1.
Britannia Bridge
–
Britannia Bridge is a bridge across the Menai Strait between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales. It was originally designed and built by Robert Stephenson as a bridge of wrought iron rectangular box-section spans for carrying rail traffic. Following a fire in 1970 it was rebuilt, initially as a single tier steel truss arch bridge, a second tier was added later and opened in 1980 to accommodate road traffic. The opening of the Menai Bridge in 1826, one mile to the east of where Britannia Bridge was later built, the increasing popularity of rail travel necessitated a second bridge to provide a direct rail link between London and the port of Holyhead, the Chester and Holyhead Railway. Other railway schemes were proposed, including one in 1838 to cross Thomas Telfords existing Menai Bridge, by 1840, a Treasury committee decided broadly in favour of Stephensons proposals, with final consent to the route including Britannia Bridge given in 1845. Stephensons son Robert was appointed as chief engineer, two additional spans of 230 ft length completed the bridge, making a 1, 511-foot-long continuous girder. The trains were to run inside the tubes, Hodgkinson believed that it would be impractical to make the tubes stiff enough, and advised auxiliary suspension from link chains. The consensus of received engineering opinion was with Hodgkinson, but Stephenson, rather nervously, a 75-foot span model was constructed and tested at Fairbairns Millwall shipyard, and used as a basis for the final design. Although Stephenson had pressed for the tubes to be elliptical in section, fairbairn was responsible both for the cellular construction of the top part of the tubes, and for developing the stiffening of the side panels. The bridge was decorated by four large lions sculpted in limestone by John Thomas, the idea of raising them to road level has been suggested from time to time. Begun in 1846, the bridge was opened on 5 March 1850, for its time, it was a bridge of magnitude and singular novelty, far surpassing in length contemporary cast beam or plate girder iron bridges. One aspect of its method of construction was also novel, The box sections were assembled on-shore and this station closed after 8½ years in operation owing to low passenger volumes. Nothing now remains of the other than the remnants of the lower-level station building. A new station named Menai Bridge was opened shortly afterwards, the construction techniques employed on the Britannia Bridge influenced Isambard Kingdom Brunel in the construction of the Royal Albert Bridge across the River Tamar at Saltash. During the evening of 23 May 1970 the bridge was damaged when boys playing inside the bridge dropped a burning torch. After the fire had burned out the bridge was still standing. As a consequence the bridge was rebuilt by Husband & Co. The new design was for an arched bridge, concrete supports were built under the approach spans and steel archways constructed under the long spans on either side of the central Britannia Tower
Britannia Bridge
–
The modern Britannia Bridge.
Britannia Bridge
–
Britannia Bridge entrance
Britannia Bridge
–
The original box section Britannia Bridge,
circa 1852.
Britannia Bridge
–
Postcard picture of the bridge from circa 1902
2.
Fairbairn steam crane
–
A Fairbairn crane is a type of crane of an improved design, patented in 1850 by Sir William Fairbairn. There are numerous hand-powered versions around the world and one surviving steam-powered example in Bristol Docks, the cranes innovation was in the use of a curved jib, made of riveted wrought iron platework to form a square-section box girder. This curved jib could reach further into the hold of a ship, designing a strong curved jib required Fairbairns advanced theoretical understanding of the mechanics of a box girder. The tension forces were carried by the outer, convex surface of the girder which was made of plates being chain-riveted together. The inner surface carried a compressive load, to avoid plate crumpling, it was made as a cellular structure, an inner plate and webs formed three rectangular cells, effectively box girders in their own right. The character of a box girder is to resist torsional twisting, the first of these cranes were a batch of six built for the Admiralty at Keyham and Devonport. These were hand-operated and could lift 12 tons to a height of 30 feet, the size of the crane jibs was determined by ships of the period, and their lifting capacity by mens ability to raise the load. Experiments at Keyham with loads of up to 20 tons showed the jib design to be sound, a colossal crane of 60 tons was later built at Keyham, with a cell plate stiffened by four cells. This crane was worked by four men driving through a train of 632 times. As the capacity of the crane was so limited by its motive power, not its strength. There was even a proposal for a 120 feet high crane, a more typical size for most of these later cranes though would be able to lift 35 tons at a radius of 35 feet. They were powered by self-contained steam engines, with boiler and engine mounted on board the crane. William Fairbairn & Sons of Manchester built a number of these cranes, after the expiry of the patent in 1875, other companies, notably Cowans Sheldon & Co of Carlisle, built many others as late as 1910, often powered by steam, water hydraulics or electricity. They were particularly favoured in naval dockyards for fitting battleship guns, the only surviving Fairbairn steam crane is in Bristol, on the quayside at Princes Wharf. It is in the care of M Shed, in the 1870s, Bristol Docks was going through a period of expansion and modernisation in the face of increasing competition from other ports. Iron-hulled ships were becoming larger, cargoes heavier, and there had already been investment in building a line along the harbour quay. Crane capacity was limited though – none of the harbours 17 cranes being able to more than 3 tons. Accordingly, a powerful steam crane was ordered, to be capable of lifting 35 tons
Fairbairn steam crane
–
The Bristol crane
Fairbairn steam crane
–
Fairbairn's patent curved platework jib
Fairbairn steam crane
–
Maker's plate for
Stothert & Pitt. This photograph also shows the distinctive double rows of rivets that make up 'chain riveting.'
Fairbairn steam crane
–
Gearing inside the cab, showing a cast-in "S&P" mark
3.
Girder
–
A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is the main support of a structure which supports smaller beams. Girders often have an I-beam cross section composed of two load-bearing flanges separated by a web, but may also have a box shape, Z shape. A girder is used to build bridges. In traditional timber framing a girder is called a girt, small steel girders are rolled into shape. Larger girders are made as plate girders, welded or bolted together from pieces of steel plate. The Warren type girder replaces the solid web with a latticework between the flanges. This truss arrangement combines strength with economy of materials and can therefore be relatively light and it is an improvement over the Neville truss which uses a spacing configuration of isosceles triangles. Song W, Ma Z, Vadivelu J, Burdette E, transfer Length and Splitting Force Calculation for Pretension Concrete Girders with High-Capacity Strands. Chen X, Wu S, Zhou J. ”Compressive Strength of Concrete Cores with Different Lengths. ”
Girder
–
The ceiling of
Hinkle Fieldhouse in
Indianapolis, Indiana, was constructed of large
trusses built of
riveted girders.
Girder
–
An AASHTO prestressed concrete girder.
4.
I-beam
–
An I-beam, also known as H-beam, W-beam, Universal Beam, Rolled Steel Joist, or double-T, is a beam with an I or H-shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the I are known as flanges, while the element is termed the web. I-beams are usually made of steel and are used in construction. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment experienced by the beam, Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the cross-section has a capacity in the transverse direction. The method of producing an I-beam, as rolled from a piece of steel, was patented by Alphonse Halbou of the company Forges de la Providence in 1849. Bethlehem Steel was a supplier of rolled structural steel of various cross-sections in American bridge. Today, rolled cross-sections have been displaced in such work by fabricated cross-sections. There are two standard I-beam forms, Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold rolling or extrusion, plate girder, formed by welding plates. I-beams are commonly made of steel but may also be formed from aluminium or other materials. A common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist —sometimes incorrectly rendered as reinforced steel joist, british and European standards also specify Universal Beams and Universal Columns. These sections have parallel flanges, as opposed to the thickness of RSJ flanges which are seldom now rolled in the UK. Parallel flanges are easier to connect to and do away with the need for tapering washers, however, there has been some concern as to their rapid loss of strength in a fire if unprotected. I-beams are widely used in the industry and are available in a variety of standard sizes. Tables are available to allow selection of a suitable steel I-beam size for a given applied load. I-beams may be used both as beams and as columns, I-beams may be used both on their own, or acting compositely with another material, typically concrete. A beam under bending sees high stresses along the fibers that are farthest from the neutral axis. To prevent failure, most of the material in the beam must be located in these regions, comparatively little material is needed in the area close to the neutral axis
I-beam
–
This I-beam is used to support the first floor of a house.
