1.
Bulgarian language
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Bulgarian /bʌlˈɡɛəriən/, /bʊlˈ-/ is an Indo-European language, a member of the Southern branch of the Slavic language family. Various evidential verb forms exist to express unwitnessed, retold, with the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Bulgarian became one of the official languages of the European Union. Development of the Bulgarian language may be divided into several periods, prehistoric period – occurred between the Slavonic migration to eastern Balkans and the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia in the 860s. Old Bulgarian – a literary norm of the southern dialect of the Common Slavic language from which Bulgarian evolved. It was used by Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples to translate the Bible, Middle Bulgarian – a literary norm that evolved from the earlier Old Bulgarian, after major innovations were accepted. It was a language of literary activity and the official administration language of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Modern Bulgarian – dates from the 16th century onwards, undergoing general grammar, present-day written Bulgarian language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular. Bulgarian was the first Slavic language attested in writing, as Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, in the oldest manuscripts this language was initially referred to as языкъ словяньскъ, the Slavic language. In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was replaced by the name языкъ блъгарьскъ. In some cases, the name языкъ блъгарьскъ was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Slavonic case system, today one difference between Bulgarian dialects in the country and literary spoken Bulgarian is the significant presence of Old Bulgarian words and even word forms in the latter. Russian loans are distinguished from Old Bulgarian ones on the basis of the presence of specifically Russian phonetic changes, as in оборот, непонятен, ядро and others. As usual in cases, many other loans from French, English. Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, between 1835–1878 more than 25 proposals were put forward and linguistic chaos ensued. Eventually the eastern dialects prevailed, and in 1899 the Ministry of Education officially codified a standard Bulgarian language based on the Drinov-Ivanchev orthography, the language is mainly split into two broad dialect areas, based on the different reflexes of the Common Slavic yat vowel. This split, which occurred at some point during the Middle Ages, led to the development of Bulgarias, E. g. млеко – milk, хлеб – bread. This rule obtains in most Eastern dialects, although some have ya, or an open e sound. The literary language norm, which is based on the Eastern dialects
2.
Bulgaria
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Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, with a territory of 110,994 square kilometres, Bulgaria is Europes 16th-largest country. Organised prehistoric cultures began developing on current Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period and its ancient history saw the presence of the Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Celts, Romans, Goths, Alans and Huns. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for five centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 led to the formation of the Third Bulgarian State, the following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both world wars. In 1946 it became a one-party socialist state as part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc, in December 1989 the ruling Communist Party allowed multi-party elections, which subsequently led to Bulgarias transition into a democracy and a market-based economy. Bulgarias population of 7.2 million people is predominantly urbanised, most commercial and cultural activities are centred on the capital and largest city, Sofia. The strongest sectors of the economy are industry, power engineering. The countrys current political structure dates to the adoption of a constitution in 1991. Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic with a high degree of political, administrative. Human activity in the lands of modern Bulgaria can be traced back to the Paleolithic, animal bones incised with man-made markings from Kozarnika cave are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans. Organised prehistoric societies in Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture, Vinča culture, the latter is credited with inventing gold working and exploitation. Some of these first gold smelters produced the coins, weapons and jewellery of the Varna Necropolis treasure and this site also offers insights for understanding the social hierarchy of the earliest European societies. Thracians, one of the three primary groups of modern Bulgarians, began appearing in the region during the Iron Age. In the late 6th century BC, the Persians conquered most of present-day Bulgaria, and kept it until 479 BC. After the division of the Roman Empire in the 5th century the area fell under Byzantine control, by this time, Christianity had already spread in the region. A small Gothic community in Nicopolis ad Istrum produced the first Germanic language book in the 4th century, the first Christian monastery in Europe was established around the same time by Saint Athanasius in central Bulgaria. From the 6th century the easternmost South Slavs gradually settled in the region, in 680 Bulgar tribes under the leadership of Asparukh moved south across the Danube and settled in the area between the lower Danube and the Balkan, establishing their capital at Pliska
3.
