wrote about them. In the story of Genesis, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants, in the biblical poem Song of Solomon, the male speaker compares his beloved to many forms of spices. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, the Ebers Papyrus from Early Egyptians that dates from 1550 B. C. E. Describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures, historians believe that nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in Southeast Asia, was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE. Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian port city of Alexandria being the trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade were the monsoon winds, sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans. Spices were among the most demanded and expensive available in Europe in the Middle Ages. Given medieval medicines main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were indispensable to balance humors in food, in addition to being desired by those using medieval medicine, the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages. An example of the European aristocracys demand for spice comes from the King of Aragon and he was specifically looking for spices to put in wine, and was not alone among European monarchs at the time to have such a desire for spice. Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive, from the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice had the monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, and along with it the neighboring Italian city-states. The trade made the region rich and it has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages
18.
Tomato
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The tomato is the edible fruit of Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a tomato plant, which belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The species originated in Central and South America, the Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato originates. Numerous varieties of tomato are widely grown in temperate climates across the world, with greenhouses allowing its production throughout the year, the plants typically grow to 1–3 meters in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its habitat, and grown as an annual in temperate climates. An average common tomato weighs approximately 100 grams and its use as a food originated in Mexico, and spread throughout the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Tomato is consumed in diverse ways, including raw, as an ingredient in dishes, sauces, salads. While tomatoes are botanically fruits, they are considered culinary vegetables. The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl and it first appeared in print in 1595. The native Mexican tomatillo is tomate, meaning fat water or fat thing), when Aztecs started to cultivate the Andean fruit, bigger and red, they called the new species xitomatl. It first appeared in print in 1595, the scientific species epithet lycopersicum means wolf peach, and comes from German werewolf myths. The Italian word, pomodoro was borrowed into Polish, and via Russian, the usual pronunciations of tomato are /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ and /təˈmɑːtoʊ/. The words dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwins 1937 song Lets Call the Whole Thing Off and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has become an American and British slang term. Or Its all the same to me, botanically, a tomato is a fruit, a berry, consisting of the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant. However, the tomato has a lower sugar content than other edible fruits. Typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, rather than at dessert, it is, in the US, considered a culinary vegetable. One exception is that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices, they are acidic enough to process in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as vegetables require. Tomatoes are not the food source with this ambiguity, bell peppers, cucumbers, green beans, eggplants, avocados
19.
Potato
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The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
20.
Onion
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The onion, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable and is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. This genus also contains several other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, the onion. The name wild onion is applied to a number of Allium species and its ancestral wild original form is not known, although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions. The onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant, the onion plant has a fan of hollow, bluish-green leaves and its bulb at the base of the plant begins to swell when a certain day-length is reached. The bulbs are composed of shortened, compressed, underground stems surrounded by fleshy modified scale that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem, in the autumn, the foliage dies down and the outer layers of the bulb become dry and brittle. The crop is harvested and dried and the onions are ready for use or storage, the crop is prone to attack by a number of pests and diseases, particularly the onion fly, the onion eelworm, and various fungi cause rotting. Some varieties of A. cepa, such as shallots and potato onions, Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are served cooked, as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes, the onion plant, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum, a. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation, but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely related species include A. vavilovii and A. asarense from Iran, however, Zohary and Hopf state that there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop. The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the common onion group and are referred to simply as onions. The Aggregatum group of cultivars includes both shallots and potato onions, the genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, Egyptian onion, and Canada onion. The onion plant has grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years. It is a plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm, the leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side and they are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper towards a blunt tip. The base of leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc
21.
Garlic
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Garlic is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, garlic is native to the region between the Mediterranean and China, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant and it grows up to 1.2 m in height. Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 and it is pollinated by bees and other insects. Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized, the wild garlic, crow garlic, and field garlic of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale and Allium canadense, known as garlic or wild garlic. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek, and not a true garlic, single clove garlic originated in the Yunnan province of China. A. sativum var. ophioscorodon Döll, called Ophioscorodon, or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic and it is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, in colder climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring or early summer. The cloves must be planted deep enough to prevent freeze/thaw, which causes mold or white rot, Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, when selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic, the latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small. Garlic scapes are removed to all the garlics energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked, Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases
22.
Bell pepper
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The bell pepper is a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum. Cultivars of the plant produce fruits in different colors, including red, yellow, orange, green, chocolate/brown, vanilla/white, bell peppers are sometimes grouped with less pungent pepper varieties as sweet peppers. The whitish ribs and seeds inside bell peppers may be consumed, peppers are native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. Pepper seeds were imported to Spain in 1493, and from there spread to other European, African, today, China is the worlds largest pepper producer, followed by Mexico and Indonesia. Ideal growing conditions for peppers include warm soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C. Bell peppers are sensitive to an abundance of moisture and extreme temperatures, the misleading name pepper was given by Europeans when Christopher Columbus brought the plant back to Europe. The most commonly used name of the plant family, chile, is of Mexican origin. Botanically speaking, bell peppers are fruit, although they are considered vegetables in culinary contexts. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to a form of a gene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently. This recessive gene is overwritten in the Mexibelle pepper, a variety of bell pepper that produces small amounts of capsaicin. Sweet pepper cultivars produce non pungent capsaicinoids, with many physiological effects similar to the more pungent sister compound capsaican, the terms bell pepper, pepper, and capsicum are often used for any of the large bell shaped fruits, regardless of their color. In British and Canadian English, the fruit is referred to as a pepper, or additionally by color, whereas in the United States and Malaysia. In parts of the U. S. Midwest, bell peppers are called mangoes, Canadian English uses both bell pepper and pepper interchangeably. In some languages, the term paprika, which has its roots in the word for pepper, is used for both the spice and the fruit – sometimes referred to by their color, the bell pepper is called パプリカ or ピーマン in Japan. In Switzerland, the fruit is called peperone, which is the Italian name of the fruit. In France, it is called poivron, with the root as poivre or piment. In South Korea, the word 피망 refers to bell peppers. In Sri Lanka, the used as a vegetable is called maalu miris
23.
