1.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Pierre Puvis de Chavannes
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Pierre Puvis de Chavannes was a French painter best known for his mural painting, who came to be known as the painter for France. He became the co-founder and president of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, Puvis de Chavannes was a prominent painter in the early Third Republic. Émile Zola described his work as an art made of reason, passion, Puvis de Chavannes was born Pierre-Cécile Puvis in a suburb of Lyon, France. He was the son of a mining engineer, being descended from an old noble family of Burgundy, he later added the ancestral de Chavannes to his name. Throughout his life, however, he spurned his Lyon origins, preferring to identify himself with the blood of the Burgundians. Puvis de Chavannes was educated at the Amiens College and at the Lycée Henri IV in Paris and he intended to follow his fathers profession until a serious illness compelled him to convalesce at Mâcon with his brother and sister-in-law in 1844 and 1845, interrupting his studies. A journey to Italy opened his mind to fresh ideas, and he studied first under Eugène Delacroix, but only very briefly, as Delacroix closed his studio shortly afterwards due to ill health. He studied subsequently under Henri Scheffer and then Thomas Couture and his training was not classical as he found that he preferred to work alone. He took a studio near the Gare de Lyon and attended anatomy classes at the Académie des Beaux Arts. It was not until a number of later, when the government of France acquired one of his works. Puvis de Chavannes made his Salon debut in 1850 with Dead Christ, Negro Boy, The Reading Lesson, and Portrait of a Man. In Montmartre, he had an affair with one of his models, Suzanne Valadon, who would one of the leading artists of the day as well as the mother, teacher. One of his protégés was Georges de Feure, Puvis de Chavannes is best known for his mural painting, and came to be known as the painter for France. His first commission was for his brothers chateau, Le Brouchy, the principal decorations take the four seasons as their theme. His first public commissions came early in the 1860s, with work at the Musée de Picardie at Amiens, the first four works were Concordia, Bellum, Le Travail and Le Repos. Over the course of his career, Puvis received a number of commissions for works to be carried out in public. His early work at the Musée de Picardie had helped him to develop his style. Among his public works are the later cycles completed at Amiens, at Marseille, at Lyon, of particular importance is the cycle at the Palais de Beaux Arts in Lyon, which includes three significant works, filling the wall space in the main staircase
6.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
7.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
8.
American Library Association
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The American Library Association is a nonprofit organization based in the United States that promotes libraries and library education internationally. It is the oldest and largest library association in the world, founded by Justin Winsor, Charles Ammi Cutter, Samuel S. Green, James L. Whitney, Melvil Dewey, Fred B. Perkins, Charles Evans, and Thomas W. Bicknell in 1876 in Philadelphia, in attendance were 90 men and 13 women, among them Justin Winsor, William Frederick Poole, Charles Ammi Cutter, Melvil Dewey, and Richard Rogers Bowker. Attendees came from as far west as Chicago and from England, the aim of the Association, in that resolution, was to enable librarians to do their present work more easily and at less expense. The Association has worked throughout its history to define, extend, protect, during this period, the first Library Bill of Rights was drafted by Forrest Spaulding to set a standard against censorship and was adopted by the ALA in 1939. This has been recognized as the moment defining modern librarianship as a committed to intellectual freedom. The ALA formed the Staff Organizations Round Table in 1936 and the Library Unions Round Table in 1940, the ALA appointed a committee to study censorship and recommend policy after the banning of The Grapes of Wrath and the implementation of the LBR. The committee reported in 1940 that intellectual freedom and professionalism were linked and recommended a permanent committee – Committee on Intellectual Freedom, in 1961, the ALA took a stand regarding service to African Americans and others, advocating for equal library service for all. An amendment was passed to the LBR in 1961 that made clear that an individuals library use should not be denied or abridged because of race, religion, national origin, some communities decided to close their doors rather than desegregate. In 1963, the ALA commissioned a study, Access to Public Libraries, in 1967 some librarians protested against a pro-Vietnam War speech given by General Maxwell D. This group called themselves the Organizing Committee for the ALA Round Table on Social Responsibilities of Libraries and this group drew in many other under-represented groups in the ALA who lacked power, including the Congress for Change in 1969. This formation of the committee was approved in 1969 and would change its name to the Social Responsibilities Round Table in 1971). After its inception, the Round Table of Social Responsibilities began to press ALA leadership to address such as library unions, working conditions, wages. The Freedom to Read Foundation was created by ALAs Executive Board in 1969, the Black Caucus of the ALA and the Office for Literacy and Outreach were set up in 1970. His comments were inappropriate and fell far short of the commitment to diversity. Handlers remarks come at a time when the world has little diversity. Works from authors and illustrators of color make up less than 8 percent of children’s titles produced in 2013, the ALA hopes this regrettable incident will be used to open a dialogue on the need for diversity in the publishing industry, particularly in regards to books for young people. The ALA Archives, including documents, non-current records
9.
New York Public Library
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The New York Public Library is a public library system in New York City. With nearly 53 million items, the New York Public Library is the second largest public library in the United States and it is a private, non-governmental, independently managed, nonprofit corporation operating with both private and public financing. The library has branches in the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island, the City of New Yorks other two boroughs, Brooklyn and Queens, are served by the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queens Library, respectively. The branch libraries are open to the public and consist of circulating libraries. The New York Public Library also has four libraries which are open to the general public as well. At the behest of Joseph Cogswell, John Jacob Astor placed a codicil in his will to bequeath $400,000 for the creation of a public library. After Astors death in 1848, the board of trustees executed the wills conditions. The library created was a reference library, its books were not permitted to circulate. An act of the New York State Legislature incorporated the Lenox Library in 1870, the library was built on Fifth Avenue, between 40th and 42nd streets, in 1877. Bibliophile and philanthropist James Lenox donated a vast collection of his Americana, art works, manuscripts, at its inception, the library charged admission and did not permit physical access to any literary items. Both the Astor and Lenox libraries were struggling financially, although New York City already had numerous libraries in the 19th century, almost all of them were privately funded and many charged admission or usage fees. On May 23,1895, Bigelow and representatives of the two agreed to create The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. The plan was hailed as an example of philanthropy for the public good. The newly established library consolidated with the grass-roots New York Free Circulating Library in February 1901, the trustees hired McKim, Mead & White, Carrère and Hastings, and Walter Cook to design all the branch libraries. The notable New York author Washington Irving was a friend of Astor for decades and had helped the philanthropist design the Astor Library. They saw their role as protecting the librarys autonomy from politicians as well as bestowing upon it status, resources, representative of many major board decisions was the purchase in 1931 of the private library of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, uncle of the last tsar. This was one of the largest acquisitions of Russian books and photographic materials, at the time, the military drew extensively from the librarys map and book collections in the world wars, including hiring its staff. For example, the Map Divisions chief Walter Ristow was appointed as head of the section of the War Departments New York Office of Military Intelligence from 1942 to 1945
10.
Incunable
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An incunable, or sometimes incunabulum, is a book, pamphlet, or broadside that was printed—not handwritten—before the year 1501 in Europe. Incunable is the singular form of incunabula, Latin for swaddling clothes or cradle. A former term for incunable is fifteener, referring to the 15th century, but since 2009 we know that this lexical invention should no more be assigned to Mallinckrodt, dated 1569, it has to be credited to the Dutch Physician Hadrianus Junius. The term came to denote the printed books themselves in the late 17th century, post-incunable typically refers to books printed after 1500 up to another arbitrary end date such as 1520 or 1540. As of 2014, there are about 30,000 distinct incunable editions known to be extant, many authors reserve the term incunabula for the typographic ones only. The spread of printing to cities both in the north and in Italy ensured that there was great variety in the chosen for printing. Printers congregated in urban centres where there were scholars, ecclesiastics, lawyers, nobles, standard works in Latin inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper, works in the various local vernaculars began to appear. Other printers of incunabula were Günther Zainer of Augsburg, Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein of Strasbourg, Heinrich Gran of Haguenau and William Caxton of Bruges, the first incunable to have woodcut illustrations was Ulrich Boners Der Edelstein, printed by Albrecht Pfister in Bamberg in 1461. The data in this section were derived from the Incunabula Short-Title Catalogue, printing towns, The number of printing towns and cities stands at 282. These are situated in some 18 countries in terms of present-day boundaries, illustrations, Only about one edition in ten has any illustrations, woodcuts or metalcuts. Survival, The commonest incunable is Schedels Nuremberg Chronicle of 1493, very many incunabula are unique, but on average about 18 copies survive of each. This makes the Gutenberg Bible, at 48 or 49 known copies, a complete incunable may consist of a slip, or up to ten volumes. Formats, In terms of format, the 29, 000-odd editions comprise,2,000 broadsides,9,000 folios,15,000 quartos,3,000 octavos,18 12mos,230 16mos,20 32mos, and 3 64mos. Caxton, ISTC at present cites 528 extant copies of books printed by Caxton, dispersal, Apart from migration to mainly North American and Japanese universities, there has been remarkably little movement of incunabula in the last five centuries. None were printed in the Southern Hemisphere, and the latter appears to less than 2,000 copies – i. e. about 97. 75% remain north of the equator. However many incunabula are sold at auction or through the book trade every year. The British Librarys Incunabula Short Title Catalogue now records over 29,000 titles, studies of incunabula began in the 17th century. Hain was expanded in subsequent editions, by Walter A, North American holdings were listed by Frederick R. Goff and a worldwide union catalogue is provided by the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue
11.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
12.