Bulgarian Empire
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The two Bulgarian Empires are not treated as separate entities, but rather as one state restored after a period of Byzantine rule over its territory. Under Ivan Asen II in the first half of the 13th century the country gradually recovered much of its power, though this did not last long due to internal problems. The Empire became tributary to the Golden Horde, a state of the Mongol Empire in the 13-14th century. After the death of Emperor Ivan Alexander in 1371 Bulgaria was split into three countries and in the following decades fell under the domination of the Ottomans, first Bulgarian Empire Second Bulgarian Empire Kingdom of Bulgaria History of Bulgaria Zlatarski, Vasil N. Medieval History of the Bulgarian State, sofia, Science and Arts Publishers, 2nd Edition, Zahari Stoyanov Publishers, 4th Edition,2006. Електронна издание – История на България, Делев, Петър, Валери Кацунов, Пламен Митев, Евгения Калинова, Искра Баева, Боян Добрев. Министерство на външните работи на България, Труд, Сирма, ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press
4.
Ottoman Bulgaria
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As a result of the Russo-Turkish War, the Principality of Bulgaria, a self-governing Ottoman vassal state that was functionally independent, was created. In 1885 the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia came under the control of the Bulgarian Tsar, the Ottomans reorganised the Bulgarian territories, dividing them into several vilayets, each ruled by a Sanjakbey or Subasi accountable to the Beylerbey. Significant parts of the land were parcelled out to the Sultans followers. This category of land could not be sold or inherited, the lands were organised as private possessions of the Sultan or Ottoman nobility, called mülk, and also as an economic base for religious foundations, called vakιf, as well as other people. Bulgarians regularly paid multiple types of taxes, including a tithe, a tax, a land tax, a levy on commerce. The Ottomans did not normally require the Christians to become Muslims, nevertheless, there were many cases of individual or mass conversion, especially in the Rhodopes. According to Thomas Walker Arnold Islam was not spread by force in the areas under the control of the Ottoman Sultan, a 17th-century author said, Meanwhile he wins by craft more than by force, and snatches away Christ by fraud out of the hearts of men. For the Turk, it is true, at the present time compels no country by violence to apostatise, non-Muslims did not serve in the Sultans army. These boys went through harsh religious and military training that turned them into an elite corps subservient to the Sultan and these corps were called Janissaries and were an elite and loyal unit of the Ottoman army. Recruits were rarely gained through voluntarily accessions, as parents were often eager to have their children enroll in the Janissary service that ensured them a successful career. While the Ottomans were ascendant, there was opposition to their rule. The first revolt began in 1408 when two Bulgarian nobles, Konstantin and Fruzhin, liberated some regions for several years, the earliest evidence of continued local resistance dates from before 1450. Radik was recognised by the Ottomans as a voyvoda of the Sofia region in 1413, more than a century later, two Tarnovo uprisings occurred - in 1598 and 1686 around the old capital Tarnovo. Those were followed by the Catholic Chiprovtsi Uprising in 1688 and insurrection in Macedonia led by Karposh in 1689, all of the uprisings were unsuccessful and were drowned in blood. Most of them resulted in waves of exiles, often numbering hundreds of thousands. In 1739 the Treaty of Belgrade between Austrian empire and the Ottoman Empire ended Austrian interest in the Balkans for a century, but by the 18th century the rising power of Russia was making itself felt in the area. The Russians, as fellow Orthodox Slavs, could appeal to the Bulgarians in a way that the Austrians could not, the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 gave Russia the right to interfere in Ottoman affairs to protect the Sultans Christian subjects. The Millet system was a set of communities in the Ottoman Empire
5.