Cucumber
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Cucumber is a widely cultivated plant in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae. It is a vine that bears cucumiform fruits that are used as vegetables. There are three varieties of cucumber, slicing, pickling, and seedless. Within these varieties, several cultivars have been created, in North America, the term wild cucumber refers to plants in the genera Echinocystis and Marah, but these are not closely related. The cucumber is originally from South Asia, but now grows on most continents, many different types of cucumber are traded on the global market. The cucumber is a vine that roots in the ground and grows up trellises or other supporting frames, wrapping around supports with thin. The plant may also root in a medium and will sprawl along the ground if it does not have supports. The vine has large leaves form a canopy over the fruits. The fruit of cultivars of cucumber is roughly cylindrical, but elongated with tapered ends. Botanically speaking, the cucumber is classified as a pepo, a type of berry with a hard outer rind. Much like tomato and squash, it is perceived, prepared. Cucumber fruits are more than 90% water. A few cultivars of cucumber are parthenocarpic, the blossoms creating seedless fruit without pollination, pollination for these cultivars degrades the quality. In the United States, these are grown in greenhouses. In Europe, they are outdoors in some regions. Most cucumber cultivars, however, are seeded and require pollination, thousands of hives of honey bees are annually carried to cucumber fields just before bloom for this purpose. Cucumbers may also be pollinated by bumblebees and several other bee species, most cucumbers that require pollination are self-incompatible, so pollen from a different plant is required to form seeds and fruit. Some self-compatible cultivars exist that are related to the Lemon cultivar, symptoms of inadequate pollination include fruit abortion and misshapen fruit
24.
Carrot
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The carrot is a root vegetable, usually orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist. Carrots are a form of the wild carrot, Daucus carota, native to Europe. The plant probably originated in Persia and originally cultivated for its leaves, the most commonly eaten part of the plant is the taproot, although the greens are sometimes eaten as well. The domestic carrot has been bred for its greatly enlarged, more palatable. The carrot is a plant in the umbellifer family Apiaceae. At first, it grows a rosette of leaves while building up the enlarged taproot, fast-growing cultivars mature within three months of sowing the seed, while slower-maturing cultivars are harvested four months later. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization reports that production of carrots and turnips for the calendar year 2013 was 37.2 million tonnes. Carrots are widely used in many cuisines, especially in the preparation of salads, in Old English, carrots were not clearly distinguished from parsnips, the two were collectively called moru or more. Various languages still use the word for carrot as they do for root. Molecular and genetic studies, along with history, support the idea that the cultivated/domesticated carrot has a single origin in Central Asia. The wild ancestors of the carrot are likely to have originated in Persia, which remains the centre of diversity for Daucus carota, when they were first cultivated, carrots were grown for their aromatic leaves and seeds rather than their roots. Carrot seeds have been found in Switzerland and Southern Germany dating back to 2000–3000 BC, some close relatives of the carrot are still grown for their leaves and seeds, for example, parsley, cilantro/coriander, fennel, dill and cumin. Three different types of carrots are depicted, and the states of them that the root can be cooked. The plant appears to have been introduced into Spain by the Moors in the 8th century, in the 10th century, in worldwide locations like West Asia, India and Europe, the roots were purple. The modern carrot originated in Afghanistan at about this time, the Jewish scholar Simeon Seth describes both red and yellow carrots in the 11th century. The 12th-century Arab-Andalusian agriculturist, Ibn al-Awwam, also mentions roots of these colours, cultivated carrots appeared in China in the 14th century, and in Japan in the 18th century. Orange-coloured carrots appeared in the Netherlands in the 17th century, which has been related to the fact that the Dutch flag at the time, the Princes Flag, included orange. These, the carrots, were intended by the English antiquary John Aubrey when he noted in his memoranda
25.
Cabbage
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Cabbage or headed cabbage is a leafy green or purple biennial plant, grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the cabbage, B. oleracea var. oleracea. Cabbage heads generally range from 0.5 to 4 kilograms, smooth-leafed firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed red and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colors seen more rarely. Under conditions of long sunlit days such as are found at high latitudes in summer. Some records are discussed at the end of the history section and it is difficult to trace the exact history of cabbage, but it was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 1000 BC, although savoys were not developed until the 16th century. By the Middle Ages, it had become a prominent part of European cuisine, cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports that production of cabbage. Almost half of these crops were grown in China, where Chinese cabbage is the most popular Brassica vegetable, cabbages are prepared in many different ways for eating. They can be pickled, fermented for dishes such as sauerkraut, steamed, stewed, sautéed, braised, cabbage is a good source of vitamin K, vitamin C and dietary fiber. Contaminated cabbage has been linked to cases of illness in humans. Cabbage is a member of the genus Brassica and the mustard family, several other cruciferous vegetables are considered cultivars of B. oleracea, including broccoli, collard greens, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea, the varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for having a head. B. oleracea and its derivatives have hundreds of names throughout the world. Cabbage was originally used to refer to forms of B. oleracea. A related species, Brassica rapa, is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage and it is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as Mauritia, Roystonea oleracea, Acrocomia, the original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix. The word brassica derives from bresic, a Celtic word for cabbage, many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap, meaning head. The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche and this in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce
26.