First Folio
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Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies is the 1623 published collection of William Shakespeares plays. Modern scholars commonly refer to it as the First Folio, printed in folio format and containing 36 plays, it was prepared by Shakespeares colleagues John Heminges and Henry Condell. It was dedicated to the pair of brethren William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke and his brother Philip Herbert. The paper industry in England was then in its infancy and the quantity of quality rag paper for the book was imported from France. It is thought that the typesetting and printing of the First Folio was such a job that the Kings Men simply needed the capacities of the Jaggards shop. William Jaggard was old, infirm and blind by 1623, and died a month before the book went on sale, most of the work in the project must have been done by his son Isaac. The First Folios publishing syndicate also included two stationers who owned the rights to some of the plays that had been previously printed, William Aspley. Smethwick had been a partner of another Jaggard, Williams brother John. The printing of the Folio was probably done between February 1622 and early November 1623, the printer originally expected to have the book ready early, since it was listed in the Frankfurt Book Fair catalogue as a book to appear between April and October 1622. The thirty-six plays of the First Folio occur in the order given below, each play is followed by the type of source used, as determined by bibliographical research. Comedies 1 The Tempest * – the play was set into type from a prepared by Ralph Crane. Crane produced a high-quality result, with formal act/scene divisions, frequent use of parentheses and hyphenated forms,2 The Two Gentlemen of Verona * – another transcript by Ralph Crane. 3 The Merry Wives of Windsor – another transcript by Ralph Crane,4 Measure for Measure * – probably another Ralph Crane transcript. 5 The Comedy of Errors * – probably typeset from Shakespeares foul papers,6 Much Ado About Nothing – typeset from a copy of the quarto, lightly annotated. 7 Loves Labours Lost – typeset from a copy of Q1. 8 A Midsummer Nights Dream – typeset from a copy of Q2, well-annotated,9 The Merchant of Venice – typeset from a lightly edited and corrected copy of Q1. 10 As You Like It * – from a quality manuscript,11 The Taming of the Shrew * – typeset from Shakespeares foul papers, somewhat annotated, perhaps as preparation for use as a prompt-book. 12 Alls Well That Ends Well * – probably from Shakespeares foul papers or a manuscript of them,13 Twelfth Night * – typeset either from a prompt-book or a transcript of one
13.
George Ticknor
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George Ticknor was an American academician and Hispanist, specializing in the subject areas of languages and literature. He is known for his work on the history and criticism of Spanish literature. Ticknor was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1805 George entered the junior class at Dartmouth College, where he graduated in 1807. During the next three years he studied Latin and Greek with Rev. Dr John Sylvester John Gardiner, rector of Trinity Church, Boston, in 1810 Ticknor began the study of law, and he was admitted to the bar in 1813. He opened an office in Boston, but practiced for one year, satisfying himself that his vocation, or at least his taste. Ticknor was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1817, while still in Europe, he became Smith professor of French and Spanish languages and literatures, and professor of belles-lettres at Harvard University. In 1819 he returned to the United States, bringing him a valuable library. This in time grew to be one of the largest private collections in the country and this is especially true of the collection of Spanish literature, which rivaled the best private ones in Europe. And it was strong in Portuguese literature as well. He suggested valuable improvements in the system of discipline, for which he had derived the hints from the German universities and he also entered into a critical analysis of such writers as Dante, Goethe, Milton, and Shakespeare. Ticknor moved into half of the built by Thomas Amory at the corner of Beacon and Park Streets in 1829. In 1835 he resigned his chair after holding it for 15 years and his successor, in 1836, in the professorship at Harvard was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Both Friedrich Bouterwek and Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi had worked with limited or secondhand resources, Ticknor developed in his college lectures the scheme of his more permanent work, which he published as the History of Spanish Literature. The book is not merely a story of Spanish letters, but, more broadly, of Spanish civilization, the History is exhaustive and exact in scholarship, and direct and unpretentious in style. It gives many illustrative passages from representative works, and copious bibliographical references and it was soon translated into Spanish by Pascual de Gayangos y Arce and de Vedia, into French by Magnabal, and German by Nikolaus Heinrich Julius and Ferdinand Wolf. He was especially active in the establishment of the Boston Public Library, and served in 1852 –1866 on its board of trustees, of which he was president in 1865. On its behalf he spent fifteen months abroad in 1856 –1857, at his own expense, and to it he gave at various times money and books, a special feature of his plan was a free circulating department. He also left his own collection of books to the Boston Public Library, Amory-Ticknor House History of Spanish literature
14.
Daniel Defoe
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Daniel Defoe, born Daniel Foe, was an English trader, writer, journalist, pamphleteer, and spy, most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe. He was also a pioneer of economic journalism, Daniel Foe was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding De to his name, and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux and his birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659–1662, with 1660 considered the most likely. His father James Foe was a tallow chandler and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and his mother Annie had died by the time he was about ten. Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fishers boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, during this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the Church of England. Defoe entered the world of business as a merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate, in 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley, the daughter of a London merchant, receiving a dowry of £3,700 – a huge amount by the standards of the day. With his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, in 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1688, and Defoe became one of Williams close allies, some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe, who had established himself as a merchant. In 1692, Defoe was arrested for debts of £700, though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000 and his laments were loud and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest. Following his release, he travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto. By 1695, he was back in England, now using the name Defoe and serving as a commissioner of the glass duty. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex, Defoes first notable publication was An Essay upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to an army during disarmament. His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman, defended the king against the perceived xenophobia of his enemies, satirising the English claim to racial purity. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legions Memorial to the Speaker of the House of Commons, later his employer Robert Harley and it demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, in it, he ruthlessly satirised both the High church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called occasional conformity, such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney
15.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
16.
Nathaniel Bowditch
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Nathaniel Bowditch was an early American mathematician remembered for his work on ocean navigation. Nathaniel Bowditch, the fourth of seven children, was born in Salem, Massachusetts, to Habakkuk Bowditch, a cooper, and Mary Bowditch. At the age of ten, he was made to school to work in his fathers cooperage. In 1786, age fourteen, Bowditch began to study algebra and he also taught himself Latin in 1790 and French in 1792 so he was able to read mathematical works such as Isaac Newtons Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. He found thousands of errors in John Hamilton Moores The New Practical Navigator, at eighteen, among his many significant scientific contributions would be a translation of Pierre-Simon de Laplaces Mécanique céleste, a lengthy work on mathematics and theoretical astronomy. This translation was critical to the development of astronomy in the United States, in 1795, Bowditch went to sea on the first of four voyages as a ships clerk and captains writer. His fifth voyage was as master and part owner of a ship, following this voyage, he returned to Salem in 1803 to resume his mathematical studies and enter the insurance business. One of his homes in Salem, the Nathaniel Bowditch House. This house has designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1798 Bowditch married Elizabeth Boardman, who died seven months later, in 1800 Bowditch married his second wife and cousin, Mary Ingersoll Bowditch. They had 2 daughters and 6 sons, including Henry Ingersoll Bowditch, among his grandchildren were Henry Pickering Bowditch and Charles Pickering Bowditch. In 1802, his book The American Practical Navigator was first published and that same year, Harvard University awarded Bowditch an honorary Master of Arts degree. In 1804, Bowditch became Americas first insurance actuary as president of the Essex Fire, under his direction, the company prospered despite difficult political conditions and the War of 1812. He was offered the chair of mathematics and physics at Harvard in 1806, in 1804, an article on his observations of the Moon was published and in 1806 he published naval charts of several harbors, including Salem. As well as Harvard, the United States Military Academy and the University of Virginia offered Bowditch chairs in mathematics, Bowditch again refused these offers, perhaps because the $2,000 salary offered was two-thirds of the salary he received as president of the insurance company. Bowditchs translation of the first four volumes of Laplaces Traité de mécanique céleste was completed by 1818, publication of the work, however, was delayed for many years, most likely due to cost. Nonetheless, he continued to work on it with the assistance of Benjamin Peirce, by 1819, Bowditchs international reputation had grown to the extent that he was elected as a member of the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London and the Royal Irish Academy. In 1823, Bowditch left the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company to become an actuary for the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company in Boston, there he served as a money manager for wealthy individuals who made their fortunes at sea, directing their wealth toward manufacturing
17.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
18.
William Lloyd Garrison
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William Lloyd Garrison was a prominent American abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, and social reformer. He was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society and he promoted immediate emancipation of slaves in the United States. In the 1870s, Garrison became a prominent voice for the suffrage movement. Garrison was born on December 10,1805, in Newburyport, Massachusetts, under An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, Abijah Garrison, a merchant sailing pilot and master, had obtained American papers and moved his family to Newburyport in 1806. Embargo Act of 1807, intended to injure Great Britain, caused a decline in American commercial shipping, the elder Garrison became unemployed and deserted the family in 1808. Garrisons mother was Frances Maria Lloyd, reported to have tall, charming. She started referring to their son William as Lloyd, his middle name and she died in 1823, in the town of Springfield, Massachusetts. Garrison sold home-made lemonade and candy as a youth, and also delivered wood to support the family. In 1818, at 13, Garrison began working as a compositor for the Newburyport Herald. He soon began writing articles, often under the pseudonym Aristides, Aristides was an Athenian statesman and general nicknamed the Just. After his apprenticeship ended, Garrison and a printer named Isaac Knapp bought their own newspaper in 1826. One of their regular contributors was poet and abolitionist John Greenleaf Whittier, in this early work as a small town newspaper writer, Garrison acquired skills he would later use as a nationally known writer, speaker and newspaper publisher. In 1828, he was appointed editor of the National Philanthropist in Boston, Massachusetts, at the age of 25, Garrison joined the anti-slavery movement, later crediting the 1826 book of Presbyterian Reverend John Rankin, Letters on Slavery, for attracting him to the cause. For a brief time he associated with the American Colonization Society. Although some members of the society encouraged granting freedom to slaves, Southern members thought reducing the threat of free blacks in society would help preserve the institution of slavery. By late 1829–1830, Garrison rejected colonization, publicly apologized for his error, Garrison began writing for and became co-editor with Benjamin Lundy of the Quaker newspaper Genius of Universal Emancipation in Baltimore, Maryland. With his experience as a printer and newspaper editor, Garrison changed the layout of the paper, Lundy was freed to spend more time touring as an anti-slavery speaker. Garrison initially shared Lundys gradualist views, but while working for the Genius, Lundy and Garrison continued to work together on the paper in spite of their differing views
19.