Macedonian Question
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The region of Macedonia is known to have been inhabited since Paleolithic times. However, the earliest historical inhabitants of the region were the Bryges, the Bryges occupied northern Epirus, as well as Macedonia, mainly west of the Axios river and parts of Mygdonia. Thracians in early times occupied mainly the parts of Macedonia but were also present in Eordaea. Illyrians once occupied many parts of west Macedonia, at one time all Emathia, Pieria and Pelagonia were subject to the Paionians. They occupied the valley of the Axios. The Ancient Macedonians are missing from historical accounts because they had been living in the southern extremities of the region - the Orestian highlands - since before the Dark Ages. The Macedonian tribes subsequently moved down from Orestis in the upper Haliacmon due to pressure from the Orestae, the name of the region of Macedonia derives from the tribal name of the ancient Macedonians. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Makednoi were a Dorian tribe that stayed behind during the southward migration of the Dorian Greeks. The word Makednos is cognate with the Doric Greek word Μάκος Μakos, the ancient Macedonians took this name either because they were physically tall, or because they settled in the mountains. The latter definition would translate Macedonian as Highlander, some scholars view the Pella katadesmos, written in a form of Doric Greek, as the first discovered Macedonian text. The vast majority of Macedonian names on inscriptions and coinage are Greek, in any case, even if the ancient Macedonians were originally Greeks or not, they were universally considered Hellenes after the reign of Alexander the Great. Before the reign of Alexander I, father of Perdiccas II, Alexander is credited with having added to Macedonia many of the lands that would become part of the core Macedonian territory, Pieria, Bottiaia, Mygdonia, and Eordaia. Anthemus, Crestonia, and Bisaltia also seem to have been added during his reign, most of these lands were previously inhabited by Thracian tribes, and Thucydides records how the Thracians were pushed to the mountains when the Macedonians acquired their lands. In Philips time, Macedonians expanded and settled in many of the new adjoining territories, strabo however testifies that the bulk of the population inhabiting in Upper Macedonia remained of Thraco-Illyrian stock. Following this period there ware repeated barbaric invasions of the Balkans by Celts, after the defeat of Andriscus in 148 BC, Macedonia officially became a province of the Roman Republic in 146 BC. Hellenization of the population was not yet complete in 146 BC. It is also possible that the ancient Macedonian tongue was spoken, alongside Koine. Macedonia was ravaged several times in the 4th and the 5th century by desolating onslaughts of Visigoths, Huns and these did little to change its ethnic composition but left much of the region depopulated
6.
National Historical Museum (Bulgaria)
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The National Historical Museum in Sofia is Bulgarias largest museum. It was founded on 5 May 1973, a new representative exhibition was opened in the building of the Court of Justice on 2 March 1984, to commemorate the 13th centenary of the Bulgarian state. The museum includes a cloakroom, buffet, library and souvenir shop and it undertakes professional conservation and restoration of historical monuments, authenticity investigations and expert valuation. Its collections comprise materials dating from prehistoric ages till the present, as of 2016, the museums director is Dr. Bozhidar Dimitrov, an historian. Panagyurishte treasure Dabene Treasure Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós Decree of Dionysopolis List of museums in Bulgaria Official website
7.
Bulgarian Socialist Party
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The Bulgarian Socialist Party, known as the Centenarian, is a social-democratic political party in Bulgaria and successor to the Bulgarian Communist Party. The BSP is a member of the Party of European Socialists and it is the leading component of the Coalition for Bulgaria centre-left coalition. The party was formed after the changes of 1989, when the Communist Party abandoned Marxism–Leninism. The party formed a government after the Constitutional Assembly elections of 1990, a non-partisan government led by Dimitar Popov took over until the next elections in October 1991. In the aftermath the party was confined to opposition, as part of the Democratic Left coalition, it helped form a new government in 1995, headed by BSP leader Zhan Videnov as Prime Minister. Its term ended at the end of 1996, after the country entered into a spiral of hyperinflation, large-scale demonstrations in the cities and a general strike prevented the formation of a new socialist government. In 2001, party chairman Georgi Parvanov was elected President of Bulgaria on the second round, Parvanov resigned as party chairman and was succeeded by Sergei Stanishev. The cabinet was headed by the minister and BSP chairman Sergei Stanishev. In 2006, Georgi Parvanov was reelected president in a landslide, in 2007, Bulgaria joined the European Union. Later, the triple-coalition lost millions of Euros of European financial aid in the wake of allegations of political corruption. The cabinet was unable to react to the encroaching world economic crisis. In the 2009 parliamentary elections, the BSP was defeated by the new conservative party GERB, obtaining 37 out of 240 parliamentary seats, in the 2013 parliamentary elections the party took 26. 6% of the votes, second behind GERB with 30. 5%. Nevertheless, the candidate for prime minister, Plamen Oresharski, and his proposed government were elected with the parliament support of the BSP. The appointment of the media mogul Delyan Peevski as head of the state security agency DANS. Demonstrations urging the government to step down continued until the government resigned in July of the following year, the following is a summary of BSPs results in legislative elections for the Bulgarian National Assembly
8.