Edible mushroom
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Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand, edibility may be defined by criteria that include absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their value and they are occasionally consumed for their supposed medicinal value. Mushrooms consumed by those practicing folk medicine are known as medicinal mushrooms, edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivatable and common wild mushrooms are available in markets. Some preparations may render certain poisonous mushrooms fit for consumption, before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be identified. Accurate determination and proper identification of a species is the safe way to ensure edibility. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause reactions in some individuals. Great care should therefore be taken when eating any fungus for the first time and it is therefore better to eat only a few, easily recognizable species, than to experiment indiscriminately. Moreover, even species of mushrooms that normally are edible, may be dangerous, mycophagy /maɪˈkɒfədʒi/, the act of consuming mushrooms, dates back to ancient times. The Chinese value mushrooms for medicinal properties as well as for food, ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat, mushrooms are also easily preserved, and historically have provided additional nutrition over winter. Mushroom cultivation has a history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries with China, the United States, Netherlands, France, a fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Some species are difficult to cultivate, others have not yet been successfully cultivated, some of these species are harvested from the wild, and can be found in markets. When in season they can be purchased fresh, and many species are sold dried as well and it also known as the king bolete, and is renowned for its delicious flavor. It is sought after worldwide, and can be found in a variety of culinary dishes, cantharellus cibarius, The yellow chanterelle is one of the best and most easily recognizable mushrooms, and can be found in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. There are poisonous mushrooms which resemble it, though these can be distinguished if one is familiar with the chanterelles identifying features
27.
Spinach
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Spinach is an edible flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae native to central and western Asia. Its leaves are eaten as a vegetable and it is an annual plant growing to 30 cm tall. Spinach may survive over winter in temperate regions, the flowers are inconspicuous, yellow-green, 3–4 mm in diameter, maturing into a small, hard, dry, lumpy fruit cluster 5–10 mm across containing several seeds. Common spinach, S. oleracea, was considered to be in the family Chenopodiaceae, but in 2003. Within the family Amaranthaceae sensu lato, Spinach belongs to subfamily Chenopodioideae, the English word spinach dates to the late 14th century, and is from espinache, of uncertain origin. The traditional view derives it from O. Prov, Spinach is thought to have originated in ancient Persia. It is not known by whom, or when, spinach was introduced to India, but the plant was introduced to ancient China. The earliest available record of the plant was recorded in Chinese. In AD827, the Saracens introduced spinach to Sicily, Spinach became a popular vegetable in the Arab Mediterranean and arrived in Spain by the latter part of the 12th century, where it was called raʼīs al-buqūl, the chieftain of leafy greens. Spinach was also the subject of a treatise in the 11th century by Ibn Ḥajjāj. The prickly-seeded form of spinach was known in Germany by no later than the 13th century, Spinach is mentioned in the first known English cookbook, the Forme of Cury, where it is referred to as spinnedge and/or spynoches. Smooth-seeded spinach was described in 1552, Spinach was supposedly the favourite vegetable of Catherine de Medici. Dishes served on a bed of spinach are known as Florentine, during World War I, wine fortified with spinach juice was given to French soldiers weakened by hemorrhage. In a 100 g serving providing only 23 calories, spinach has a high value, especially when fresh, frozen, steamed. It is a source of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, magnesium, manganese, iron. Spinach is a source of the B vitamins riboflavin and vitamin B6, vitamin E, calcium, potassium. Spinach, along with green, leafy vegetables, contains an appreciable amount of iron attaining 21% of the Daily Value in a 100 g amount of raw spinach. For example, the United States Department of Agriculture states that a 100 g serving of cooked spinach contains 3.57 mg of iron, in addition to preventing absorption and use, high levels of oxalates remove iron from the body
28.
Zucchini
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Zucchini or courgette is a summer squash which can reach nearly a meter in length, but is usually harvested immature at 15 to 25 cm. In the British Isles, a fully grown zucchini is referred to as a marrow, along with certain other squashes and pumpkins, it belongs to the species Cucurbita pepo. Zucchini can be dark or light green, a related hybrid, the golden zucchini, is a deep yellow or orange color. In a culinary context, zucchini is treated as a vegetable, botanically, zucchinis are fruits, a type of botanical berry called a pepo, being the swollen ovary of the zucchini flower. Zucchini, like all squash, has its ancestry in the Americas, in the United States, Australia and Germany, the plant is commonly called a zucchini, from Italian, zucchina, diminutive of zucca, gourd, marrow, pumpkin, squash. In the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand, a fully-grown, in South Africa, the fruit is typically harvested as a baby vegetable, approximately finger size, and is referred to as “baby marrows”. The female flower is a golden blossom on the end of each emergent zucchini, the male flower grows directly on the stem of the zucchini plant in the leaf axils, on a long stalk, and is slightly smaller than the female. Both flowers are edible and are used to dress a meal or to garnish the cooked fruit. Firm and fresh blossoms that are slightly open are cooked to be eaten, with pistils removed from female flowers. There are a variety of recipes in which the flowers may be fried as fritters or tempura, stuffed, sautéed, baked. Zucchini, like all squash, has its ancestry in the Americas, however, the varieties of green, cylindrical squash harvested immature and typically called zucchini were developed in northern Italy, long after the introduction of cucurbits from the Americas. Its been cultivated in north of Iran too known as Kachelik, the word zucchini and this culinary variety of C. pepo arose independently and simultaneously in 19th-century Tuscany and northern Italy. Zucca is the Italian word for pumpkin/squash and zucchino/zucchina are diminutive forms, zucchino, the masculine form, is the first form to be documented in writing. The Treccani, Istituto dellEnciclopedia italiana, another highly respected authority, gives zucchina as the main Italian word. Zucchini is used in Italy, Australia, Canada, and the United States, Zucchini is one of the plural forms in English, as well as the singular form. The first records of zucchini in the United States date to the early 1920s and it was almost certainly brought over by Italian immigrants and probably was first cultivated in the United States in California. A1928 report on vegetables grown in New York State treats Zucchini as one among 60 cultivated varieties of C. pepo, when used for food, zucchini are usually picked when under 20 cm in length, when the seeds are still soft and immature. Mature zucchini can be as large as a baseball bat, the larger ones are often fibrous
29.