I-beam
–
Rusty riveted steel I-beam
5.
H-beam
–
An I-beam, also known as H-beam, W-beam, Universal Beam, Rolled Steel Joist, or double-T, is a beam with an I or H-shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the I are known as flanges, while the element is termed the web. I-beams are usually made of steel and are used in construction. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment experienced by the beam, Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the cross-section has a capacity in the transverse direction. The method of producing an I-beam, as rolled from a piece of steel, was patented by Alphonse Halbou of the company Forges de la Providence in 1849. Bethlehem Steel was a supplier of rolled structural steel of various cross-sections in American bridge. Today, rolled cross-sections have been displaced in such work by fabricated cross-sections. There are two standard I-beam forms, Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold rolling or extrusion, plate girder, formed by welding plates. I-beams are commonly made of steel but may also be formed from aluminium or other materials. A common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist —sometimes incorrectly rendered as reinforced steel joist, british and European standards also specify Universal Beams and Universal Columns. These sections have parallel flanges, as opposed to the thickness of RSJ flanges which are seldom now rolled in the UK. Parallel flanges are easier to connect to and do away with the need for tapering washers, however, there has been some concern as to their rapid loss of strength in a fire if unprotected. I-beams are widely used in the industry and are available in a variety of standard sizes. Tables are available to allow selection of a suitable steel I-beam size for a given applied load. I-beams may be used both as beams and as columns, I-beams may be used both on their own, or acting compositely with another material, typically concrete. A beam under bending sees high stresses along the fibers that are farthest from the neutral axis. To prevent failure, most of the material in the beam must be located in these regions, comparatively little material is needed in the area close to the neutral axis
H-beam
–
This I-beam is used to support the first floor of a house.
H-beam
–
Rusty riveted steel I-beam
6.
Rivet
–
A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed, a rivet consists of a cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite to the head is called the tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, in other words, pounding creates a new head on the other end by smashing the tail material flatter, resulting in a rivet that is roughly a dumbbell shape. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail. Because there is effectively a head on each end of a rivet, it can support tension loads, however. Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications, solid rivets consist simply of a shaft and head that are deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. A rivet compression or crimping tool can also deform this type of rivet and this tool is mainly used on rivets close to the edge of the fastened material, since the tool is limited by the depth of its frame. A rivet compression tool does not require two people, and is generally the most foolproof way to solid rivets. Solid rivets are used in applications where reliability and safety count, a typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of rivets are used to assemble the frame of a modern aircraft. Such rivets come with rounded or 100° countersunk heads, typical materials for aircraft rivets are aluminium alloys, titanium, and nickel-based alloys. Some aluminum alloy rivets are too hard to buck and must be softened by solution treating prior to being bucked, ice box aluminum alloy rivets harden with age, and must likewise be annealed and then kept at sub-freezing temperatures to slow the age-hardening process. Steel rivets can be found in structures such as bridges, cranes. The setting of these fasteners requires access to both sides of a structure, solid rivets are driven using a hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically driven squeezing tool or even a handheld hammer. Applications where only one side is accessible require blind rivets, high-strength bolts have largely replaced structural steel rivets. Indeed, the latest steel construction specifications published by AISC no longer covers their installation, the reason for the change is primarily due to the expense of skilled workers required to install high strength structural steel rivets. Whereas two relatively unskilled workers can install and tighten high strength bolts, it takes a minimum of four highly skilled riveters to install rivets, at a central location near the areas being riveted, a furnace was set up
Rivet
–
Solid rivets
Rivet
–
Sophisticated riveted joint on a railway bridge
Rivet
–
A typical technical drawing of a universal head solid rivet
Rivet
–
Riveting team working on the cockpit shell of a
C-47 transport at the plant of
North American Aviation. The woman on the left operates an air hammer, while the man on the right holds a
bucking bar
7.
Wrought iron
–
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron. It is a mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions which gives it a grain resembling wood. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily welded, before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common form of malleable iron. A wrought product is one that has been worked by forging, extruding, rolling, hammering, etcetera, to change its form. Wrought iron is a worked iron product that is seldom produced today as other cheaper. Historically, a modest amount of iron was refined into steel. The demand for wrought iron reached its peak in the 1860s with the adaptation of ironclad warships, however, as properties such as brittleness of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined. Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture and gates, are actually made of mild steel. They retain that description because they are made to resemble objects which in the past were wrought by hand by a blacksmith, the word wrought is an archaic past participle of the verb to work, and so wrought iron literally means worked iron. Wrought iron is a term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods. It was used in that sense in British Customs records. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold, Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a variety of terms according to its form, origin. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the materials used in the finery forge. Pig iron and cast iron have higher content than wrought iron. Cast and especially pig iron have excess slag which must be at least partially removed to produce quality wrought iron, at foundries it was common to blend scrap wrought iron with cast iron to improve the physical properties of castings. Fusion eventually became accepted as relatively more important than composition below a given low carbon concentration. Another difference is that steel can be hardened by heat treating, historically, wrought iron was known as commercially pure iron, however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008 wt%
Wrought iron
–
The
Eiffel tower is constructed from
puddled iron, a form of wrought iron
Wrought iron
–
Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Wrought iron
–
Iron pillar at Delhi, India, containing 98% wrought iron
Wrought iron
–
Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace
8.
Extrusion
–
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section and it also forms parts with an excellent surface finish. Drawing is a process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. This limits the amount of change which can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes are often drawn. Extrusion may be continuous or semi-continuous, the extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play dough, the products of extrusion are generally called extrudates. Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its length into the final shape, the material flows around the supports and fuses together to create the desired closed shape. The extrusion process in metals may increase the strength of the material. In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making out of soft metals. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand-driven plunger, in 1820 Thomas Burr implemented that process for lead pipe, with a hydraulic press. At that time the process was called squirting, in 1894, Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion process to copper and brass alloys. The process begins by heating the stock material and it is then loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the material to push it out of the die, afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be treated or cold worked. The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the area of the final extrusion. One of the advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very large while still producing quality parts
Extrusion
–
Extruded aluminium with several hollow cavities;
T slots allow bars to be joined with special connectors.
Extrusion
–
A horizontal hydraulic press for hot aluminum extrusion (loose dies and scrap visible in foreground)
Extrusion
–
Extrusion of a round blank through a die.
Extrusion
–
Two-piece aluminum extrusion die set (parts shown separated.) The male part (at right) is for forming the internal cavity in the resulting round tube extrusion.
9.