Sacco and Vanzetti
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They were executed in the electric chair seven years later at Charlestown State Prison. Both men adhered to an anarchist movement that advocated relentless warfare against a violent, after a few hours deliberation on July 14,1921, the jury convicted Sacco and Vanzetti of first-degree murder and they were sentenced to death by the trial judge. A series of appeals followed, funded largely by the private Sacco, the appeals were based on recanted testimony, conflicting ballistics evidence, a prejudicial pre-trial statement by the jury foreman, and a confession by an alleged participant in the robbery. All appeals were denied by trial judge Webster Thayer and also denied by the Massachusetts State Supreme Court. By 1926, the case had drawn worldwide attention, as details of the trial and the mens suspected innocence became known, Sacco and Vanzetti became the center of one of the largest causes célèbres in modern history. In 1927, protests on their behalf were held in major city in North America and Europe, as well as in Tokyo, Sydney, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires. Celebrated writers, artists, and academics pleaded for their pardon or for a new trial, Harvard law professor and future Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter argued for their innocence in a widely read Atlantic Monthly article that was later published in book form. Sacco and Vanzetti were scheduled to die in April 1927, accelerating the outcry, responding to a massive influx of telegrams urging their pardon, Massachusetts governor Alvan T. Fuller appointed a three-man commission to investigate the case. After weeks of secret deliberation that included interviews with the judge, lawyers, and several witnesses, Sacco and Vanzetti were executed in the electric chair just after midnight on August 23,1927. Subsequent riots destroyed property in Paris, London, and other cities, investigations in the aftermath of the executions continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The publication of the letters, containing eloquent professions of innocence. Additional ballistics tests and incriminating statements by the mens acquaintances have clouded the case, writer Bruce Watson, in his introduction to the 2007 re-printing of The Letters of Sacco and Vanzetti, noted Sacco and Vanzetti are still on trial and probably always will be. Sacco was a shoemaker and a watchman, born April 22,1891 in Torremaggiore, Province of Foggia, Apulia region, Italy. Vanzetti was a fishmonger born June 11,1888 in Villafalletto, Province of Cuneo, Piedmont region, both men left Italy for the US in 1908, although they did not meet until a 1917 strike. The men were believed to be followers of Luigi Galleani, an Italian anarchist who advocated violence, including bombing. Galleani published Cronaca Sovversiva, a periodical that advocated violent revolution, at the time, Italian anarchists – in particular the Galleanist group – ranked at the top of the United States governments list of dangerous enemies. Since 1914, the Galleanists had been identified as suspects in several violent bombings and assassination attempts, publication of Cronaca Sovversiva was suppressed in July 1918, and the government deported Galleani and eight of his closest associates on June 24,1919. Among the dozen or more violent acts was the bombing of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmers home on June 2,1919
20.
Thomas Rowlandson
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Thomas Rowlandson was an English artist and caricaturist. Rowlandson was born in Old Jewry, in the City of London and he was baptised on 23 July 1757 at St Mary Colechurch, London to William and Mary Rowlandson. His father, William, had been a weaver, but had moved into trading supplies for the textile industry, Life became difficult for him in London and, in late 1759, he moved his family to Richmond, North Yorkshire. Thomas uncle James died in 1764, and his widow Jane probably provided both the funds and accommodation which allowed Thomas to attend school in London. Rowlandson was educated at the school of Dr Barvis in Soho Square, then an academy of some celebrity, where one of his classmates was Richard Burke, son of the politician Edmund Burke. As a schoolboy, Rowlandson drew humourous characters of his master and many of his scholars before he was ten years old, in 1765 or 1766 he started at the Soho Academy. According to his obituary of 22 April 1827 in The Gentlemens Magazine, Rowlandson was sent to Paris at the age of 16, in Paris he studied drawing the human figure and continued developing his youthful skill in caricature. It was on his return to London that he took classes at the Royal Academy, Rowlandson spent six years studying at the Royal Academy, but about a third of this time was spent in Paris where he may have studied under Jean-Baptiste Pigalle. He later made frequent tours to the Continent, enriching his portfolios with numerous sketches of life, in 1775 he exhibited a drawing of Dalilah Payeth Sampson a Visit while in Prison at Gaza at the Royal Academy and two years later received a silver medal for a bas-relief figure. He was spoken of as a promising student, on the death of his aunt, he inherited £7,000 with which he plunged into the dissipations of the town and was known to sit at the gaming-table for 36 hours at a stretch. In time poverty overtook him, and the friendship and examples of James Gillray and his drawing of Vauxhall, shown in the Royal Academy exhibition of 1784, had been engraved by Pollard, and the print was a success. They were the most popular of the artists works and he also produced a body of erotic prints and woodcuts. The same collaboration of designer, author and publisher appeared in the English Dance of Death, issued in 1814–16, Rowlandson also illustrated Smollett, Goldsmith and Sterne, and his designs will be found in The Spirit of the Public Journals, The English Spy, and The Humorist. Rowlandsons designs were usually done in outline with the reed-pen, and they were then etched by the artist on the copper, and afterwards aquatinted—usually by a professional engraver, the impressions being finally coloured by hand. As a designer he was characterised by his facility and ease of draughtsmanship and he dealt less frequently with politics than his fierce contemporary, Gillray, but commonly touching, in a rather gentle spirit, the various aspects and incidents of social life. His work included a personification of the United Kingdom named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as Gillray and George Cruikshank. His patron and friend Matthew Michell collected hundreds of his paintings which Michell displayed at his residence, Grove House in Enfield. After Michells death his nephew, Sir Henry Onslow, sold the contents of Grove House at a sale in November 1818
21.
Handel and Haydn Society
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The Handel and Haydn Society, familiarly known as H+H, is an American chorus and period instrument orchestra based in Boston, Massachusetts. The founders, Gottlieb Graupner, Thomas Smith Webb, Amasa Winchester, the Society premiered on Christmas Day, December 25,1815, at Kings Chapel, with a chorus of 90 men and 10 women. The early chorus members were middle-class tradesmen drawn from the choirs of local churches, only men could be members, while a far smaller number of women were invited to participate. In its early decades the Society hired what musicians it could afford, jonas Chickering, at the start of his career as a piano manufacturer, joined the Society in 1818 at age 20 and later became its president. The Society was also a promoter of composer Lowell Mason, publishing his first collection of hymns in 1822. Profits from the sales of that hymnbook and a collection of sacred music subsidized the Society for several decades. The Handel and Haydn Society has given a number of notable American premieres, including Handels Messiah in 1818, the Society also sponsored the first American publication of an edition of Messiah in 1816. It presented the U. S. premieres of musical settings by many baroque and classical composers, including Mozart and it is doubtless to them that we must ascribe in great measure the improved taste in Sacred Music that is prevailing among us. Some early reviews noted that public interest waned after a few years as many works were repeated. Membership from the start and well into the 20th century was limited to men, though the chorus, about 1823, several of the Societys members commissioned Beethoven to compose an oratorio, apparently with an English text, which he never completed. From its earliest years, Handel and Haydn participated in music festivals, for the visit of President James Monroe in 1817, the H+H orchestra performed a march composed for the occasion by their concertmaster, followed by almost two dozen arias and choruses. In 1826, H+H joined the services in Faneuil Hall marking the deaths of President Adams, in 1830 it helped mark the 200th anniversary of the founding of Boston, and it gave a concert in 1833 to help raise funds for the completion of the Bunker Hill Monument. President John Tyler attended an 1843 concert, and the Society helped commemorate the death of Daniel Webster in 1852 and that same year it participated in the opening of the Boston Music Hall, which later became the first home of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. The next year it presented the Boston Premiere of Beethovens Ninth Symphony and it marked the centennial of Beethovens birth by performing selections from his Ninth Symphony in 1870. It performed for Grand Duke Alexis of Russia and Queen Elizabeth II, in addition, the Society held benefit concerts for the Union Army, victims of the Chicago fire of 1871, and Russian Jewish refugees displaced by the 1882 May Laws. The Society occasionally favored a composer whose reputation has not matched his nineteenth-century popularity. In the 1830s, the Society presented David, an oratorio by Haydns pupil Sigismund von Neukomm,55 times, rossinis Moses in Egypt was performed 25 times in the course of two seasons in the mid-1840s. The Society joined in celebrations marking the date of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863
22.