Plum
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A plum is a fruit of the subgenus Prunus of the genus Prunus. Mature plum fruit may have a waxy coating that gives them a glaucous appearance. This is a wax coating and is known as wax bloom. Dried plum fruits are called dried plums or prunes, although, in American English, prunes are a type of plum. Plums are a group of species. The commercially important plum trees are medium-sized, usually pruned to 5–6 metres height, the tree is of medium hardiness. Without pruning, the trees can reach 12 metres in height and they blossom in different months in different parts of the world, for example, in about January in Taiwan and early April in the United Kingdom. Fruits are usually of medium size, between 1 and 3 inches in diameter, globose to oval, the flesh is firm and juicy. The fruits peel is smooth, with a waxy surface that adheres to the flesh. The plum is a drupe, meaning its fleshy fruit surrounds a single hard seed, Plum has many species, and taxonomists differ on the count. Depending on the taxonomist, between 19 and 40 species of plum exist, from this diversity only two species, the hexaploid European plum and the diploid Japanese plum, are of worldwide commercial significance. The origin of commercially important species is uncertain but may have involved P. cerasifera. Other species of plum variously originated in Europe, Asia and America, the subgenus Prunus is divided into three sections, Sect. It is juicy and can be fresh or used in jam-making or other recipes. Plum juice can be fermented into plum wine, in central England, a cider-like alcoholic beverage known as plum jerkum is made from plums. Dried plums are also sweet and juicy and contain several antioxidants, plums and prunes are known for their laxative effect. This effect has been attributed to compounds present in the fruits, such as dietary fiber, sorbitol. Prunes and prune juice are used to help regulate the functioning of the digestive system
30.
Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
31.
Paprika
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In many languages, but not English, the word paprika also refers to the plant and the fruit from which the spice is made. Although paprika is often associated with Hungarian cuisine, the peppers from which it is made are native to the New World and were introduced to the Old World. Originating in central Mexico, paprika was brought to Spain in the 16th century, the seasoning is also used to add color to many types of dishes. In Spanish, paprika has been known as pimentón since the 16th century, despite its presence in Central Europe since the beginning of Ottoman conquests, it did not become popular in Hungary until the late 19th century. Paprika can range from mild to hot – the flavor also varies from country to country –, sweet paprika is mostly composed of the pericarp, with more than half of the seeds removed, whereas hot paprika contains some seeds, stalks, placentas, and calyces. The red, orange or yellow color of paprika is due to its content of carotenoids, the plant used to make the Hungarian version of the spice was grown in 1529 by the Turks at Buda. Central European paprika was hot until the 1920s, when a Szeged breeder found a plant that produced sweet fruit, the first recorded use of the word paprika in English is from 1896, although an earlier reference to Turkish paprika was published in 1831. The word derives from the Hungarian word paprika, a diminutive of the Serbo-Croatian word papar meaning pepper, paprika and similar words, peperke, piperke, and paparka, are used in various Slavic languages in the Balkans for bell peppers. The exact word paprika entered a number of languages, probably via German. European languages use a similar if not identical word, Czech, Slovak, Italian, Polish, Swedish, Bulgarian, Hebrew, paprika is produced in various places including Hungary, Serbia, Spain, the Netherlands, China, and some regions of the United States. Hungary is a source of commonly-used paprika. Some Spanish paprika, like de la Vera, has a distinct smoky flavor and aroma as it is dried by smoking. As of September 15,2016, McCormicks paprika used peppers grown in the United States, paprika is used as an ingredient in numerous dishes throughout the world. It is principally used to season and color rices, stews, and soups, such as goulash, in the United States, paprika is frequently sprinkled raw on foods as a garnish, but the flavor is more effectively pronounced by heating it in oil. Hungarian paprika is often specified in recipes because it is unique and it is bright red and said to be sweeter than the same paprika grown in other soils and climates. In paprikash, Hungarian paprika is commonly used, in Moroccan cuisine, paprika is usually augmented by the addition of a small amount of olive oil blended into it. The red, orange or yellow color of paprika powder derives from its mix of carotenoids, yellow-orange paprika colors derive primarily from α-carotene and β-carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein and β-cryptoxanthin, whereas red colors derive from capsanthin and capsorubin. In a typical serving size of one teaspoon, paprika supplies 6 calories and is rich in vitamin A, the dictionary definition of paprika at Wiktionary
32.
Smetana (dairy product)
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Smetana is one of the names for a range of sour creams from Central and Eastern Europe. It is a product produced by souring heavy cream. It is similar to crème fraîche, but nowadays mainly sold with 10% to 30% milkfat content depending on the country and its cooking properties are different from crème fraîche and the lighter sour creams sold in the US, which contain 12 to 16% butterfat. It is widely used in cooking and baking, for example, it may be blended with soups, vegetable salads, cole slaw, and meat dishes. It is served with dumplings, or with pancakes and it is also used as a filling in savoury pancakes. Smetana can be blended to a Liptauer-like cheese spread with quark or cottage cheeses, onions, paprika and other spices, Smetana is often used in cooking, as it is high enough in fat not to curdle at higher temperatures. It is used in the preparation of meat stews, such as beef Stroganoff, vegetable stews, casseroles, Smetana does not melt in the oven. Hungarian cooks use it as an ingredient in such as paprikas. The current trend toward reduced-fat content is believed to have resulted in an inferior product, to imitate Hungarian-style cooking and the use of smetana, Hungarian cookbooks recommend using Western sour cream mixed with heavy whipping cream. Unlike sour cream mixed with whipping cream, smetana is not a homogenized product, in Central European countries, such as the Czech Republic, Smetana is produced by skimming cream from the surface of churned milk, and the term may refer to sweet cream or soured cream. It should contain at least 10% fat, Smetana that has at least 30% fat is called Smetana ke šlehání and it is used in gravies served with Bohemian cuisine, such as marinated beef Svíčková, which is similar to German Sauerbraten. Schmant mit Glumse is used in Prussian and other Germanic cuisines, of note, it is not only used in savory dishes, but also for cakes called Schmandkuchen and desserts. In 1677 a German Medical book recommends Schmant or Milchraam as the best substance of the milk, schmand is the cream of the milk, or foam that rises up, like the white on the beer. Schmand or Schmant also describes other fatty foamy material and is known as byproduct of mining for example in vitriol development, the Balkan name for fattier variances of Smetana, Mileram is probably a variation of earlier German name for the product Müllerrahm meaning millers cream. When comparing brands or suppliers of smetana, the Polish and Russian practice is to compare the fat content of the varieties, fat content can range from 10% to 70%. The most common supermarket smetanas are 10 to 40% fat, farmers smetana should be used instead. Smântână is a Romanian dairy product that is produced by separating the milk fat through decantation and it will not curdle when cooked or if added to hot dishes. Smântână taste is tangy and sweet, a soured Smântână is considered as spoiled, the word is a cognate with Slavic smetana
33.