GERB
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GERB is a Bulgarian centre-right political party established on March 13,2006. The initials of the party герб/gerb also translate as coat of arms in Bulgarian, GERB is headed by Prime Minister of Bulgaria Boyko Borisov, former mayor of Sofia and former member of the National Movement Simeon II. The establishment of the party followed the creation of a organization with the acronym GERB — Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria. The name of the party is not stated to be an acronym, in early January 2007, and early February 2007, the party came second in public polls on party support with around 14%, trailing the Bulgarian Socialist Party which had around 25%. Its stated priorities are fighting crime and corruption, preserving family as the cornerstone of society, GERB won the 2009 European Parliament election in Bulgaria with 24. 36% of the vote. The party elected five MEPs and joined the European Peoples Party-European Democrats Group in the European Parliament, on June 6,2007 GERB applied formally to join as a member-party the European Peoples Party and joined EPP on February 7,2008. GERB won the 2009 parliamentary elections, held a month after the European ballot, after the elections, a new government was formed, led by Borisov, exclusively with GERB members. On 20 February 2013, the government resigned after nationwide protests demanding it to step down, GERBs candidates for the 2011 presidential election, Rosen Plevneliev and Margarita Popova, won the elections on the second ballot with 52. 6% of the popular vote. GERB won the 2013 parliamentary elections with 97 seats, receiving 30. 5% of the popular vote and this made GERB the first governing party to be re-elected in the history of the post-communist Bulgaria. However, with lack of support from the parties and designated to form a new government, Borisov refused the offer. Official website Official website GERBs page on the European Peoples Party website
9.
Sozopol
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Sozopol is an ancient seaside town located 35 km south of Burgas on the southern Bulgarian Black Sea Coast. Today it is one of the seaside resorts in the country, known for the Apollonia art. Part of Burgas Province and administrative centre of the homonymous Sozopol Municipality, as of December 2009, the original name of the city is attested as Antheia but was soon renamed to Apollonia. At various times, Apollonia was known as Apollonia Pontica and Apollonia Magna, by the first century AD, the name Sozopolis began to appear in written records. During the Ottoman rule the town was known as Sizebolu, Sizeboli or Sizebolou, Sozopol is one of the oldest towns on Bulgarian Thraces Black Sea coast. The first settlement on the dates back to the Bronze Age. Undersea explorations in the region of the port reveal relics of dwellings, ceramic pottery, many anchors from the second and first millennium BC have been discovered in the towns bay, a proof of active shipping since ancient times. The current town was founded in the 7th century BC by Greek colonists from Miletus as Antheia, in 1328 Cantacuzene speaks of it as a large and populous town. The islet on which it stood is now connected with the mainland by a tongue of land. Its inhabitants, in the past mostly Greeks, lived by fishing, the town established itself as a trade and naval centre in the following centuries. It kept strong political and trade relations with the cities of Ancient Greece – Miletus, Athens, Corinth, Heraclea Pontica and its trade influence in the Thracian territories was based on a treaty with the rulers of the Odrysian kingdom dating from the fifth century BC. The symbol of the town – the anchor, present on all coins minted by Apollonia since the sixth century BC, is proof of the importance of its maritime trade, the rich town soon became an important cultural centre. At these times it was called Apollonia Magna, ruled in turn by the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Ottoman Empires, Sozopol was assigned to the newly independent Bulgaria in the 19th century. At the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence prominent local personalities were arrested and executed by the Ottoman authorities due to participation in the preparations of the struggle, almost all of its Greek population was exchanged with Bulgarians from Eastern Thrace in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars. In 2011 the remainings of an ancient Greek settlement, part of Apollonia, were excavated in the island of St. Kirik off Sozopolis. Since 1984 Sozopol hosts the Apollonia art festivities every September, which include theatre shows, exhibitions, movies, musical and dance performances, book presentations, bishops are recorded as resident there from at least 431. At least eight bishops are known, Athanasius, Peter, Euthymius and Ignatius, Theodosius, Joannicius, the titular resided at Agathopolis, in Ottoman days called Akhtébolou. Eubel mentions four Latin bishops of the 14th century, the bishopric is included in the Catholic Churchs list of titular sees as Sozopolis in Haemimonto and as a suffragan of Hadrianopolis in Haemimonto
10.