Prestressed concrete
–
Prestressed concrete is a concrete construction material which is placed under compression prior to it supporting any applied loads. A more technical definition is Structural concrete in which stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concrete resulting from loads. This compression is produced by the tensioning of high-strength tendons located within or adjacent to the concrete volume, tendons may consist of single wires, multi-wire strands or threaded bars, and are most commonly made from high-tensile steels, carbon fibre or aramid fibre. This can result in improved structural capacity and/or serviceability compared to reinforced concrete in many situations. Typical applications range through high-rise buildings, residential slabs, foundation systems, bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial pavements, first used in the late-nineteenth century, prestressed concrete has developed to encompass a wide range of technologies. Tensioning of the tendons may be undertaken either before or after the concrete itself is cast, tendons may be located either within the concrete volume, or wholly outside of it. Whereas pre-tensioned concrete by definition uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. Pre-tensioning is a common technique, where the resulting concrete element is manufactured remotely from the final structure location. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the tendons are stretched and these anchorages form the ends of a casting bed which may be many times the length of the concrete element being fabricated. Higher bond strength in early-age concrete allows more economical fabrication as it speeds production, to promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single wires or strands, as this provides a greater surface area for bond action than bundled strand tendons. Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete, the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages, where profiled or harped tendons are required, one or more intermediate deviators are located between the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a robust casting bed foundation system, pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of structural beams, floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies, lintels, driven piles, water tanks and concrete pipes. Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned after the concrete structure has been cast. The tendons are not placed in contact with the concrete. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete, once the concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned by pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being applied to the once the tendon is locked-off at the anchorage. Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs allows them to be profiled to any desired shape including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal curvature. Bonded post-tensioning has prestressing tendons permanently bonded to the concrete by the in situ grouting of their encapsulating ducting following tendon tensioning
Prestressed concrete
–
Stressed ribbon pedestrian bridge,
Grants Pass, Oregon, USA
Prestressed concrete
–
Prestressed concrete diagram
Prestressed concrete
–
Multistrand post-tensioning anchor.
Prestressed concrete
–
1. Rolls of post-tension cables
10.
Torsion (mechanics)
–
In the field of solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. Torsion is expressed in newton per squared meter or pound per squared inch while torque is expressed in newton metres or foot-pound force, in sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section is perpendicular to the radius. For shafts of uniform cross-section the torsion is, T = J T r τ = J T ℓ G φ where, τ is the maximum shear stress at the outer surface JT is the torsion constant for the section. It is almost equal to the moment of area Jz = Iz for twisting about axis z. For more accuracy, finite element analysis is the best method, other calculation methods include membrane analogy and shear flow approximation. R is the distance between the axis and the farthest point in the section. ℓ is the length of the object the torque is being applied to or over, φ is the angle of twist in radians. G is the modulus, also called the modulus of rigidity. The product JT G is called the torsional rigidity wT, the shear stress at a point within a shaft is, τ φ z = T r J T Note that the highest shear stress occurs on the surface of the shaft, where the radius is maximum. High stresses at the surface may be compounded by stress concentrations such as rough spots, thus, shafts for use in high torsion are polished to a fine surface finish to reduce the maximum stress in the shaft and increase their service life. The angle of twist can be found by using, φ = T ℓ G J T, calculation of the steam turbine shaft radius for a turboset, Assumptions, Power carried by the shaft is 1000 MW, this is typical for a large nuclear power plant. Yield stress of the used to make the shaft is,250 ×106 N/m². Electricity has a frequency of 50 Hz, this is the frequency in Europe. In North America, the frequency is 60 Hz.16 rad/s and the torque 3.1831 ×106 N·m. The maximal torque is, T max = τ max J z z r After substitution of the moment of inertia. The shear stress in the shaft may be resolved into principal stresses via Mohrs circle, if the shaft is loaded only in torsion, then one of the principal stresses will be in tension and the other in compression. These stresses are oriented at a 45-degree helical angle around the shaft and this is often demonstrated by twisting a piece of blackboard chalk between ones fingers. In the case of thin hollow shafts, a twisting buckling mode can result from excessive torsional load, structural rigidity Torsion siege engine Torsion spring or -bar Torsional vibration Torque tester Saint-Venants theorem Second moment of area List of area moments of inertia
Torsion (mechanics)
–
The rotor of a modern
steam turbine
11.
Royal Albert Bridge
–
The Royal Albert Bridge is a railway bridge which spans the River Tamar in England between Plymouth, Devon and Saltash, Cornwall. Its unique design consists of two 455-foot lenticular iron trusses 100 feet above the water, with conventional plate-girder approach spans and this gives it a total length of 2,187.5 feet. It carries the Cornish Main Line railway in and out of Cornwall and it is adjacent to the Tamar Bridge which opened in 1962 to carry the A38 road. The Royal Albert Bridge was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, surveying started in 1848 and construction commenced in 1854. The first main span was positioned in 1857 and the bridge was opened by Prince Albert on 2 May 1859. Brunel died later that year and his name was placed above the portals at either end of the bridge as a memorial. Work was carried out during the century to replace the approach spans. It has attracted sightseers since its construction and has appeared in paintings, photographs, guidebooks, postage stamps. Anniversary celebrations took place in 1959 and 2009, two rival schemes for a railway to Falmouth, Cornwall were proposed in the 1830s. The central scheme was a route from Exeter around the north of Dartmoor, the other, the coastal scheme, was a line with many engineering difficulties but which could serve the important naval town of Devonport and the industrial area around St Austell. Following this Isambard Kingdom Brunel took over as engineer and proposed to cross the water higher upstream using a bridge at Saltash instead, the Act enabling this scheme was passed on 3 August 1846. The two central sections of Brunels bridge are novel adaptations of the design Stephenson employed for the High Level Bridge across the River Tyne in Newcastle Upon Tyne in 1849, Brunel was present when Stephenson raised the girders of his Britannia Bridge across the Menai Strait in the same year. The river is about 1,100 feet wide at Saltash, Brunels first thoughts had been to cross this on a double track timber viaduct with a central span of 255 feet and six approach spans of 105 feet with 80 feet clearance above the water. The Admiralty again rejected this plan, stipulating that there should not be more than one pier in the part of the river. Brunel now abandoned plans for a double track structure and instead proposed a single track wrought iron design consisting of a single 850-foot span. The two spans are lenticular trusses with the top chord of each truss comprising a heavy tubular arch in compression, each of the trusses is simply supported and therefore no horizontal thrust is exerted on the piers, which is crucial in view of the curved track on either side. Between these two chords are supporting cross-bracing members and suspension standards which hang beneath the bottom chord to carry the deck which is a continuous plate beam. There are also seventeen much shorter and more conventional plate-girder approach spans on the shore and this gives a total length for the nineteen spans of 2,187.5 feet
Royal Albert Bridge
–
Royal Albert Bridge
Royal Albert Bridge
–
A tide recorder designed by Brunel as part of his survey
Royal Albert Bridge
–
The first span and centre pier under construction in 1854, seen from Saltash
Royal Albert Bridge
–
The second span soon after it was floated onto the piers and had been jacked up the first 12 feet (3.7 m) towards its final position
12.