Kaymak
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Kaymak is a creamy dairy product similar to clotted cream, made from the milk of water buffalos, cows, sheep, or goats in Central Asia, some Balkan countries, Turkic regions, Iran and Iraq. The traditional method of making kaymak is to boil the milk slowly, after the heat source is shut off, the cream is skimmed and left to chill for several hours or days. Kaymak has a percentage of milk fat, typically about 60%. It has a thick, creamy consistency and a rich taste, the word kaymak has Central Asian Turkic origins, possibly formed from the verb kaymak, which means melt and molding of metal in Turkic. The first written records of the word kaymak is in the book of Mahmud al-Kashgari. Shops in Turkey have been devoted to production and consumption for centuries. Kaymak is mainly consumed today for breakfast along with the traditional Turkish breakfast, one type of kaymak is found in the Afyonkarahisar region where the water buffalo are fed from the residue of poppy seeds pressed for oil. Kaymak can also describe the creamy foam in the traditional black Turkish coffee, Kaymak is traditionally eaten with baklava and other Turkish desserts, fruit preserve and honey or as a filling in pancakes. The most expensive kajmak is the freshest one which is only a day or two old and it can keep for weeks in the fridge but it becomes hardened and not as tasty as the fresh kajmak. Kajmak can also be matured in dried animal skin sacks, the word Kajmak can also describe the creamy foam in the traditional black Turkish coffee in the Balkans. It is usually enjoyed as an appetizer, but also as a condiment, the simplest recipe is lepinja sa kajmakom consumed for breakfast or as fast food. Bosnians, Montenegrins, Serbs, and Macedonians consider it a national meal, other traditional dishes with kajmak include pljeskavica sa kajmakom, as well as ribić u kajmaku. In Iraq, it is called Gaimar or Qaimar and is very popular, possibly derived from the ancient Sumerian word Gamur or Gaar which means cheese. Gaimar is usually served for breakfast with bread, honey or jam. Two sources to buy Gaimar in Iraq, factory produced or local vendors who are commonly named Arab, Arbans or Madan and it is usually made from the milk of water buffalos which are prevalent in the marshes of Southern Iraq. Another Iraqi dish usually served with Kaimar is Kahi, a type of Iraqi pastry popular in Baghdad, Iraqi Jews of Southern Iraq traditionally serve Gaimar on a kahi bread and flavor it with date honey during Shavuot. In Iran, the words kaymak and Sarshir are both used to name this type of cream, in Afghanistan, kaymak are has a much thinner quality and is eaten for breakfast meals usually with bread. Malai The Poppy Growers of İsmailköy Davidson, Alan, ISBN 0-19-211579-0 travelserbia. info Media related to Kaymak at Wikimedia Commons The famous kaymak breakfast of Pando Usta at Beşiktaş, Istanbul Kaymak recipe Atour Foods Inc
34.
Lamb and mutton
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Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of domestic sheep at different ages. A sheep in its first year is called a lamb, the meat of a juvenile sheep older than one year is hogget, outside North America this is also a term for the living animal. The meat of a sheep is mutton, a term only used for the meat. The term mutton is almost always used to refer to meat in the Indian subcontinent. Lamb is the most expensive of the three types, and in recent decades sheep meat is increasingly only retailed as lamb, sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, in Australia, the term prime lamb is often used to refer to lambs raised for meat. The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries, younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal, baby lamb meat will be pale pink, while regular lamb is pinkish-red. Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear, hogget — A term for a sheep of either sex having no more than two permanent incisors in wear, or its meat. Still common in farming usage, it is now rare as a domestic or retail term for the meat, Much of the lamb sold in the UK is hogget to an Antipodean farmer. Mutton — a female or castrated male sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear, under United States law, lamb is defined in terms of mutton, The term lamb means meat, other than mutton, produced from sheep. Under current federal regulations, only the lamb is used, Lamb — ovine animals of any age, including ewes and rams The terms mutton. Nevertheless, the use of lamb in the United States may be confusing. Under the previous definition, lamb meant meat, other than mutton, the term mutton is applied to goat meat in most of these countries, and the goat population has been rising. For example, mutton-curry is always made from goat meat and it is estimated that over one-third of the goat population is slaughtered every year and sold as mutton. The flavour and texture of milk-fed lamb when grilled or roasted is generally thought to be finer than that of older lamb, the areas in northern Spain where this can be found include Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, and La Rioja. Milk-fed lambs are prized for Easter in Greece, when they are roasted on a spit
35.