Serge Koussevitzky
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Serge Alexandrovich Koussevitzky was a Russian-born conductor, composer and double-bassist, known for his long tenure as music director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra from 1924 to 1949. Koussevitzky was born into a Jewish family of musicians in Vyshny Volochyok, Tver Governorate, about 250 km northwest of Moscow. His parents taught him violin, cello, and piano, at the age of fourteen he received a scholarship to the Musico-Dramatic Institute of the Moscow Philharmonic Society, where he studied double bass with Rambusek and music theory. He excelled at the bass, joining the Bolshoi Theatre orchestra at the age of twenty, in 1894, in 1902 he married the dancer Nadezhda Galat. The same year, with Reinhold Glières help, he wrote a concerto for the double bass. In 1905, Koussevitzky divorced Nadezhda and married Natalie Ushkova, the daughter of a wealthy tea merchant. He soon resigned from the Bolshoi, and the moved to Berlin. The concert included Sergei Rachmaninoffs Piano Concerto No,2, with the composer at the piano. Among the composers published by Koussevitzky were Rachmaninoff, Alexander Scriabin, Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, and Nikolai Medtner. During the period 1909 to 1920 he continued to perform as soloist in Europe, and in Russia he and his orchestra toured towns along the Volga River by riverboat in 1910,1912, the programs included many new works. After the 1917 Russian Revolution, he accepted a position as conductor of the newly named State Philharmonic Orchestra of Petrograd, in 1920, he left the Soviet Union for Berlin and Paris. In Paris he organized the Concerts Koussevitzky, presenting new works by Prokofiev, Stravinsky, in 1924 he took a post in the United States, replacing Pierre Monteux as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. However, he continued to return to Paris in the summers to conduct his Concerts Koussevitzky until 1929, in 1941 he and his wife became United States citizens. Koussevitzkys appointment as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra was the beginning of an era for the ensemble that would continue until 1949. Over that 25-year period, he built the ensembles reputation into that of a leading American orchestra, in the early 1940s, he discovered a young tenor named Alfred Cocozza, and provided him with a scholarship to attend Tanglewood. With the Boston Symphony he made recordings, most of which were well regarded by critics. His students and protégés included Leonard Bernstein, Eleazar de Carvalho, Samuel Adler, Bernstein once received a pair of cufflinks from Koussevitzky as a gift, and thereafter wore them at every concert he conducted. Koussevitzkys second wife Natalie died in 1942, and he created the Koussevitzky Music Foundations in her honor, in late 1947, he married Olga Naumova, Natalies niece
23.
Walter Piston
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Walter Hamor Piston Jr, was an American composer of classical music, music theorist, and professor of music at Harvard University. His students included Leroy Anderson, Leonard Bernstein and Elliott Carter, Piston was born in Rockland, Maine. Although his family was mainly of English origin, his grandfather was a sailor named Antonio Pistone. In 1905 the composers father, Walter Piston Sr, moved with his family to Boston, Walter Jr first trained as an engineer at the Mechanical Arts High School in Boston, but was artistically inclined. After graduating in 1912, he enrolled in the Massachusetts Normal Art School, during the 1910s, Piston made a living playing piano and violin in dance bands and later playing violin in orchestras led by Georges Longy. While playing in a band, he taught himself to play most wind instruments. They were just lying around, he observed, and no one minded if you picked them up. He often worked as an assistant for various music professors there, in 1920, Piston married artist Kathryn Nason, who had been a fellow student at the Normal Art School. The marriage lasted until her death in February 1976, a few months before his own, on graduating summa cum laude from Harvard, Piston was awarded a John Knowles Paine Traveling Fellowship. He chose to go to Paris, living there from 1924 to 1926, at the Ecole Nationale de Musique in Paris, he studied composition and counterpoint with Nadia Boulanger, composition with Paul Dukas and violin with George Enescu. His Three Pieces for Flute, Clarinet and Bassoon of 1925 was his first published score and he taught at Harvard from 1926 until his retirement in 1960. His students include Samuel Adler, Leroy Anderson, Arthur Berger, Leonard Bernstein, Gordon Binkerd, Elliott Carter, John Davison, Irving Fine, John Harbison, Karl Kohn, Ellis B. Kohs, Gail Kubik, Billy Jim Layton, Noël Lee, Robert Middleton, Robert Moevs, Conlon Nancarrow, William P. Perry, Daniel Pinkham, Frederic Rzewski, Allen Sapp, Harold Shapero and Claudio Spies. In 1936, the Columbia Broadcasting System commissioned six American composers to write works for broadcast on CBS radio, the following year, Piston wrote his Symphony No.1 and conducted its premiere with the Boston Symphony Orchestra on April 8,1938. Pistons only dance work, The Incredible Flutist, was written for the Boston Pops Orchestra, the dancers were Hans Weiner and his company. Soon after, Piston arranged a concert suite including a selection of the best parts of the ballet and this version was premiered by Fritz Reiner and the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra on November 22,1940. Leonard Slatkin and the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra included the suite in a 1991 RCA Victor CD recording that also featured Pistons Three New England Sketches and Symphony No.6. Piston studied the technique of Arnold Schoenberg and wrote works using aspects of it as early as the Sonata for Flute and Piano
24.
David McCullough
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David Gaub McCullough is an American author, narrator, historian, and lecturer. He is a winner of the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Born and raised in Pittsburgh, McCullough earned a degree in English literature from Yale University. His first book was The Johnstown Flood, and he has written nine more on such topics as Harry S. Truman, John Adams, the Brooklyn Bridge. McCullough has also narrated numerous documentaries, such as The Civil War by Ken Burns, as well as the 2003 film Seabiscuit, McCulloughs two Pulitzer Prize-winning books, Truman and John Adams, have been adapted by HBO into a TV film and a miniseries, respectively. McCullough was born in the Point Breeze neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and he was educated at Linden Avenue Grade School and Shady Side Academy, in his hometown of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. One of four sons, McCullough had a marvelous childhood with a range of interests, including sports. McCulloughs parents and his grandmother, who read to him often and his parents often talked about history, a topic he says should be discussed more often. McCullough loved school, every day, he contemplated many career choices, ranging from architect, actor, painter, writer, to lawyer, in 1951, McCullough began attending Yale University. He said that it was a privilege to study English at Yale because of faculty members such as John OHara, John Hersey, Robert Penn Warren, McCullough occasionally ate lunch with the Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist and playwright Thornton Wilder. Wilder, says McCullough, taught him that a competent writer maintains an air of freedom in the storyline, so that a reader will not anticipate the outcome, while at Yale, he became a member of Skull and Bones. He served apprenticeships at Time, Life, the United States Information Agency, and American Heritage, once I discovered the endless fascination of doing the research and of doing the writing, I knew I had found what I wanted to do in my life. While attending Yale, McCullough studied Arts and earned his bachelors degree in English and he graduated with honors in English literature. After graduation, McCullough moved to New York City, where Sports Illustrated hired him as a trainee and he later worked as an editor and writer for the United States Information Agency in Washington, D. C. After working for years, including a position at American Heritage, in editing and writing. McCullough had no anticipation that was going to write history, but stumbled upon a story that thought was powerful, exciting, while working at American Heritage, McCullough wrote in his spare time for three years. The Johnstown Flood, a chronicle of one of the worst flood disasters in United States history, was published in 1968 to high praise by critics, John Leonard, of The New York Times, said of McCullough, We have no better social historian. Despite rough financial times, he decided to become a full-time writer, after the success of The Johnstown Flood, two new publishers offered him contracts, one to write about the Great Chicago Fire and another about the San Francisco earthquake
25.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
26.
Alexandre Vattemare
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Around age seven, Vattemare discovered a talent for ventriloquism and the ability to imitate sounds. He trained as a surgeon, but was refused a diploma after making cadavers seem to speak during surgical exercises. At age 18 he was placed in charge of some 300 to 400 typhus-afflicted Prussian prisoners of war, and in 1814, facing economic problems in Berlin, he decided to earn money as a ventriloquist, performing under the stage name Monsieur Alexandre. His career lasted from 1815 to 1835, during which he visited over 550 cities and performed before royalty including the Tsar of Russia and his performances did not use a dummy, but rather involved Vattemare presenting plays in which he portrayed all the characters, involving dozens of voices. Vattemare wrote his own scripts, which he performed in French, German. He gained acclaim and wealth through his ventriloquism, while becoming friends with writers and artists including Goethe, Lamartine, Pushkin. After becoming famous and wealthy as a ventriloquist, Vattemare retired and spent the next 25 years as a philanthropist promoting free public libraries, during his travels, he had gathered a remarkable collection of coins, stamps, and autographs. He had also visited museums and libraries, and had observed a degree of duplication in collections. He developed a new system of exchanges of items between libraries and museums, which he promoted energetically for decades. He used his fame as a ventriloquist to promote his proposed cultural exchange system, after being rebuffed by the French legislature, he visited the United States in 1839 and 1847 to promote his system. His proposals were better-received in the United States and Canada than they had been in France, the city of Philadelphia gave him a signed copy of the Constitution, and he traveled to 13 states and Canada. By 1843, he had brought 1,800 volumes,500 coins,250 engravings, in his 1847 visit, Vattemare brought with him 50 cases of French archives and coins. In 1848, the U. S. Congress agreed to pay him $5,940 per year to support his project and he inspired the founding of the Boston Public Library. He first proposed the unification of Bostons major social libraries and a committee to investigate this idea appointed by mayor, in 1853, the system of exchange was expanded considerably with the participation of 130 libraries around the world, including the Boston Public Library. He created the American Library of Paris, which in 1860 contained 14,000 volumes from the early United States, Vattemare donated several cases of objects to the fledgling Smithsonian Institution, which set up a system of cultural exchange inspired by Vattemares. Books and other documents exchanged through Vattemares system can still be found in throughout the world, particularly Boston. Those collections include rare and valuable publications of great interest to modern historians. This article draws heavily on the article in the French-language Wikipedia
27.