William Fairbairn
–
Sir William Fairbairn, 1st Baronet of Ardwick was a Scottish civil engineer, structural engineer and shipbuilder. Born in Kelso to a farmer, Fairbairn showed an early mechanical aptitude. He moved to Manchester in 1813 to work for Adam Parkinson, in 1817, he launched his mill-machinery business with James Lillie as Fairbairn and Lillie Engine Makers. Fairbairn was a lifelong learner and joined the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1830, in the 1820s and 30s, he and Eaton Hodgkinson conducted a search for an optimal cross section for iron beams. They designed, for example, the bridge over Water Street for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. In the 1840s, when Robert Stephenson, the son of his youthful friend George, was trying to develop a way of crossing the Menai Strait, he retained both Fairbairn and Hodgkinson as consultants. It was Fairbairn who conceived the idea of a tube or box girder to bridge the large gap between Anglesey and North Wales. He conducted many tests on prototypes in his Millwall shipyard and at the site of the bridge, the design was first used in a shorter span at Conway, and followed by the much larger Britannia Bridge. The tube bridge ultimately proved far too costly a concept for widespread use owing to the sheer mass, Fairbairn himself developed wrought iron trough bridges which used some of the ideas he had developed in the tubular bridge. When the cotton industry fell into recession, Fairbairn diversified into the manufacture of boilers for locomotives, perceiving a ship as a floating tubular beam, he criticised existing design standards dictated by Lloyds of London. Fairbairn and Lillie built the iron paddle-steamer Lord Dundas at Manchester in 1830, the difficulties which were encountered in the construction of iron ships in an inland town like Manchester led to the removal of this branch of the business to Millwall, London in 1834-5. In 1848 he retired from this branch of his business, Fairbairn drew on his experience with the construction of iron-hulled ships when designing the Britannia Bridge and Conwy Railway Bridges. Fairbairn began building locomotives in 1839 with an 0-4-0 design for the Manchester. By 1862 the company had constructed more than 400 at Millwall for companies such as the Great Western Railway, however, as the works had no rail access, any locomotives had to be shipped by road. Fairbairn developed the Lancashire boiler in 1844 and he experimented with glass cylinders and was able to show that the hoop stress in the wall was twice the longitudinal stress. When a cylindrical boiler failed, it usually fractured along its length owing to the hoop stress in the wall. Eventually this would lead to the adoption of water-tube boilers with small tubes for high pressures. Fairbairn was one of the first engineers to conduct investigations of failures of structures, including the collapse of textile mills
William Fairbairn
–
William Fairbairn
William Fairbairn
–
The western end of the
Conwy Railway Bridge next to the castle
William Fairbairn
–
Section of the original wrought-iron
Britannia Bridge standing in front of the modern bridge
William Fairbairn
–
Steamship Minerva, 19 July 1835,
Rapperswil (SG) on
Lake Zurich, Switzerland
13.
Eaton Hodgkinson
–
Eaton A. Hodgkinson FRS was an English engineer, a pioneer of the application of mathematics to problems of structural design. Hodgkinson was born in the village of Anderton, near Northwich and his father died when Hodgkinson was six years old and he was raised with his two sisters by his mother who maintained the farming business. Unfortunately, the regime was unsuited to his tastes and talents which were showing promise in mathematics. However, farming was no more to his taste than Greek and Latin, family friends advised that Hodgkinson might find some more suitable outlet in nearby Manchester and so, in 1811, the family left for Salford to open a pawnbroking business. He became a pupil of John Dalton, studying mathematics, and he retired early from the family business to devote a modest pension to his scientific work. He married twice, to Catherine Johns and to a Miss Holditch, Hodgkinson measured the strength of columns of materials including cast iron and marble in a series of experiments. Hodgkinson worked with Sir William Fairbairn in Manchester on the design of beams, especially on the Water Street bridge for the Liverpool. His improved cross section was published by the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1830, Fairbairn built and tested several prototypes, and developed the final form adopted for the bridge. Both Hodgkinson and Robert Stephenson believed that extra chains would be needed to support the heavy spans, Fairbairn, however, insisted that chains would not be necessary, and his opinion prevailed. He was right, and chains were never used, but the towers remain with their empty recesses, Hodgkinson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1841 and, in 1847, he became professor of the mechanical principles of engineering at University College London. Towards the end of his life, his mental faculties failed and he died at Higher Broughton, report of the Commissioners Appointed to Enquire into the Application of Iron to Railway Structures cmd. History of Strength of Materials, pp126–129
Eaton Hodgkinson
–
Hodgkinson experimented on the strength of columns, here showing the failure mode
14.
Spaceframe
–
In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle. Alexander Graham Bell from 1898 to 1908 developed space frames based on tetrahedral geometry, bells interest was primarily in using them to make rigid frames for nautical and aeronautical engineering, with the tetrahedral truss being one of his inventions. Max Mengeringhausen developed the grid system called MERO in 1943 in Germany. The commonly used method, still in use has individual tubular members connected at joints and variations such as the space deck system, octet truss system. Stéphane de Chateau in France invented the Tridirectional SDC system, Unibat system, a method of tree supports was developed to replace the individual columns. Buckminster Fuller patented the octet truss in 1961 while focusing on architectural structures, Space frames are typically designed using a rigidity matrix. The special characteristic of the matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of the angular factors. If the joints are sufficiently rigid, the angular deflections can be neglected, the simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids and tetrahedra built from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger form is composed of interlocking tetrahedra in which all the struts have unit length, more technically this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes, within the meaning of space frame, we can find three systems clearly different between them, Curvature classification Space plane covers. These spatial structures are composed of planar substructures and their behavior is similar to that of a plate in which the deflections in the plane are channeled through the horizontal bars and the shear forces are supported by the diagonals. This type of vault has a section of a simple arch. Usually this type of space frame does not need to use tetrahedral modules or pyramids as a part of its backing, spherical domes and other compound curves usually require the use of tetrahedral modules or pyramids and additional support from a skin. Classification by the arrangement of its elements Single layer grid, all elements are located on the surface to be approximated. The elements are organized in two layers parallel to each other at a distance apart
Spaceframe
–
The roof of this industrial building is supported by a space frame structure.
Spaceframe
–
This train station is supported by a barrel vaults structure.
Spaceframe
–
The dome is a parashell concrete structure and is the only one in Scotland. It was constructed using a pioneering technique in which concrete was poured onto a special neoprene membrane and then pneumatically inflated.
Spaceframe
–
Yeoman YA-1 vs CA-6 Wackett frames.
15.
Geodesic airframe
–
A geodesic airframe is a type of construction for the airframes of aircraft developed by British aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis in the 1930s. It makes use of a frame formed from a spirally crossing basket-weave of load-bearing members. The principle is that two geodesic arcs can be drawn to intersect on a surface in a manner that the torsional load on each cancels out that on the other. The diagonal rider structural element was used by Joshua Humphreys in the first US Navy sail frigates in 1794, diagonal riders are viewable in the interior hull structure of the preserved USS Constitution on display in Boston Harbor. The structure was a example of placing non-orthogonal structural components within an otherwise conventional structure for its time. Calling any diagonal wood brace an example of design is a misnomer. Wallis used the term geodetic to apply to the airframe and distinguish it from geodesic which is the term for a line on a curved surface. The system was used by Walliss employer, Vickers-Armstrongs in a series of bomber aircraft. In these aircraft, the fuselage was built up from a number of duralumin alloy channel-beams that were formed into a large framework, wooden battens were screwed onto the metal, to which the doped linen skin of the aircraft was fixed. The metal lattice-work gave a light structure with tremendous strength, any one of the stringers could support some of the load from the side of the aircraft. Blowing out the structure from one side would leave the load-bearing structure as a whole intact. The benefits of the construction were partly offset by the difficulty of modifying the physical structure of the aircraft to allow for a change in length, profile. Geodetic wing and fin structures - taken from the Wellington - were used on the post-war Vickers VC.1 Viking, though with a new fuselage, British Secret Projects, Fighters & Bombers 1935-1950. Bouncing-Bomb Man, the Science of Sir Barnes Wallis
Geodesic airframe
–
A section of the rear fuselage from a Warwick showing the geodesic construction in duralumin. On exhibit at the Armstrong & Aviation Museum at
Bamburgh Castle.
Geodesic airframe
–
18th-century American warships "Diagonal rider" in their construction.
16.