Islamic dietary laws
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Islamic jurisprudence specifies which foods are halāl and which are harām. Extensions of these rulings are issued, as fatwas, by mujtahids, with varying degrees of strictness, but they are not always widely held to be authoritative. According to the Quran, the only foods explicitly forbidden are meat from animals that die of themselves, blood, the meat of swine, all vegetarian cuisine are halal and allowed for Muslims. However, a person would not be guilty of sin in a situation where the lack of any alternative creates an undesired necessity to consume that which is otherwise unlawful and this is the law of necessity in Islamic jurisprudence, That which is necessary makes the forbidden permissible. Dhabīḥah is a method of ritual animal slaughter, it does not apply to most aquatic animals. The animal must be slaughtered while mentioning the name of God, the animal slaughtered must be killed quickly with a sharpened blade. It must not see the blade and it must not see or smell the blood from a previous slaughter. The main logic given by Islamic clerics is the significance of life, Animals for food may not be killed by being boiled or electrocuted, and the carcass should be hung upside down for long enough to be free of blood. And be conscious of God, unto whom you shall be gathered, a variety of substances are considered as unlawful for humans to consume and, therefore, forbidden as per various Qurʼanic verses, Pork Animals slaughtered in the name of anyone but God. In Islam, consumption of any intoxicants is forbidden in the Quran through several separate verses revealed at different times over a period of years. At first, it was forbidden for Muslims to attend prayers while intoxicated, substances which are intoxicants are not prohibited as such, although their consumption is. For example, alcohol can be used as a disinfectant or for cleaning, the Alevi Muslims of Turkey permit alcohol, unlike many other denominations. Ismaili Muslims are also noted from discouraging, rather than prohibiting, the Zaidi and Mutazili sects believe that the use of alcohol has always been forbidden and refer to this Quran Ayah as feeling of sleepiness and not to be awake. This day have those who despaired of your religion, so fear them not. Consumption of pork and products made from pork is forbidden in Islam. Consumption of rabbit is forbidden among the Alevi people in Turkey, since the turn of the 21st century, there have been efforts to create organizations that certify food products as halal for Muslim consumers in the USA. This can allow companies to export products to most Middle Eastern countries, the oldest and most well-known halal certifier in the United States is called the Islamic Services of America. The institute was established by Islamic intellectual scholars and Muslim scientists to assure the dissemination of halal consumer products, in Europe, several organizations have been created over the past twenty years in order to certify the halal products
36.
Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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They are a native ethnic group of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina have made significant contributions to the culture of Bosnia and their mother tongue is Croatian, and most identify as Roman Catholic, although there is a small minority of atheists. From the 15th to the 19th century, Croats in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina were often persecuted under the Ottoman Empire, in the 20th century, political turmoil and poor economic conditions caused more to emigrate. Ethnic cleansing within Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s saw Croats forced to different parts of Bosnia-Herzegovina, according to the report by the Bosnia and Herzegovina statistics office, on the census of 2013 there were 544,780 Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats settled the areas of modern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 7th century, there, they assimilated with native Illyrians and Romans during the great migration of the Slavs. Red Croatia, to the south, was land of a few minor states, one of the most important events of the Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the early Middle Ages is the First Croatian Assembly held in 753 in Županjac. The second major event was the coronation of Tomislav, the first King of Croatia,925, in the fields of Županjac. By this act, Pannonian Croatia and Dalmatian Croatia formed a united Croatian kingdom, which included Dalmatia and part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Pannonia, and Savia. A basic feature of period in Croatia is its isolation from European cultural and political events which resulted in a small number of secular monuments. In 1102 Croatia entered into a union with the Kingdom of Hungary, after this, Bosnia, which was earlier part of the Kingdom of Croatia, started to disassociate with Croatia. In the 14th century, King Tvrtko I conquered part of western Serbia and later part of the Kingdom of Croatia, thus, the Kingdom of Bosnia emerged, but part of present territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained in the Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia. Another connection of Bosnia with Croatia is that Bosnian rulers always used the title ban in similarity with their Croatian counterparts. The specific religion in medieval Bosnia was Bogomilism and Bosnian Church, so some of the feudal lords in Medieval Bosnia were followers of this religion. Due to the scarcity of records, there are no definite figures dealing with the religious composition of medieval Bosnia. However, Croat scholars generally suggest that a majority of Bosnias medieval population were Catholics who, according to Zlopaša, some 100,000 were Bogomils and other 100,000 were Orthodox Christians. In the middle of the 15th century, Turks started to invade Bosnia, in 1451 they took Vrhbosna province and conquered Bosnia in 1463. Herzegovina was conquered in 1481, while northern Bosnia was still under Hungary and Croatia until 1527, after the Turkish conquest, many Catholic Bosnians converted to Islam, and their numbers in some areas shrank as many fled from fear of conversion and persecution. The present-day boundaries of Bosnia and Herzegovina were made in 1699, in the first 50 years of Ottoman rule, many Catholics fled from Bosnia
37.
Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina are one of the three constitutive nations of the country, predominantly residing in the political-territorial entity of Republika Srpska. In the other entity Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbs form the majority in Drvar, Glamoč, Bosansko Grahovo and they are frequently referred to as Bosnian Serbs in English, regardless of whether they are from Bosnia or Herzegovina. They are also known by names such as Krajišnici, Semberci, Bosanci, Hercegovci. The 2013 population census registered 1,086,733 Serbs or 30. 8% of the population of Bosnia. Bosnian Serbs are the most territorially widespread nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the vast majority live on the territory of the Republika Srpska, where they constitute around 88% of population. The majority of Bosnian Serbs are adherents of the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the Serbian language in its Ijekavian accent, similar to that of Serbs of Montenegro and Croatia, and also to the language of Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats. Slavs settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries, according to De Administrando Imperio, the Serbs had settled what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina. They inhabited and ruled Serbia, which included Bosnia, and the principalities of Travunija, Zahumlje and Paganija. Serbia was at the time ruled by the Vlastimirović dynasty, during the rule of Mutimir, the Serbs were Christianized. Prince Petar, defeated Tišemir in Bosnia, annexing the valley of Bosna, Petar took over the Neretva, after which he seems to have come into conflict with Michael, a Bulgarian vassal ruling Zahumlje. Časlav defeated the Magyars on the Drina river banks when protecting Bosnia, however, after his death, Duklja emerged as the most powerful Serb polity, ruled by the Vojislavljević dynasty. Constantine Bodin installed his relative Stefan as Ban of Bosnia, next, the Nemanjić dynasty acquired the rule of the Serbian lands. With the establishment of the autocephalous Serbian Church, Archbishop Sava founded the Metropolitanate of Zahumlje, with the Ottoman conquest of medieval Serbia, there were large migrations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serb Uprising of 1596–97 was suppressed at Gacko, in 1809, Jančićs Revolt broke out in Gradiška. In 1834, Priest Jovicas Revolt broke out in Gradiška, in 1858, Pecijas First Revolt broke out in Knešpolje. In 1875, the Herzegovina Uprising broke out in the Bosnia Vilayet, on July 2,1876, Golub Babić and his 71 commanders signed the Proclamation of the Unification of Bosnia with Serbia. In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a protectorate of Austria-Hungary, the first parliamentary elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina were held in 1910, the winner was Serbian National Organization. On June 28,1914, Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip made international headlines after assassinating Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo and this sparked World War I leading to Austria-Hungarys defeat and the incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
38.