Josiah Quincy Jr.
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Josiah Quincy, Jr. was mayor of Boston, as was his father Josiah Quincy III and grandson Josiah Quincy. He attended Philips Academy, Andover and graduated from Harvard College in 1821 and he was elected a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts in 1823 and became its captain in 1829 at the age of 27. He was the author of Figures of the Past, as a member of the Massachusetts State Legislature in 1837, he was instrumental in the establishment of the Massachusetts Board of Education. He built the Josiah Quincy Mansion in 1848 and he was elected to the Boston City Council in 1833 and served as its president from 1834 to 1857. He served as mayor of Boston from 1845 to 1849 and he served as treasurer of the Boston Athenaeum from 1837 to 1852. His brother Edmund was a prominent abolitionist, and author of the biography of his father and of a romance and his sister Eliza Susan was her fathers secretary and the biographer of her mother. The Scenery and Its Natural History, and Other Objects Passed by this Line of Railway, bradbury & Guild,1847, p.13. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Quincy. Modern Eloquence, Vol III, After-Dinner Speeches P-Z at Project Gutenberg, contains Quincys speech of welcome to Boston for Charles Dickens
28.
Mayor of Boston
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The Mayor of Boston is the head of the municipal government in Boston. Boston has a system of government. The mayors office is in Boston City Hall, in Government Center, the current mayor is Martin J. Marty Walsh. Prior to 1822, there was no Mayor of Boston, because Boston was incorporated as a town, in Massachusetts, a town is typically governed by a town meeting, with a board of selectmen handling regular business. Boston was the first community in Massachusetts to receive a city charter, under the terms of the new charter, the mayor was elected annually. In 1908, the Republican-controlled state legislature enacted charter changes it hoped would dampen the power of Democratic Irish Americans. These included extending the term to four years, and making the post formally non-partisan. This law was repealed in 1938, after Curleys political career appeared to be in decline, another charter change was enacted in 1949, partly in response to Curleys fourth term, during which he served prison time for crimes committed in an earlier term. Because of this change, one term was shortened to two years, it was the first term of John B, mayoral elections, like all municipal elections in Boston, are nonpartisan. The two candidates with the highest number of votes in the preliminary election run against each other on the election ballot. The general elections are held in November of odd-numbered years following presidential election years, currently, there is one living former mayor of Boston, Raymond Flynn. The most recent mayor to die was Tom Menino, on October 30,2014, lists of Mayors of Boston at The Political Graveyard
29.
John Jacob Astor
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Born in Germany, Astor emigrated to England as a teenager and worked as a musical instrument manufacturer. He moved to the United States after the American Revolutionary War and he entered the fur trade and built a monopoly, managing a business empire that extended to the Great Lakes region and Canada, and later expanded into the American West and Pacific coast. Seeing the decline of demand, he got out of the fur trade in 1830, diversifying by investing in New York City real estate and he was the first prominent member of the Astor family and the first multi-millionaire in the United States. Johann Jakob Astor was born in Walldorf near Heidelberg in the old Palatinate and he was the youngest son of Johann Jakob Astor and Maria Magdalena Vorfelder. His three elder brothers were Georg Peter, Heinrich, and Melchior, Astors father was a butcher, Johann first worked in his fathers shop and as a dairy salesman. In 1779, at the age of 16, he moved to London to join his brother George in working for a piano and flute manufactory. While there, he learned English and anglicized his name and his intent was to join his brother Henry, who had established a butcher shop there, but a chance meeting with a fur trader on his voyage inspired him to join the North American fur trade as well. After working at his brothers shop for a time he began to purchase raw hides from Native Americans, prepare them himself and he opened his own fur goods shop in New York in the late 1780s and also served as the New York agent of his uncles musical instrument business. Astor took advantage of the Jay Treaty between Great Britain and the United States in 1794, which opened new markets in Canada and the Great Lakes region. In London, Astor at once made a contract with the North West Company, Astor imported furs from Montreal to New York and shipped them to Europe. By 1800, he had amassed almost a quarter of a million dollars and his agents worked throughout the western areas and were ruthless in competition. In 1800, following the example of the Empress of China, the first American trading vessel to China, Astor traded furs, teas, and sandalwood with Canton in China, embargo Act in 1807, however, disrupted Astors import/export business because it closed off trade with Canada. With the permission of President Thomas Jefferson, Astor established the American Fur Company on April 6,1808 and he later formed subsidiaries, the Pacific Fur Company, and the Southwest Fur Company, in order to control fur trading in the Great Lakes areas and Columbia River region. His Columbia River trading post at Fort Astoria was the first United States community on the Pacific coast and he financed the overland Astor Expedition in 1810–12 to reach the outpost. Members of the expedition were to discover South Pass, through hundreds of thousands of settlers on the Oregon, Mormon. Astors fur trading ventures were disrupted during the War of 1812, in 1816, he joined the opium-smuggling trade. His American Fur Company purchased ten tons of Turkish opium, then shipped the contraband item to Canton on the packet ship Macedonian, Astor later left the China opium trade and sold solely to the United Kingdom. Astors business rebounded in 1817 after the U. S. Congress passed a protectionist law that barred foreign fur traders from U. S. territories, the American Fur Company came to dominate trading in the area around the Great Lakes
30.
Public library
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A public library is a library that is accessible by the general public and is generally funded from public sources, such as taxes. It is operated by librarians and library paraprofessionals, who are civil servants. There are five fundamental characteristics shared by public libraries, Public libraries exist in many countries across the world and are often considered an essential part of having an educated and literate population. Public access to books is not new, romans made scrolls in dry rooms available to patrons of the baths, and tried with some success to establish libraries within the empire. In the middle of the 19th century, the push for public libraries, paid for by taxes. Public libraries were started with a donation, or were bequeathed to parishes, churches. These social and institutional libraries formed the base of many academic and public collections of today. The establishment of circulating libraries in the 18th century, by booksellers and publishers provided a means of gaining profit, the circulating libraries not only provided a place to sell books, but also a place to lend books for a price. These circulating libraries provided a variety of including the increasingly popular novels. Circulating libraries were not exclusively lending institutions and often provided a place for other forms of commercial activity and this was necessary because the circulating libraries did not generate enough funds through subscription fees collected from its borrowers. As a commerce venture, it was important to consider the factors such as other goods or services available to the subscribers. The Malatestiana Library, also known as the Malatesta Novello Library, is a public library dating from 1452 in Cesena, Emilia-Romagna and it was the first European civic library, i. e. belonging to the Commune and open to everybody. It was commissioned by the Lord of Cesena, Malatesta Novello, the works were directed by Matteo Nuti of Fano and lasted from 1447 to 1452. In the early years of the 17th century, many famous collegiate, norwich City library was established in 1608 and Chethams Library in Manchester, which claims to be the oldest public library in the English-speaking world, opened in 1653. Claude Sallier, the French philologist and churchman, operated an early form of library in the town of Saulieu from 1737 to 1750. He wished to make culture and learning accessible to all people, the Załuski Library was built in Warsaw 1747–1795 by Józef Andrzej Załuski and his brother, Andrzej Stanisław Załuski, both Roman Catholic bishops. The library was open to the public and indeed was the first Polish public library, at the start of the 18th century, libraries were becoming increasingly public and were more frequently lending libraries. The 18th century saw the switch from closed parochial libraries to lending libraries, before this time, public libraries were parochial in nature and libraries frequently chained their books to desks
31.
Massachusetts General Court
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The Massachusetts General Court is the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The name General Court is a hold-over from the earliest days of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, before the adoption of the state constitution in 1780, it was called the Great and General Court, but the official title was shortened by John Adams, author of the state constitution. The upper house is the Massachusetts Senate which is composed of 40 members, the lower body, the Massachusetts House of Representatives, has 160 members. It meets in the Massachusetts State House on Beacon Hill in Boston, the current President of the Senate is Stan Rosenberg, and the Speaker of the House is Robert DeLeo. Democrats hold super-majorities in both chambers, State Senators and Representatives both serve two-year terms. Each Representative represents about 40,000 residents, Representative districts are named for the primary county in which they are located, and tend to stay within one county, although some districts contain portions of adjacent counties. The current composition of the House is 126 Democrats and 34 Republicans, there are 40 senatorial districts in Massachusetts, named for the counties in which they are located. The current composition of the Senate is 34 Democrats and 6 Republicans, the General Court is responsible for enacting laws in the state. The two legislative branches work concurrently on pending laws brought before them, lawmaking begins in the House or Senate Clerks office where petitions, bills, and resolves are filed and recorded in a docket book. The clerks number the bills and assign them to appropriate joint committees, there are 26 of these committees, each responsible for studying the bills which pertain to a specific area. Each committee is composed of six senators and eleven representatives, the standing committees schedule public hearings for the individual bills, which afford citizens, legislators and lobbyists the opportunity to express their views. Note that the public may still observe executive sessions, but may not participate in these meetings, the committee then issues its report, recommending that a bill ought to pass or ought not to pass and the report is submitted to the Clerks office. The first reading of a favorably reported bill is automatic and occurs when the report appears in the Journal of the House or Senate Clerk. If a bill affects the finances of the Commonwealth, it is referred to the Senate or House Committee on Ways, if it affects county finances, the bill is read and referred to the Committee on Counties of the House. Adverse reports are also referred to the Committee on Steering and Policy in the Senate or placed without debate in the Orders of the Day for the session of the House. Acceptance by either branch of a report is considered the final rejection. However, a report can be overturned. After a bill takes its second reading, it is open to debate on amendments and motions
32.