Box girder bridge
–
A box girder bridge is a bridge in which the main beams comprise girders in the shape of a hollow box. The box girder normally comprises either prestressed concrete, structural steel, or a composite of steel, the box is typically rectangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. Box girder bridges are used for highway flyovers and for modern elevated structures of light rail transport. Although normally the box girder bridge is a form of bridge, box girders may also be used on cable-stayed bridges. The box girder bridge was a choice during the roadbuilding expansion of the 1960s. A serious blow to use was a sequence of three serious disasters, when new bridges collapsed in 1970 and 1971. Fifty-one people were killed in these failures, leading in the UK to the formation of the Merrison Committee, most of the bridges still under construction at this time were delayed for investigation of the basic design principle. Some were abandoned and rebuilt as a different form of bridge altogether, most of those that remained as box girder bridges, such as Erskine Bridge, were either redesigned, or had additional stiffening added later. Some bridges were strengthened a few years after opening and then further strengthened years later, the Irwell Valley bridge of 1970 was strengthened in 1970 and again in 2000. If made of concrete, box girder bridges may be cast in place using falsework supports, removed after completion, box girders may also be prefabricated in a fabrication yard, then transported and emplaced using cranes. For steel box girders, the girders are normally fabricated off site and lifted into place by crane, if a composite concrete bridge deck is used, it is often cast in-place using temporary falsework supported by the steel girder. Either form of bridge may also be installed using the technique of incremental launching, under this method, gantry cranes are often used to place new segments onto the completed portions of the bridge until the bridge superstructure is completed
Box girder bridge
–
Underneath the
No. 2 Road Bridge in
Richmond, British Columbia,
Canada
Box girder bridge
–
Erskine Bridge, near
Glasgow.
Box girder bridge
–
Single box girder bridge (
concrete),
Australia. A similar bridge on this river was fabricated ashore and pushed across its pylons.
Box girder bridge
–
Single box girder bridge (
steel), flyover above eastern approach of the
San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge.
17.
Robert Stephenson
–
Robert Stephenson FRS was an early railway and civil engineer. The only son of George Stephenson, the Father of Railways, Robert has been called the greatest engineer of the 19th century. Robert was born in Willington Quay, Northumberland, to George and Frances née Henderson, before moved to Killingworth. Robert attended the middle-class Percy Street Academy in Newcastle and at the age of fifteen was apprenticed to the mining engineer Nicholas Wood and he left before he had completed his three years to help his father survey the Stockton and Darlington Railway. Robert spent six months at Edinburgh University before working for three years as an engineer in Colombia. When he returned his father was building the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and he was appointed chief engineer of the London and Birmingham Railway in 1833 with a salary of £1,500 per annum. By 1850 Robert had been involved in the construction of a third of the railway system. He designed the High Level Bridge and Royal Border Bridge on the East Coast Main Line and he eventually worked on 160 commissions from 60 companies, building railways in other countries such as Belgium, Norway, Egypt and France. In 1829 Robert married Frances Sanderson who died in 1842, the couple had no children, in 1847 he was elected Member of Parliament for Whitby, and held the seat until his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1849 and he served as President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers and Institution of Civil Engineers. Roberts death was widely mourned, and his funeral cortège was given permission by Queen Victoria to pass through Hyde Park and he is buried in Westminster Abbey. Robert Stephenson was born on 16 October 1803, at Willington Quay, east of Newcastle upon Tyne, to George Stephenson and Frances née Henderson and she was twelve years older than George, and when they met was working as a servant where George was lodging. Fanny was suffering from tuberculosis, so George would take care of his son in the evening, in autumn 1804 George became a brakesman at the West Moor Pit and the family moved to two rooms in a cottage at Killingworth. On 13 July 1805 Fanny gave birth to a daughter who lived for three weeks, Fannys health deteriorated and she died on 14 May 1806. George employed a housekeeper to look after his son and went away for three months to look after a Watt engine in Montrose, Scotland and he returned to find his housekeeper had married his brother Robert. He moved back into the cottage with his son and briefly employed another housekeeper before his sister Eleanor moved in, known to Robert as Aunt Nelly, Eleanor had been engaged to be married before travelling to London to work in domestic service. However, returning to get married Eleanors ship was delayed by poor winds, Eleanor attended the local Methodist church, whereas George would not regularly attend church, preferring on Sundays to work on engineering problems and meet his friends. Robert was first sent to a village school 1½ miles away in Long Benton, on his way to school, he would carry picks to the smiths at Long Benton to be sharpened
Robert Stephenson
–
Robert Stephenson in 1856
Robert Stephenson
–
Dial Cottage, Killingworth, where Robert grew up
Robert Stephenson
–
The opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825
Robert Stephenson
–
Robert's cottage at Santa Ana
18.
Conwy Railway Bridge
–
The Conwy Railway Bridge carries the North Wales coast railway line across the River Conwy between Llandudno Junction and the town of Conwy. The wrought iron bridge, which is now Grade I listed, was built in the 19th century by Robert Stephenson. It is the last surviving example of type of design by Stephenson after the Britannia Bridge across the Menai Strait was destroyed in a fire in the 1970s. The bridge was constructed to carry the Chester and Holyhead Railway across the River Conwy, Robert Stephenson, in collaboration with William Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson, provided the engineering plans. Before their involvement it was intended to be a suspension bridge, however, after Stephensons appointment as chief engineer, the design changed because a suspension bridge was considered not robust enough to carry trains. Stephenson and his collaborators invented wrought-iron box-girder construction in order to bridge the River Conwy in a single span, the bridge contractor was a William Evans. The ironwork was constructed by Easton & Amos, steam-powered hydraulic engines were used to lift the wrought-iron girders and beams into place from barges moored in the river. The bridge was opened in 1849, although it had been completed in 1848. Stephenson wanted to confirm through testing that the structure, the first tubular crossing to be built, would be capable of carrying the weight of a locomotive, the testing was performed by Fairbairn. The successful results endorsed the construction of the Britannia Bridge, in 1899 the tubular sections were reinforced with additional cast iron columns to reduce the load on the span across the river. Conwy railway bridge remains the only surviving example of a bridge designed by Stephenson. The original Britannia Bridge was consumed by fire in 1970, although it was subsequently rebuilt, it was reconstructed as a two-tier truss arch bridge made from steel and concrete. The bridge is maintained by Network Rail because it is part of the UK rail system. Its heritage is managed by Cadw, list of bridges in Wales Citations Bibliography Hebert, Luke. The Iron Tubular Bridge Over The River Conway, aerial photo Local tourist information General description of the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges on the Chester and Holyhead Railway,1849, from Google Book Search
Conwy Railway Bridge
–
Conwy Railway Bridge across the
River Conwy
Conwy Railway Bridge
–
The second wrought-iron box girder tube is floated into position, c. September 1848.
19.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
Isambard Kingdom Brunel by the launching chains of the
SS Great Eastern by
Robert Howlett, 1857 (detail)
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
The
Thames Tunnel in 2005.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
The
Clifton Suspension Bridge spans
Avon Gorge, linking
Clifton in Bristol to
Leigh Woods in North
Somerset.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
The
Maidenhead Railway Bridge, at the time the largest span for a brick arch bridge.
20.
Truss
–
In engineering, a truss is a structure that consists of two-force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object. A two-force member is a component where force is applied to only two points. In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members that are either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members. A planar truss is one all members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes that extend into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are typically in compression, the beams are called bottom chords. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels, Truss derives from the Old French word trousse, from around 1200, which means collection of things bound together. The term truss has often used to describe any assembly of members such as a cruck frame or a couple of rafters. One engineering definition is, A truss is a single plane framework of individual structural member connected at their ends of forms a series of triangle to span a large distance, a truss consists of typically straight members connected at joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically composed of triangles because of the stability of that shape. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed, in comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint at which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the Munter Point, the simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist. Because of the stability of this shape and the methods of used to calculate the forces within it. The traditional diamond-shape bicycle frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss, a planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are used in parallel to form roofs and bridges. The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient structural form, a solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords, an optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency
Truss
–
Truss bridge for a single-track railway, converted to pedestrian use and pipeline support
Truss
–
Planar roof trusses
Truss
–
The roof trusses of the
basilica di Santa Croce (
Florence)
Truss
21.