Dolma
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Dolma is a family of stuffed vegetable dishes common in the Middle East and surrounding regions including the Balkans, the Caucasus, Russia and Central Asia. Common vegetables to stuff include tomato, pepper, onion, zucchini, eggplant, the stuffing may or may not include meat. Meat dolmas are generally served warm, often with tahini, egg-lemon, meatless ones are served cold with yogurt or satziki. Stuffed vegetables are common in Greek cuisine, called gemista, as well as in the Italian cuisine. Dolma is a noun in Turkish for the word dolmak. Dolma without meat is sometimes called yalancı dolma fake dolma in Turkish, versions have been known in Persia since at least as early as the 17th century. In Aleppo, the word يبرق yabraq refers to stuffed vine leaves, while محشي maḥshī refers to stuffed cabbage leaves, an alternative etymology comes from Armenian տոլմա or դոլմա, coming from the words toli, grape leave, and ma, wrapped. Toli as a leave was recorded in the inscriptions of the Kingdom of Van. Initially, in Classical Armenian, the dish was called Tolimis, over time, as often it happens with the endings of Indo-European languages such as Armenian, Tolimis turned into Tolim, followed by Tolima, and finally Tolma. Internationally, the food is called dolma and it is a stuffed vegetable that is hollowed out and filled with stuffing. This applies to zucchini, tomato, pepper, eggplant, and the like, stuffed mackerel, squid, dishes involving wrapping leaves such as vine leaves or cabbage leaves around a filling are called sarma, though in many languages the distinction is usually not made. The filling generally consists of rice, minced meat or grains, in either case, the filling includes onion, herbs like dill, mint or parsley and spices. Meatless fillings are cooked with oil and include raisins or currants, onion. In addition to the traditional dolmas, Armenia has a giant vegan variant called Lenten Dolma and it is wrapped with cabbage leaves, and stuffed with red beans, garbanzo beans, lentils, cracked wheat, tomato paste, onion and many spices and flavorings. Keeping with the Armenian lenten rules, it is vegan, but despite its name of Lenten dolma, pasuts tolma is made of seven different grains – chickpea, bean, lentil, cracked wheat, pea, rice and maize. This dolma is called pasuts because the Christian New Year features the fast days, the seven grains symbolize God’s divine number 7, which is associated with divine perfection and completion. Dolma could be made by using seafood and it is sometimes made with different types of fish or mussels. Midye dolma, is popular in Turkey
39.
Sarma (food)
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It is found in the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire from the Middle East to the Balkans and Central Europe. Sarma comes from Turkish language, from the verb sarmak which means to wrap or to roll, yaprak sarma is sometimes called yaprak dolması filled leaf or simply dolma stuffed thing, although dolma strictly speaking applies to stuffed vegetables, it is often conflated with sarma. Yaprak sarma without meat is usually called yalancı dolma fake dolma, the combination is then boiled for several hours. While specific recipes vary across the region, it is recognized that the best cooking method is slow boiling in large clay pots. A special ingredient, flour browned in fat, is added at the end of the process. Other flavors include cherry tree leaves in some locations, other recipes require the use of pork fat—there are innumerable variations across the region, vegetarian options as well as those made with fish exist. In Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Syria, Sarma is known as waraq inab, the preparation remains the same as in Greek and Turkish cuisines - Grape leaves are harvested and wrapped around minced lamb along with onions and rice, cooked in olive oil. Waraq inab are very labor-intensive, and are served as a mezze to larger plates at family banquets, in Bulgaria during the summer, Sarma are mostly made with vine leaves. The leaves can be pickled for winter use, the filling is made from stewed onion in oil, then fried with rice and all seasoned with salt and pepper. Almost always added carrot, maybe more mushrooms, cheese and more, can be vegetarian or with meat. Often finished leaves are covered with yogurt - clean or seasoned with crushed garlic, eaten as an appetizer or main dish. In autumn and winter, Sarma are more often made with leaves of fresh or pickled cabbage - stuffed cabbage, filling is almost always meat - pork or mixed minced or chopped meat. Sarma are boiled in a mixture of soup and water. It is possible to subsequently to bake them with White sauce - a dense mixture of liquid from boiling, yogurt, egg, due to the large size serves only as a main dish. There is also a version with the same ingredients stuffed into cabbage leaves, cooked with cut pieces of cabbage leaves, they are highly fragmented and are not suitable for turning ordinary cabbage leaves stuffed or when sawing is before canning for faster fermentation. Meatless stuffed cabbage or vine is one of the dishes for Christmas Eve. Stuffed cabbage leaves are one of the components of kapama. Instead of vine or cabbage leaves could be used also the leaves of sorrel, docks, spinach, mangold, beet leaves, etc
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Pilaf
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Pilaf is a dish in which rice is cooked in a seasoned broth. In some cases, the rice may attain its brown or golden colour by first being sauteed lightly in oil before the addition of broth, cooked onion, other vegetables as well as a mix of spices may be added. Depending on the cuisine, it may also contain meat, fish, vegetables, pasta. Pilaf and similar dishes are common to Balkan, Middle Eastern, Caucasian, Central and South Asian, East African, Latin American and Caribbean cuisines. The English term pilaf is borrowed directly from the Turkish pilav, which in turn comes from Persian polow, Hindi pulāo, from Sanskrit pulāka, the English spelling is influenced by the Modern Greek pilafi, which comes from the Turkish pilav. The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata from India, mentions rice and meat cooked together, pilaf was known to have been served to Alexander the Great at a royal banquet following his capture of the Sogdian capital of Marakanda. It is believed that soldiers from Alexanders army brought the preparation of