Edward Everett
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Edward Everett was an American politician, pastor, educator, diplomat, and orator from Massachusetts. Everett, a Whig, served as U. S. Representative, U. S. Senator, the 15th Governor of Massachusetts, Minister to Great Britain and he also taught at Harvard University and served as its president. Everett was one of the great American orators of the antebellum, the son of a pastor, Everett was educated at Harvard, and briefly ministered at Bostons Brattle Street Church before taking a teaching job at Harvard. The position included preparatory studies in Europe, so Everett spent two years in studies at the University of Göttingen, and another two years traveling around Europe. At Harvard he taught ancient Greek literature for several years before becoming involved in politics and he served ten years in the United States Congress before winning election as Governor of Massachusetts in 1835. As governor he introduced the state Board of Education, the first of its type in the nation, after being defeated in the 1839 election by one vote, Everett was appointed Minister to Great Britain, serving until 1845. He next became President of Harvard, a job he came to dislike. In 1849 he became an assistant to friend and colleague Daniel Webster. Upon Websters death Everett served as Acting Secretary for a few months, in the later years of his life Everett traveled, giving speeches all over the country. He supported efforts to maintain the Union before the Civil War and he was active in supporting the Union effort during the war and supported Lincoln in the 1864 election. Edward Everett was born on April 11,1794 in Dorchester, Massachusetts, the fourth of eight children, to the Rev. Oliver Everett and Lucy Hill Everett, the daughter of Alexander Sears Hill. His father was a descendant of early colonist Richard Everett. His father had served as pastor of New South Church, retiring due to poor health two years before Everett was born and he died in 1802, when Edward was eight, after which his mother moved the family to Boston. He attended local schools, and then a school of Ezekiel Webster. During this time Ezekiels brother Daniel sometimes taught classes, Everett, Everett attended Boston Latin School in 1805, and then briefly Phillips Exeter Academy, where his older brother Alexander Hill Everett was teaching. At the age of 13, he was admitted to Harvard College, in 1811, at age 17, he graduated as the valedictorian of his class. Unlike some of the students at the time, Everett was an earnest. While a student, he was a member of the Hasty Pudding Club, uncertain what to do next, Everett was encouraged by his pastor, Joseph Stevens Buckminster of the Brattle Street Church, to study for the ministry
33.
Joshua Bates (financier)
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For the clergyman and educator and Joshua Hall Bates for the American Civil War general. Joshua Bates was a financier who divided his life between the United States and the United Kingdom. Bates was born in Commercial St. Weymouth, Massachusetts, early in his career he worked for William Gray, owner of Grays Wharf in Charlestown. A merchant and a banker, in 1828 Bates became associated with the house of Baring Brothers & Co. of London. He was arbitrator of the commission convened in 1853 to settle the claims of American citizens arising from the War of 1812 and he afterward gave 30,000 volumes to the institution, the main hall of which is named after him. Bates married Lucretia Augusta Sturgis, she was the first cousin of Captain William F. Sturgis and of Nathaniel Russell Sturgis, another Bates granddaughter, Alice Emma Sturgis van de Weyer, married the Hon. Charles Brand. As a patron of the arts he commissioned canvases from Thomas Cole, including a view of Boston. The house he built for his daughter and son-in-law, New Place, was near Windsor. As the representative of her uncle Leopold I of Belgium, also a relative of Albert of Saxe Coburg Gotha, Sylvain and his charming American wife were popular with Victoria. Bates Hall, Boston Public Library, McKim Building This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, tribute of Boston merchants to the memory of Joshua Bates, October,1864
34.
Boylston Street
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Boylston Street is the name of a major east-west thoroughfare in the city of Boston, Massachusetts. The Boston street was known as Frog Lane in the early 18th century and was known as Common Street. It was later renamed for Ward Nicholas Boylston, a man of wealth and refinement, an officer of the Crown. Boylston, who was a descendent of Zabdiel Boylston, was born in Boston, the Boylston Market was named after him as was the town of Boylston, Massachusetts. Another Boylston Street runs through Bostons western suburbs, Newton and Brookline, traffic traveling west on Boylston here cannot continue on Boylston Street, and must use Ipswich Street to continue west. Then, Boylston Street enters the Back Bay neighborhood where it becomes a commercial artery carrying three lanes of one way traffic eastbound after Dalton Street. After Tremont Street, Boylston returns to carrying one way traffic east before ending at Washington Street in the area where it changes to Essex Street. The MIT Rogers Building was at 497 Boylston Street when MIT had its campus in Boston. A plaque on the building serves as a commemoration, on April 15,2013, Boylston Street was the scene of two explosive detonations that occurred during the running of the 117th Boston marathon, which killed 3 people and wounded at least 264. John The Tannery As part of plans to re-develop the stretch of Boylston between Ipswich Streetand Brookline Avenue, a Guitar Center went under construction and relocated to 1255 Boylston Street and this location is convenient due to the proximity of Berklee College of Music and Landsdowne Street. Other properties had also purchased in an effort to improve the area. It begins as the continuation of Route 9 at the Wellesley/Newton line and serves Newton and Brookline before ending at the border of the city of Boston, from there, the street continue east into central Boston as Huntington Avenue. MBTA Green Line D Branch stations along route include, Brookline Village Eliot Media related to Boylston Street at Wikimedia Commons
35.
Charles Kirk Kirby
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Charles Kirk Kirby, was an American architect who practiced in Massachusetts, Maine, and California. In the 1840s he began studying architecture in the office of early Worcester architect William Brown, Brown departed for Lowell in 1847, and Kirby was his successor. He and another of Browns students, Phineas Ball, formed a partnership and they parted ways after only eight months, and Kirby left for Portland, Maine. Kirby is last documented in Portland in 1850, and in 1852 he came to Boston and his first major commission in Boston, the Boston Public Library, was won in competition in 1855. This building, an elaborate Italianate structure, was completed in 1858, Kirby was also the architect of the Worcester Free Public Library, built in 1860 and also since demolished. He practiced general architecture until about the outbreak of the Civil War and he then turned to land development, designing, building, and selling homes in the Back Bay area. This appears to have been the bulk of his work for about a decade and he continued to primarily design houses, with an exception in the Lawrence Model Lodging Houses, built in 1874. These apartments were built with a bequest from Abbott Lawrence, as housing for the poor, in 1878, Kirby left Massachusetts for California, settling in San Francisco. Immediately prior to leaving Boston, he had formed a partnership with G. Wilton Lewis, though Kirby was not directly involved in the firms affairs, but the two remained associated until 1882. At this time, Lewis opened his own office and Kirby established C. K. Kirby & Son in San Francisco, with son C. K. Kirby, the elder Kirby retired from architecture in 1889, and his son established a practice in Fresno. After his retirement, Kirby was the proprietor of the Sierra Park vineyard and winery near Fowler and he died on April 5,1910. C. K. Kirby, 1847-1878, Kirby & Lewis, 1878-1882, C. K. Kirby & Son, 1882-1889
36.
Italianate architecture
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The Italianate style of architecture was a distinct 19th-century phase in the history of Classical architecture. The style of architecture that was created, though also characterised as Neo-Renaissance, was essentially of its own time. The Italianate style was first developed in Britain about 1802 by John Nash and this small country house is generally accepted to be the first Italianate villa in England, from which is derived the Italianate architecture of the late Regency and early Victorian eras. The Italianate style was developed and popularised by the architect Sir Charles Barry in the 1830s. Barrys Italianate style drew heavily for its motifs on the buildings of the Italian Renaissance, the style was not confined to England and was employed in varying forms, long after its decline in popularity in Britain, throughout Northern Europe and the British Empire. From the late 1840s to 1890 it achieved popularity in the United States. A late intimation of Nashs development of the Italianate style was his 1805 design of Sandridge Park at Stoke Gabriel in Devon. Later examples of the Italianate style in England tend to take the form of Palladian-style building often enhanced by a belvedere complete with Renaissance-type balustrading at the roof level. Sir Charles Barry, most notable for his works on the Tudor, unlike Nash he found his inspiration in Italy itself. Barry drew heavily on the designs of the original Renaissance villas of Rome, the Lazio and his most defining work in this style was the large Neo-Renaissance mansion Cliveden. Thomas Cubitt, a London building contractor, incorporated simple classical lines of the Italianate style as defined by Sir Charles Barry into many of his London terraces. Following the completion of Osborne House in 1851, the became a popular choice of design for the small mansions built by the new. These were mostly built in cities surrounded by large but not extensive gardens, on occasions very similar, if not identical, designs to these Italianate villas would be topped by mansard roofs, and then termed chateauesque. However, after a modest spate of Italianate villas, and French chateaux by 1855 the most favoured style of an English country house was Gothic, the Italianate style came to the small town of Newton Abbot in Devon, with Isambard Brunels atmospheric railway pumping houses. An example that is not very known, but a clear example of Italianate architecture, is St. Christophers Anglican church in Hinchley Wood, Surrey. When the Ottomans exiled Fakhreddine to Tuscany in 1613, he entered an alliance with the Medicis, upon his return to Lebanon in 1618, he began modernising Lebanon. He developed an industry, upgraded olive-oil production, and brought with him numerous Italian engineers who began the construction of mansions. The cities of Beirut and Sidon were especially built in the Italianate style, the influence of these buildings, such as the ones in Deir el Qamar, influenced building in Lebanon for many centuries and continues to the present time
37.