Chepstow Railway Bridge
–
Chepstow Railway Bridge was built to the instructions of Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1852. The Great Tubular Bridge over the River Wye at Chepstow, which at that point forms the boundary between Wales and England, is considered one of Brunels major achievements, despite its appearance. It was economical in its use of materials, and would prove to be the prototype for Brunels Royal Albert Bridge at Saltash. Although the superstructure has since replaced, Brunels tubular iron supports are still in place. It is a Grade II listed structure, Brunel had to take the two tracks of the South Wales Railway across the River Wye. The Admiralty had insisted on a 300-foot clear span over the river, thus on that side, there was nowhere for an abutment capable of either resisting the outward push of an arch bridge, or the inward pull of a conventional suspension bridge. The concentrated weight caused the chains to deflect, allowing the bridge-deck to ride dangerously up, a self-supporting truss bridge was the only option. Robert Stephenson had bridged the River Conwy and the Menai Straits with spans of 400 and 450 feet respectively, conwy-like box-girders would have been very expensive to use at Chepstow as well as being heavy. Brunel, characteristically, sought a radical solution and this was the same year as Stephensons tied arch High Level Bridge at Newcastle upon Tyne, which was supposed to have influenced Brunel at Chepstow. However, Brunels solution for the latter was to make a forward, based, nevertheless, on sound engineering principles. The tubular wrought-iron girder – be the cross-section rectangular, triangular or circular – formed a most efficient truss component, if the cross-section was large enough it could be self-supporting. It was Fairbairns experiments that led to the design of the Menai, Stephenson had originally proposed using a box-girder section suspended from chains. The box section would, he argued, be enough to overcome the conventional problems of the bridge-decks of suspension bridges. In the event, Fairbairn showed that a properly constructed box girder would be enough so that the chains could be dispensed with. Nevertheless, the decision was taken late in the project, so the Britannia bridge support towers were built with holes for the chains. Stephensons box-girders were an innovation, and using steel or pre-stressed concrete instead of wrought iron. But as Berridge has observed, Brunel was never one to follow fashion for fashions sake, here was the real engineer at work, designing the bridge to suit the site and the best way of getting it into position. The bridge filled a gap in the rail line between Gloucester and Swansea
Chepstow Railway Bridge
–
Brunel's original railway bridge over the Wye at Chepstow, before its 1962 replacement.
Chepstow Railway Bridge
–
Surviving section of one of the horizontal girders, now preserved outside the offices of the adjacent
Mabey Bridge works.
Chepstow Railway Bridge
–
Brunel's cast iron pillars for the original bridge, still supporting the modern railway bridge and its underhung truss.
Chepstow Railway Bridge
–
Present day Chepstow Railway Bridge
22.
Coronado Bridge
–
The bridge is signed as part of State Route 75. In 1926, John D. Spreckels recommended that a bridge be built between San Diego and Coronado, but voters dismissed the plan, the U. S. Navy initially did not support a bridge that would span San Diego Bay to connect San Diego to Coronado. They feared a bridge could be collapsed by attack or an earthquake, in 1935, an officer at the naval air station at North Island argued that if a bridge was built to cross the bay then the Navy would leave San Diego. In 1951–52, the Coronado City Council initiated plans for bridge feasibility studies, by 1964 the Navy supported a bridge if there was at least 200 feet of clearance for ships which operate out of the nearby Naval Base San Diego to pass underneath it. To achieve this clearance with a grade, the bridge length was increased by taking a curved path. The clearance would allow an empty oil-fired aircraft carrier to pass beneath it – it is not sufficient for Nimitz-class nuclear aircraft carriers in light load condition, the principal architect was Robert Mosher. Construction on the San Diego–Coronado Bay Bridge started in February 1967, the bridge required 20,000 tons of steel and 94,000 cubic yards of concrete. To add the concrete girders,900,000 cubic yards of fill was dredged, the bridge opened to traffic on August 3,1969, during the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the founding of San Diego. The 11, 179-foot-long bridge ascends from Coronado at a 4.67 percent grade before curving 80 degrees toward San Diego and it is supported by 27 concrete girders, the longest ever made at the time of construction. In 1970, it won an award of merit for long span bridge from the American Institute of Steel Construction, the five-lane bridge featured the longest continuous box girder in the world until it was surpassed by the Shibanpo Yangtze River Bridge in Chongqing, China in 2008. The bridge is the third largest orthogonal box in the country – the box is the part of the bridge. Originally, the toll was $0.60 in each direction, several years later, this was changed to a $1.00 toll collected for traffic going westbound to Coronado only. Although the bridge was supposed to become toll-free once the original bridge bond was paid, on June 27,2002, it became the last toll bridge in Southern California to discontinue tolls, despite objections from some residents that traffic to the island would increase. The islands upon which the toll booths sat, as well as the canopy over the plaza area, are still intact. Though tolls are no longer collected, beginning February 19,2009 there was talk of resuming westbound toll collection to fund major traffic solutions, however nothing came of the discussions, and more recently there have been discussions of removing the unused toll plaza completely. The eastern end of the bridge directly to a T interchange with Interstate 5. It is designated and signed as part of California State Highway 75, the bridge was designed entirely and exclusively for motor vehicle traffic, there are no pedestrian walkways, bike paths, or shoulders. Once a year beginning in 1986, a lane is opened to pedestrians for the Navy Bay Bridge Run/Walk, a fundraiser sponsored by and benefiting the Navy Morale, Welfare, and Recreation program
Coronado Bridge
–
San Diego–Coronado Bridge
Coronado Bridge
–
Waterline view of bridge construction, c.1968
Coronado Bridge
–
A view of the bridge from a commercial jet
Coronado Bridge
–
A daytime panorama of the bridge.
23.
Cleddau Bridge
–
The Cleddau Bridge is a toll bridge on the A477 road that spans the River Cleddau between Neyland and Pembroke Dock, Wales. It was originally called the Milford Haven Bridge, errors in the box girder design caused it to collapse during its construction in 1970. The bridge became operational during 1975, toll booths are located on the Pembroke Dock side of the bridge. As of December 2014 the toll is £0.75 for cars & vans and £1.50 for buses and lorries over 2 tonnes, cycles, the bridge is operated by Pembrokeshire County Council. Prior to the bridge, the river Cleddau divided Pembrokeshire, the towns of Pembroke Dock on the south side and Neyland on the north side were less than 1 mile apart across the water but a 28 miles journey was required to travel between them via road. Between 1858 and 1950 the Admiralty permitted operation of ferries between the two towns. From 1950 to 1975, the County Council operated a ferry service, a decision was taken in the 1960s to replace the ferry service, two bridges would be built. One crossing the Cleddau river and a bridge crossing the Westfield Pill creek. Four workers died and five were injured, construction was halted until October 1972. These rules lay the groundwork for a new British Standard covering box girder bridge design, as of 2007, the collapse during construction is regarded as the last major bridge disaster in the UK. Construction was eventually finished, at a final cost of £11.83 million, £7 million of the overspend was attributed to design changes made due to the Merrison Committees recommendations. 885,900 crossings were made during the bridges first year in operation, the bridge is funded by tolls which are collected on the Pembroke Dock side of the bridge from traffic travelling in both directions. The present toll rates have been in place since 1993 and are 35p for motorcycles, 75p for cars and £1.50 for heavy vehicles, pedestrians, car drivers may also buy books of 20 or 50 bridge tickets which reduces the cost to 60p per crossing. The toll booths only accept cash or the pre-purchased tickets, toll booths with barriers were introduced in September 2004 to reduce the number of vehicles driving through without paying. A review into the collection of tolls was carried out in early 2016 and it concluded that tolls charges would remain unchanged and neither would they be abolished. The county council may close the bridge depending on speed, wind direction. Vehicles taller than 1.9 m, bicycles and motorcycles are not permitted to cross the bridge when wind speeds exceed 50 mph. The bridge is closed to all vehicles and pedestrians should wind speeds exceed 70 mph, the council records the time the bridge is closed
Cleddau Bridge
–
Cleddau Bridge
Cleddau Bridge
–
Cleddau King ferry in 1971.