pilaf back to Macedonia, in doing so, he described advantages and disadvantages of every item used for preparing the dish. Accordingly, Uzbeks and Tajiks consider Ibn Sina to be the father of modern pilaf, pilau became standard fare in the Middle East and Transcaucasia over the years with variations and innovations by the Persians, Arabs, Turks, and Armenians. It was introduced to Israel by Bukharan and Persian Jews, during the period of the Soviet Union, the Central Asian versions of the dish spread throughout all Soviet republics, becoming a part of the common Soviet cuisine. Known as pulao, polao, pallao and pulav locally, the dish has been an integral part of the Indian. The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata from India, mentions rice and meat cooked together, and the word pulao or pallao is used to refer to the dish in ancient Sanskrit works, such as Yājñavalkya Smṛti. A pulao is a dish consisting of rice and a mixture of either lentils or vegetables, mainly including peas, potatoes, french beans, carrots or meat, mainly chicken, fish, lamb, pork or prawn. It is usually served on occasions and weddings, though it is not uncommon to eat it for a regular lunch or dinner meal. It is considered high in food energy and fat. A pulao is often complimented with either spiced yogurt or raita, biryani is another rice dish in the Indian cuisine, similar to pulao, albeit with a different cooking method. The main distinction is that a biryani comprises layers of rice with meat or vegetables, Persian culinary terms referring to rice preparation are numerous and have found their way into the neighbouring languages, polov, chelov, kateh and tajine. There are also varieties of different rice dishes with vegetables and herbs which are popular among Iranians. There are four methods of cooking rice in Iran, Chelov, rice that is carefully prepared through soaking and parboiling, at which point the water is drained
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Goulash
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Goulash is a soup or stew of meat and vegetables, seasoned with paprika and other spices. Originating from the medieval Kingdom of Hungary, goulash is also a meal in Central Europe, Eastern Europe. Its origin traces back to the 9th century to stews eaten by Hungarian shepherds, back then, the cooked and flavored meat was dried with the help of the sun and packed into bags produced from sheeps stomachs, needing only water to make it into a meal. It is one of the dishes of Hungary and a symbol of the country. The name originates from the Hungarian gulyás, the word gulya means herd of cattle in Hungarian, and gulyás means herdsman or cowboy. The word gulyás originally meant only herdsman, but over time the dish became gulyáshús – that is to say, today, gulyás refers both to the herdsmen, and to the soup. From the Middle Ages until well into the 19th century, the Puszta was the home of massive herds of cattle and they were driven, in their tens of thousands, to Europe’s biggest cattle markets in Moravia, Vienna, Nuremberg and Venice. The herdsmen made sure there were always some cattle that had to be slaughtered along the way. In Hungarian cuisine, traditional Gulyásleves, bográcsgulyás, pörkölt, and paprikás were thick stews made by cattle herders, garlic, caraway seed, bell pepper, and wine are optional. These dishes can be made as soups rather than stews, excepting paprikás, the Hungarian stews do not rely on a flour or roux for thickening. Tomato is an addition, totally unknown in the original recipe. Goulash can be prepared from beef, veal, pork, or lamb, meat is cut into chunks, seasoned with salt, and then browned with sliced onion in a pot with oil or lard. Paprika is added, along with water or stock, and the goulash is left to simmer, after cooking a while, garlic, whole or ground caraway seed, or soup vegetables like carrot, parsley root, peppers and celery may be added. Other herbs and spices could also be added, especially pepper, bay leaf. However, chili peppers are an addition, totally unknown in the original recipe. Diced potatoes may be added, since they provide starch as they cook, however, potatoes are a modern addition, totally unknown in the original recipe. A small amount of wine or wine vinegar may also be added near the end of cooking to round the taste. Goulash may be served with egg noodles called csipetke
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Ajvar
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Ajvar is a type of relish, made principally from red bell peppers. It may also contain garlic, eggplant and chili peppers, Ajvar originates in Serbian cuisine and was therefore long known as Serbian salad or Serbian vegetable caviar. It became a side dish throughout Yugoslavia after World War II and is nowadays popular in the Balkans. Homemade ajvar is made of roasted peppers, while some producers use cooked peppers. Depending on the content in bell peppers and the amount of added chili peppers, it can be sweet, piquant. Ajvar can be consumed as a spread or as a side dish. The name ajvar comes from the Turkish word havyar, which means salted roe, caviar, prior to the 20th century, there was a significant local production of caviar on the Danube, with sturgeon swimming from the Black Sea up to Belgrade. Domestic ajvar, meaning caviar, used to be a popular dish in Belgrade homes. Homemade ajvar is made of roasted peppers, while some producers use cooked peppers. The preparation of ajvar is somewhat difficult, as it involves an amount of manual labour. Often, the family or neighbours gather to bake the bell peppers, peel them. The principal cultivar of pepper used is called roga, roga is large, red, horn-shaped, with thick flesh and relatively easy to peel. It typically ripens in late September, in order to produce ajvar, bell peppers and aubergines are roasted whole on a plate on an open fire, a plate of wood in a stove, or in an oven. The baked peppers must briefly rest in a dish, to allow them to cool. Next, the skin is peeled off and the seeds are removed. The peppers are then ground in a mill or chopped into tiny pieces, finally, the resulting mush is stewed for a couple of hours in large pots. Sunflower oil and garlic are added at this stage in order to condense and reduce the water, salt is added at the end and the hot mush is poured directly into glass jars, which are sealed immediately. Ajvar is produced in countries, including Serbia and Macedonia
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