Back Bay, Boston
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Back Bay is an officially recognized neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. It is also a shopping destination and home to some of Bostons tallest office buildings, the Hynes Convention Center. Prior to a colossal 19th-century filling project, Back Bay was a literal bay, today, along with neighboring Beacon Hill, it is one of Bostons two most expensive residential neighborhoods. This bay was tidal, the rose and fell several feet over the course of each day. As early as 5,200 years before present, Native Americans built fish weirs here, in 1814, the Boston and Roxbury Mill Corporation was chartered to construct a milldam, which would also serve as a toll road connecting Boston to Watertown, bypassing Boston Neck. However, the project was a failure, and in 1857 a massive project was begun to make land by filling the area enclosed by the dam. The firm of Goss and Munson built additional railroad trackage extending to quarries in Needham, twenty-five 35-car trains arrived every 24 hours carrying gravel and other fill, at a rate in the daytime of one every 45 minutes. Present-day Back Bay itself was filled by 1882, the project reached existing land at what is now Kenmore Square in 1890, much of the old mill dam remains buried under present-day Beacon Street. The project was the largest of a number of reclamation projects which, beginning in 1820. The Esplanade has since undergone changes, including the construction of Storrow Drive. The Back Bay is traversed by five east-west corridors, Beacon Street, Marlborough Street, Commonwealth Avenue, Newbury Street and Boylston Street. These are interrupted at intervals by running from north to south streets, Arlington, Berkeley, Clarendon, Dartmouth, Exeter, Fairfield, Gloucester. All of the west-east streets, except Commonwealth Avenue, are one-way streets, west of Hereford are Massachusetts Avenue and Charlesgate, which forms the Back Bays western boundary. Setback requirements and other restrictions, written into the lot deeds of the newly filled Back Bay, produced harmonious rows of dignified three- and four-story residential brownstones. The Back Bay is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Copley Square features Trinity Church, the Boston Public Library, the John Hancock Tower, and numerous other notable buildings. Trinity Church, deservedly regarded as one of the finest buildings in America, the first monumental structure in Copley Square was the original Museum of Fine Arts, begun 1870 and opened 1876. After museum moved to the Fenway neighborhood in 1909 its red Gothic Revival building was demolished to make way for the Fairmont Copley Plaza Hotel, the Boston Public Library, designed by McKim, Mead, and White, is a leading example of Beaux-Arts architecture in the US. Sited across Copley Square from Trinity Church, it was intended to be a palace for the people, baedekers 1893 guide terms it dignified and imposing, simple and scholarly, and a worthy mate. to Trinity Church
38.
Copley Square
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Copley Square, named for painter John Singleton Copley, is a public square in Bostons Back Bay neighborhood, bounded by Boylston Street, Clarendon Street, St. James Avenue, and Dartmouth Street. It is a pending Boston Landmark, the Square has a number and variety of important architectural works that have been built there, many of them official landmarks. Prominent structures still standing include, Old South Church, by Charles Amos Cummings, sears in the Venetian Gothic Revival style. Trinity Church, considered H. H. Richardsons tour de force, Boston Public Library, by Charles Follen McKim in a revival of Italian Renaissance style, incorporates artworks by John Singer Sargent, Edwin Austin Abbey, Daniel Chester French, and others. The Fairmont Copley Plaza Hotel by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh in the Beaux-Arts style, the John Hancock Tower by Henry N. Cobb, at 790 feet New Englands tallest building. The Bostix Kiosk, at the corner of Dartmouth and Boylston streets, S. S. Pierce Building, by S. Edwin Tobey, no masterpiece of architecture, great urban design. A heap of dark Romanesque masonry, Hotel Westminster, Trinity Place, by Henry E. Cregier of Chicago in 1897. Now the northeast corner of the new John Hancock Building, in 1991, after further changes including a new fountain, the new Copley Square Park was dedicated. The nonprofit Friends of Copley Square raises funds for care of the plantings, fountain. The Boston Marathon has finished at Copley Square since 1986, a memorial celebrating the races 100th running is located in the park, near the corner of Boylston and Dartmouth streets. On April 15,2013, around 2,50 p. m. two bombs exploded—one near the line near the Boston Public Library, the other some seconds later. Three people were killed and at least 183 injured, at least 14 of whom lost limbs
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H. H. Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
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Trinity Church (Boston)
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Trinity Church in the City of Boston, located in the Back Bay of Boston, Massachusetts, is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. The congregation, currently standing at approximately 3,000 households, was founded in 1734, five services are offered each Sunday, and weekday services are offered three times a week from September through June. Within the spectrum of styles in the Anglican tradition, Trinity Church has historically been considered a Broad Church parish. In addition to worship, the parish is actively involved in service to the community, pastoral care, programs for children and teenagers, the church is home to several high-level choirs, including the Trinity Choir, Trinity Schola, Trinity Choristers, and Trinity Chamber Choir. The building is currently under study for becoming a Boston Landmark, the church and parish house were designed by Henry Hobson Richardson and construction took place from 1872 to 1877, when the complex was consecrated. Situated on Copley Square in Back Bay, Trinity Church is the building that established Richardsons reputation and it is the birthplace and archetype of the Richardsonian Romanesque style, characterized by a clay roof, polychromy, rough stone, heavy arches, and a massive tower. This style was adopted for a number of public buildings across the United States. The stone used was Dedham Granite, each December, the choirs of Trinity offer three iterations of a service of Candlelight Carols. These are a Boston tradition, and very popular events, drawing nearly 5,000 attendees from as far away as Maine, a traditional scene in Copley Square in December is that of a long line of people waiting to enter the church for the free event. The service is based on the Nine Lessons and Carols model developed at Kings College, Cambridge, in addition to their primary function of supporting worship, the choirs of Trinity Church are fixtures in the rich musical landscape of Boston. The Trinity Choir has toured extensively, and can be heard on several critically acclaimed recordings, the Trinity Choristers are a group of children who learn music and sing in the tradition of the Royal School of Church Music. The current Director of Music and Organist is Richard Webster, the Trinity Choir and Trinity Choristers tour England every three years, serving as choirs-in-residence at major houses of worship such as Ely Cathedral, Chichester Cathedral, and Westminster Abbey. 1876, The original organ at Trinity was built by Hilborne L. Roosevelt in 1876,1903, Hutchings-Votey built a new instrument for the chancel and made both organs playable from a single console. 1924, Ernest M.1956, Aeolian-Skinner provided a new console in 1956 and, in 1960,1962, The gallery organ was extensively rebuilt, and major tonal modifications were made by Jason McKown, who maintained the organs for many years. 1987, Jack Steinkampf installed a rank of trumpet pipes under the west gallery window. This festival trumpet is given in memory of Paul Albert Merrill, late 1990s, In conjunction with the parishs building campaign, a plan was set out with Foley-Baker, Inc. for the cleaning and refurbishment of both organs and their joint console. The nave and chancel organs feature 121 stops,113 ranks, weekday services include Wednesday Evensong and Thursday Holy Eucharist with Prayers for Healing. The parish supports many forms of community outreach and social justice ministry, the Trinity Boston Foundation is a nonprofit organization with a mission to support the social and emotional well-being and development of young people
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Boston Museum of Fine Arts
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The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts, is the fourth largest museum in the United States. It contains more than 450,000 works of art, making it one of the most comprehensive collections in the Americas, with more than one million visitors a year, it is the 55th most-visited art museum in the world as of 2014. Founded in 1870, the moved to its current location in 1909. The museum is affiliated with the Tufts School of the Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of Fine Arts was founded in 1870 and opened in 1876, with most of its initial collection taken from the Boston Athenæum Art Gallery. Francis Davis Millet, a local artist, was instrumental in starting the Art School affiliated with the museum and it was built almost entirely of red brick and terracotta with a small amount of stone in its base. The brick was produced by the Peerless Brick Company of Philadelphia, in 1907, plans were laid to build a new home for the museum on Huntington Avenue in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore neighborhood near the renowned Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. Museum trustees decided to hire architect Guy Lowell to create a design for a museum so that could be built in stages as funding was obtained for each phase, two years later, the first section of Lowell’s neoclassical design was completed. It featured a 500-foot façade of granite and a grand rotunda, the museum moved to its new location later that year, the Copley Square Hotel eventually would replace the old building. The second phase of construction built a wing along the The Fens to house paintings galleries and it was funded entirely by Maria Antoinette Evans Hunt, the wife of wealthy business magnate Robert Dawson Evans, and opened in 1915. From 1916 through 1925, the noted artist John Singer Sargent painted the frescoes that adorn the rotunda, numerous additions enlarged the building throughout the years, including the Decorative Arts wing in 1928 and the Norma Jean Calderwood Garden Court and Terrace in 1997. The West Wing, designed by I. M. Pei, opened in 1981 and this wing now houses the museums cafe, restaurant, and gift shop as well as a special exhibition space. In the mid-2000s, the museum launched an effort to renovate. In 2011, Moodys Investors Service calculated that the museum had over $180 million in outstanding debt, however, the agency cited growing attendance, a large endowment, and positive cash flow as reasons to believe that the museums finances would become stable in the near future. The renovation included a new Art of the Americas Wing to feature artwork from North, South, in 2006, the groundbreaking ceremonies took place. The landscape architecture firm Gustafson Guthrie Nichol redesigned the Huntington Avenue and Fenway entrances, gardens, access roads, the wing opened on November 20,2010 with free admission to the public. Mayor Thomas Menino declared it Museum of Fine Arts Day, the 12, 000-square-foot glass-enclosed courtyard features a 42. 5-foot high glass sculpture, titled the Lime Green Icicle Tower, by Dale Chihuly. In 2014, the Art of the Americas Wing was recognized for its architectural achievement by being awarded the Harleston Parker Medal. In 2015, the museum renovated its Japanese garden, Tenshin-en, the garden, which originally opened in 1988, was designed by Japanese professor Kinsaku Nakane