24.
West Gate Bridge
–
The West Gate Bridge is a steel box girder cable-stayed bridge in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is one of the busiest road corridors in Australia, the main river span is 336 metres in length, and the height above the water is 58 metres. The total length of the bridge is 2,582.6 metres and it is one of the highest bridges in Australia, most notably trailing the more iconic Sydney Harbour Bridge. The bridge passes over Westgate Park, an environmental and recreational reserve created during the bridges construction. The bridge carries up to 200,000 vehicles per day, the West Gate Bridge carries five lanes of motor vehicle traffic in each direction, therefore a 10 lane dual-carriageway freeway bridge. The freeway corridor carries a high volume and occupancy of traffic, between 180,000 -200,000 cars / trucks / motorcycles use it per day. This makes the West Gate Bridge and West Gate Freeway one of the busiest road corridors in Australia, tolls were abolished in 1985, because drivers were using other routes to avoid the toll. It operates on demand, from Monday to Friday in morning and evening peaks, and on weekends and public holidays from 10,00 am to 5,00 pm. Two years into construction of the bridge, at 11.50 am on 15 October 1970, thirty-five construction workers were killed and 18 injured, making it Australias worst industrial accident. Many of those who perished were on lunch break beneath the structure in workers huts, others were working on and inside the girder when it fell. The whole 2, 000-tonne mass plummeted into the Yarra River mud with an explosion of gas, dust, nearby houses were spattered with flying mud. The roar of the impact, the explosion, and the fire that followed, on the following morning,16 October, Sir Henry Bolte announced that a Royal Commission would be set up immediately to look into the cause of the disaster. The Prime Minister, John Gorton, said, I am sure the whole of Australia is shocked and saddened by the accident at West Gate Bridge. Please extend my deepest sympathy to all families to whom this tragic event has brought such grief. A Royal Commission into the collapse was established, which concluded on 14 July 1971, on the day of the collapse, there was a difference in camber of 11.4 centimetres between two half-girders at the west end of the span which needed to be joined. It was proposed that the one be weighted down with 10 concrete blocks, each weighing 8 t. The weight of these caused the span to buckle, which was a sign of structural failure. The longitudinal joining of the girders was partially complete when orders came through to remove the buckle
West Gate Bridge
–
View of the bridge with a River Cruise Boat passing under
West Gate Bridge
–
The West Gate Bridge at sunset, with
Docklands Stadium in the foreground.
25.
Finite element analysis
–
The finite element method is a numerical method for solving problems of engineering and mathematical physics. It is also referred to as finite element analysis, typical problem areas of interest include structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and electromagnetic potential. The analytical solution of these problems generally require the solution to boundary value problems for partial differential equations, the finite element method formulation of the problem results in a system of algebraic equations. The method yields approximate values of the unknowns at discrete number of points over the domain, to solve the problem, it subdivides a large problem into smaller, simpler parts that are called finite elements. The simple equations that model these finite elements are assembled into a larger system of equations that models the entire problem. FEM then uses variational methods from the calculus of variations to approximate a solution by minimizing an associated error function, the global system of equations has known solution techniques, and can be calculated from the initial values of the original problem to obtain a numerical answer. To explain the approximation in this process, FEM is commonly introduced as a case of Galerkin method. The process, in language, is to construct an integral of the inner product of the residual. In simple terms, it is a procedure that minimizes the error of approximation by fitting trial functions into the PDE, the residual is the error caused by the trial functions, and the weight functions are polynomial approximation functions that project the residual. These equation sets are the element equations and they are linear if the underlying PDE is linear, and vice versa. In step above, a system of equations is generated from the element equations through a transformation of coordinates from the subdomains local nodes to the domains global nodes. This spatial transformation includes appropriate orientation adjustments as applied in relation to the coordinate system. The process is carried out by FEM software using coordinate data generated from the subdomains. FEM is best understood from its application, known as finite element analysis. FEA as applied in engineering is a tool for performing engineering analysis. It includes the use of mesh generation techniques for dividing a complex problem into small elements, FEA is a good choice for analyzing problems over complicated domains, when the domain changes, when the desired precision varies over the entire domain, or when the solution lacks smoothness. For instance, in a crash simulation it is possible to increase prediction accuracy in important areas like the front of the car. Another example would be in weather prediction, where it is more important to have accurate predictions over developing highly nonlinear phenomena rather than relatively calm areas
Finite element analysis
–
Visualization of how a car deforms in an asymmetrical crash using finite element analysis. [1]
Finite element analysis
–
Navier–Stokes differential equations used to simulate airflow around an obstruction.
26.
Civil engineering
–
Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering, Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence, during this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The construction of pyramids in Egypt were some of the first instances of large structure constructions, the Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In the 18th century, the civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse, in 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, the institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. The first private college to teach engineering in the United States was Norwich University. The first degree in engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905, throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances, structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the degree is designated as a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design, after taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. In most countries, a degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification. After completing a degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a engineer, a chartered engineer
Civil engineering
–
A multi-level stack interchange, buildings, houses, and park in
Shanghai, China.
Civil engineering
–
Philadelphia City Hall in the United States is still the world's tallest masonry load bearing structure.
Civil engineering
–
Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining the
buckling of columns
Civil engineering
–
John Smeaton, the "father of civil engineering"
27.
Structural steel
–
Structural steel is a category of steel used as a construction material for making structural steel shapes. A structural steel shape is a profile, formed with a cross section and following certain standards for chemical composition. Structural steel shapes, sizes, composition, strengths, storage practices, Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area. The shapes available are described in many published standards worldwide, rod, a round or square and long piece of metal, see also rebar and dowel. Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄4 in, open web steel joist While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates. Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European standard EN10025, however, many national standards also remain in force. Typical grades are described as S275J2 or S355K2W, further letters can be used to designate fine grain steel, quenched and tempered steel, and thermomechanically rolled steel. S275JOH Specification S275JOH is steel grade in EN10219 specification, EN10210 standard, and the most widely used specification is EN10219 standard, which is Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels. Requirements for S275JOH pipe tolerances, dimensions and sectional s275 pipe properties are contained in EN 10219-2, S275JOH Steel Pipes manufacture Process The steel manufacturing process shall be at the discretion of the steel producer. S275JOH carbon steel pipes can be made in ERW, SAW or seamless process, all S275JOH steel material and S275JOH pipes should conform to EN10219 standards. Higher grades are available in quenched and tempered material and these steels have an alloy identification beginning with A and then two, three, or four numbers. The four-number AISI steel grades commonly used for engineering, machines. The standard commonly used structural steels are, A36 - structural shapes, a53 - structural pipe and tubing. A500 - structural pipe and tubing, a501 - structural pipe and tubing. A529 - structural shapes and plate, a441 - structural shapes and plates. A572 - structural shapes and plates, a618 - structural pipe and tubing. A992 - Possible applications are W or S I-Beams, a913 - Quenched and Self Tempered W shapes. A270 - structural shapes and plates, a521 - structural plates and shapes∞ A243 - structural shapes and plates
Structural steel
–
Various structural steel shapes
Structural steel
–
A steel I -beam, in this case used to support timber joists in a house.