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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
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McKim, Mead & White
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McKim, Mead & White was a prominent American architectural firm that thrived at the turn of the twentieth century. The firms founding partners were Charles Follen McKim, William Rutherford Mead and they hired many other architects, partners, associates, designers and draftsmen, who came to prominence during or after their time at the firm. The firms New York City buildings include Manhattans former Pennsylvania Station, the Brooklyn Museum, elsewhere in New York State and New England, the firm designed college, library, school and other buildings such as the Boston Public Library and Rhode Island State House. In Washington, D. C. the firm renovated the West and East Wings of the White House, and designed Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair and the National Museum of American History. Across the United States, the firm designed buildings in Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, other examples are in Canada, Cuba and Italy. McKim and Mead joined forces in 1872 and they were joined in 1879 by White, who, like McKim, had worked for architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Its vision was to clean up the confusion of American cities and imbue them with a sense of order. The firm retained its name long after the deaths of founding partners White, McKim, among the firms final works under the name McKim, Mead & White was the National Museum of American History in Washington, D. C. Designed primarily by partner James Kellum Smith, it opened in 1964, Smith died in 1961, and the firm was soon renamed Steinmann, Cain and White. In 1971, it became Walker O. Cain and Associates, lewis Colt Albro – who formed a partnership with Harrie T. Lindeberg from 1906 to 1914. Henry Bacon – worked at the firm from about 1886 through 1897, boring – worked at the firm in 1890 before forming a separate partnership with Edward Lippincott Tilton. Page Brown - worked with the beginning in the 1880s, went to California. Walker O. Cain – worked at the firm, he took it over in 1961, john Merven Carrère – worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885, then joined Thomas Hastings to form the firm Carrère and Hastings. Arthur Loomis Harmon – later of Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Thomas Hastings – of Carrère and Hastings, worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885. William Mitchell Kendall, worked with the firm from 1882 until his death, Harrie T. Lindeberg – started at the firm in 1895 as an assistant to Stanford White and remained with the firm until Whites death in 1906. Austin W. James Kellum Smith – a member of the firm from 1924 to 1961, full partner in 1929, and he primarily designed academic buildings, but his last major work was the National Museum of American History. Egerton Swartwout of Tracy and Swartwout – both Tracy and Swartwout worked together for the firm on multiple projects prior to starting their own practice, robert von Ezdorf – took over much of the firms business after Whites death. William M. Wells – worked as firms first Chief Draftsman from 1879–90, often considered to be the fourth partner
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Charles Follen McKim
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Charles Follen McKim was an American Beaux-Arts architect of the late 19th century. Along with William Rutherford Mead and Stanford White, he provided the architectural expertise as a member of the partnership McKim, McKim was born in Chester County, Pennsylvania. His parents were James Miller McKim, a Presbyterian minister, and they were active abolitionists and he was named after Charles Follen, another abolitionist and a Unitarian minister. After attending Harvard University, he studied architecture at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris before joining the office of Henry Hobson Richardson in 1870, McKim formed his own firm in partnership with William Rutherford Mead, joined in 1877 by fellow Richardson protégé Stanford White. For ten years, the firm was known for their open-plan informal summer houses. He designed the Howard Mansion at Hyde Park, New York and he died, aged 62, in St. James, New York. He was a member and former president of the American Institute of Architects. He became a National Academician in 1907 and he belonged to the University, Lambs, Racquet and Tennis Clubs of New York, and to the St. Botolph and Somerset Clubs of Boston. McKim received numerous awards during his lifetime, including the Medaille dOr at the 1900 Paris Exposition, the royal gold medal from Edward VII was awarded for the restoration of the White House. In 1902 Congress appropriated $475,445 for this purpose to be spent at the discretion of President Theodore Roosevelt. He received honorary doctorates from the University of Pennsylvania and Columbia University, and the degree of A. M. from Harvard in 1890. He was elected a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 1877, Charles Follen McKim at the archINFORM database. The McKim Mead & White Architectural Records Collection at the New York Historical Society
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Renaissance architecture
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Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact. Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular, was home to the Renaissance, the scholarly approach to the architecture of the ancient coincided with the general revival of learning. A number of factors were influential in bringing this about, Italian architects had always preferred forms that were clearly defined and structural members that expressed their purpose. Many Tuscan Romanesque buildings demonstrate these characteristics, as seen in the Florence Baptistery, Italy had never fully adopted the Gothic style of architecture. In the 15th century, Florence, Venice and Naples extended their power through much of the area that surrounded them and this enabled Florence to have significant artistic influence in Milan, and through Milan, France. Successive Popes, especially Julius II, 1503–13, sought to extend the Pope’s temporal power throughout Italy, in the early Renaissance, Venice controlled sea trade over goods from the East. Trade brought wool from England to Florence, ideally located on the river for the production of fine cloth, by dominating Pisa, Florence gained a seaport, and also maintained dominance of Genoa. In this commercial climate, one family in particular turned their attention from trade to the business of money-lending. The Medici became the chief bankers to the princes of Europe, becoming virtually princes themselves as they did so, along the trade routes, and thus offered some protection by commercial interest, moved not only goods but also artists, scientists and philosophers. This commenced in the mid 15th century and gained momentum in the 16th century, the construction of the Sistine Chapel with its uniquely important decorations and the entire rebuilding of St Peters, one of Christendoms most significant churches, were part of this process. In wealthy republican Florence, the impetus for church-building was more civic than spiritual, the unfinished state of the enormous cathedral dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary did no honour to the city under her patronage. The dome inspired further religious works in Florence, through Humanism, civic pride and the promotion of civil peace and order were seen as the marks of citizenship. Some major ecclesiastical building works were commissioned, not by the church. During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, printing played a large role in the dissemination of ideas. The first treatise on architecture was De re aedificatoria by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450 and it was to some degree dependent on Vitruviuss De architectura, a manuscript of which was discovered in 1414 in a library in Switzerland. De re aedificatoria in 1485 became the first printed book on architecture, Sebastiano Serlio produced the next important text, the first volume of which appeared in Venice in 1537, it was entitled Regole generali darchitettura. It is known as Serlios Fourth Book since it was the fourth in Serlios original plan of a treatise in seven books, in all, five books were published
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Boston Public Library, McKim Building
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The Boston Public Library McKim Building in Copley Square contains the librarys research collection, exhibition rooms and administrative offices. When it opened in 1895, the new Boston Public Library was proclaimed a palace for the people, the building includes lavish decorations, a childrens room, and a central courtyard surrounded by an arcaded gallery in the manner of a Renaissance cloister. The library regularly displays its rare works, often in exhibits that will combine works on paper, rare books, several galleries in the third floor of the McKim building are maintained for exhibits. Boston Public Library was founded in 1852, the first Boston Public Library location opened in 1854 in two rooms in the Adams School on Mason Street. Because the Mason Street space was small and poorly lit, a new building opened at 55 Boylston Street in 1858 and it cost $365,000 to build and held 70,000 volumes. It opened in 1895 and cost $2,268,000, charles Follen McKims design shows influence from a number of architectural precedents. The open-air courtyard at the center of the building is based closely on that of the sixteenth-century Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome, seven different types of Guastavino vaulting can be seen in the library. It was the first major Beaux Arts building in the United States, McKim chose to have monumental inscriptions, similar to those found on basilicas and monuments in ancient Rome, in the entablature on each of the main buildings three façades. D. MDCCCLXXXVIII, and on the north, THE COMMONWEALTH REQUIRES THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE AS THE SAFEGUARD OF ORDER AND LIBERTY, the last quotation has been attributed to the librarys Board of Trustees. Another inscription, above the keystone of the entrance, proclaims. Below each second-story arched window on the three façades are inscribed lists of the names of great writers, artists, scientists, philosophers. The monuments inscription responds to the McKim building reading IT WAS IN MY HEART TO HELP A LITTLE, the text is excerpted from a letter enclosed with Gibrans generous bequest to the library. Bates Hall is named for the librarys first great benefactor, Joshua Bates, the form of Bates Hall, rectilinear but terminated with a semi-circular apse on each end, recalls a Roman basilica. A series of robust double coffers in the ceiling provide a canopy to the room. The east side has a series of arched windows with light buffered by wide overhanging hood on the exterior. Heavy deep green silk velvet drapery installed in 1888, and again in the 1920s and 1950s, was not recreated in the 1993 restoration of the room, the drapery helped to muffle sound and lower light levels. Included in the BPLs research collection are more than 1.7 million rare books, there are large collections of prints, photographs, postcards, and maps. The library, for example, holds one of the collections of watercolors
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