Structural steel
–
Metal deck and open web steel joist receiving spray fireproofing plaster, made of
polystyrene -leavened
gypsum.
28.
Tubular bridge
–
A tubular bridge is a bridge built as a rigid box girder section within which the traffic is carried. The Conwy railway bridge carries the North Wales coast railway line across the River Conwy between Llandudno Junction and the town of Conwy and it was officially opened in 1849, but had been completed in 1848. Being the first tubular bridge to be built, the design needed much testing on prototypes to confirm that it would be capable of carrying heavy locomotives, the successful result enabled the much larger Britannia bridge to be built. The current Conwy bridge has been reinforced by extra columns under the bridge into the river, before the Britannia Bridge was constructed, Fairbairn conducted the most celebrated of all engineering experiments on the grand scale a series of experiments of a gigantic character. One-sixth scale models,78 ft long, were built at Stephensons Millwall Works, by this means, although at an experimental cost of thousands of pounds, the design of the cellular girder was refined until it could carry loads of 2.4 times the original capacity. The most significant finding was that of a thin sections susceptibility to buckling under compression loads, Stephensons would build around a thousand other bridges using this cellular structure. The most impressive test was performed on-site at Conway, the 1300 ton tubular girder, deflecting 8 inches under its own weight, was loaded with a further 300 tons and the deflection measured. The effects of wind loading and asymmetric thermal expansion due to sunlight were also studied, at Chepstow, a tubular railway bridge was built to the instructions of Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1852. The Great Tubular Bridge over the River Wye, which at that point forms the boundary between Wales and England, is considered one of Brunels major achievements, despite its appearance. It was economical in its use of materials, and would prove to be the prototype for Brunels Royal Albert Bridge at Saltash. The unconventional nature of the girder bridge was not widely accepted. John Fowlers 1847 tubular girder design for Torksey used tubes that were only 10 foot high and this is now considered as the first box girder bridge, rather than a pure tubular bridge. Despite this, it was rejected after completion by the Board of Trade’s inspector, Captain Lintorn Simmons. When the bridge was strengthened in 1897, this was done by added a central truss above the rather than by strengthening the box. Since the destruction by fire of Britannia Bridge in 1970, Conwy railway bridge remains the only surviving example of this means of construction undertaken by Stephenson. In the case of the Britannia Bridge this technology allowed a bridge with spans up to 460 feet long to be constructed, box girder bridge - a similar bridge that carries the traffic outside the box. Covered bridge - a type which may employ a variety of structures, skyway - a bridge connecting buildings at an elevation above the ground John Rapley, The Britannia and Other Tubular Bridges, And the Men Who Built Them, Tempus
Tubular bridge
–
Conwy Railway Bridge
Tubular bridge
–
Section of the original wrought-iron tubular
Britannia Bridge standing in front of the modern bridge
Tubular bridge
–
Original
Britannia Bridge
29.
Gateway Bridge
–
The Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges are a side-by-side pair of road bridges on the Gateway Motorway, which skirts the eastern suburbs of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The western bridge carries traffic to the north and the bridge carries traffic to the south. They are the most eastern crossing of the Brisbane River, the closest to Moreton Bay, crossing at the Quarries Reach, the original bridge was opened on 11 January 1986 and cost A$92 million to build. The duplicate bridge was opened in May 2010, and cost $350 million, on 16 May 2010 the Queensland Government renamed the Gateway Bridge and its duplicate the Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges. An opinion poll conducted by Brisbanes Channel Nine News, showed 97% of people were against the decision to rename the bridge and most people still call it the Gateway Bridge. A public open day for the bridge was held on 16 May. Following the opening, the old bridge was refurbished, three lanes at a time. From November 2010 the two bridges carry 12 lanes of vehicle traffic, the associated upgrade of the Gateway Motorway south of the bridge was completed in May 2010 to coincide with the new bridge opening. The bridge is tolled using the Go via electronic system and will remain so until 2041, the toll booths were removed and free flow tolling began in July 2009. The booth removal saw a drop in road crashes due to the reduction in queuing and weaving at the toll booths on the southern approach. Construction on the Gateway Bridge commenced on 5 June 1980, the construction of the bridge started before the design was completed, to fast track its construction. It was officially commissioned on 11 January 1986, on this day 200,000 people crossed the bridge by foot as part of the opening activities. In 1986 the bridge carried an average of 12,500 vehicles per day, in 2001 the bridge was crossed by 27 million vehicles. In early 2010 the single bridge was carrying an average of 100,000 vehicles per day, the annual Bridge to Brisbane fun run has begun from the southern entrance to the bridge for the past decade. In 1979 a tender was called by the Queensland Main Roads Department for a new crossing of the Brisbane River. Due to the proximity of the Brisbane Airport, a structural height constraint was provided due to aircraft flight path & clearances. This constraint ruled out the possibility of a conventional Cable Stay Bridge due to the height of the pylons that would be required, due to cost considerations an alternative design concept was proposed by Bruce Ramsay of VSL. This alternative design required a world record main span of 260m for a free cantilever concrete box girder bridge, the concept was adopted by one of the tenderers - Transfield Queensland Pty. Ltd
Gateway Bridge
–
Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges
Gateway Bridge
Gateway Bridge
–
Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges from south bank of
Brisbane River (Rivergate Marina)
30.
Brisbane
–
Brisbane is the capital of and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbanes metropolitan area has a population of 2.35 million, the Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, about 15 kilometres from its mouth at Moreton Bay. The demonym of Brisbane is Brisbanite, one of the oldest cities in Australia, Brisbane was founded upon the ancient homelands of the indigenous Turrbal and Jagera peoples. A penal settlement was founded in 1824 at Redcliffe,28 kilometres north of the business district. The city was marred by the Australian frontier wars between 1843 and 1855, and development was set back by the Great Fire of Brisbane. Brisbane was chosen as the capital when Queensland was proclaimed a colony from New South Wales in 1859. During World War II, Brisbane played a role in the Allied campaign. Today, Brisbane is well known for its distinct Queenslander architecture which forms much of the built heritage. It also receives attention for its damaging flood events, most notably in 1974 and 2011. Several large cultural, international and sporting events have held at Brisbane, including the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo 88, the final Goodwill Games in 2001. Prior to white settlement, the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal and they knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning place shaped as a spike. The Moreton Bay area was explored by Matthew Flinders. On 17 July 1799, Flinders landed at what is now known as Woody Point, in 1823 Governor of New South Wales Sir Thomas Brisbane instructed that a new northern penal settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further explored Moreton Bay. Oxley discovered, named, and explored the Brisbane River as far as Goodna,20 kilometres upstream from the Brisbane central business district, Oxley recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could land at any tide and easily get close to the shore. The party settled in Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller with 14 soldiers and 29 convicts. However, this settlement was abandoned after a year and the colony was moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay,28 km south, chief Justice Forbes gave the new settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane. Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838, German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah as early as 1837, five years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band consisted of ministers Christopher Eipper and Carl Wilhelm Schmidt and lay missionaries Haussmann, Johann Gottried Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and they were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission, which became known as the German Station
Brisbane
Brisbane
Brisbane
Brisbane