Thracian Bulgarians
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Thracians or Thracian Bulgarians are a regional, ethnographic group of ethnic Bulgarians, inhabiting or native to Thrace. Today, the part of this population is concentrated in Northern Thrace, but much is spread across the whole of Bulgaria. Until the beginning of the century the Thracian Bulgarians lived also in the whole of Thrace. After World War I, Bulgaria was required to cede Western Thrace to Greece, a whole population of Bulgarians in Western Thrace was expelled into Bulgaria-controlled Northern Thrace. The last flow of Thracian refugees into Bulgaria was as the Bulgarian Army pulled out of the Serres-Drama region in late 1944, with the accession of Bulgaria into the European Union, Bulgarian authorities appear to revisit the issue as a precondition for Turkeys membership to the Union. Bulgarians The Destruction of Thracian Bulgarians in 1913 Internal Thracian Revolutionary Organisation
11.
Thrace
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It comprises southeastern Bulgaria, northeastern Greece, and the European part of Turkey. In antiquity, it was referred to as Europe, prior to the extension of the term to describe the whole continent. The name Thrace comes from the Thracians, an ancient Indo-European people inhabiting Southeastern Europe, the word itself was established by the Greeks for referring to the Thracian tribes, from Ancient Greek Thrake, descending from Thrāix. The name of the continent Europe first referred to Thrace proper, the region obviously took the name of the principal river there, Hebros, probably from the Indo-European arg white river, according to an alternative theory, Hebros means goat in Thracian. In Turkey, it is referred to as Rumeli, Land of the Romans. The name appears to derive from an ancient heroine and sorceress Thrace, who was the daughter of Oceanus and Parthenope, the historical boundaries of Thrace have varied. In one ancient Greek source, the very Earth is divided into Asia, Libya, Europa and this largely coincided with the Thracian Odrysian kingdom, whose borders varied over time. After the Macedonian conquest, this regions former border with Macedonia was shifted from the Struma River to the Mesta River and this usage lasted until the Roman conquest. Henceforth, Thrace referred only to the tract of land covering the same extent of space as the modern geographical region. The medieval Byzantine theme of Thrace contained only what today is Eastern Thrace, the largest cities of Thrace are, İstanbul, Plovdiv, Burgas, Stara Zagora, Haskovo, Yambol, Komotini, Alexandroupoli, Xanthi, Edirne, Çorlu and Tekirdağ. Most of the Bulgarian and Greek population are Christians, while most of the Turkish inhabitants of Thrace are Muslims, Ancient Greek mythology provides them with a mythical ancestor, named Thrax, son of the war-god Ares, who was said to reside in Thrace. The Thracians appear in Homers Iliad as Trojan allies, led by Acamas, later in the Iliad, Rhesus, another Thracian king, makes an appearance. Cisseus, father-in-law to the Trojan elder Antenor, is given as a Thracian king. Homeric Thrace was vaguely defined, and stretched from the River Axios in the west to the Hellespont, Greek mythology is replete with Thracian kings, including Diomedes, Tereus, Lycurgus, Phineus, Tegyrius, Eumolpus, Polymnestor, Poltys, and Oeagrus. In addition to the tribe that Homer calls Thracians, ancient Thrace was home to other tribes, such as the Edones, Bisaltae, Cicones. Thrace is also mentioned in Ovids Metamorphoses in the episode of Philomela, Procne, Tereus, the King of Thrace, lusts after his sister-in-law, Philomela. He kidnaps her, holds her captive, rapes her, Philomela manages to get free, however. She and her sister, Procne, plot to get revenge, by killing Itys, at the end of the myth, all three turn into birds – Procne, a swallow, Philomela, a nightingale, and Tereus, a hoopoe
12.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
13.
Vatican Secret Archives
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The Vatican Secret Archives is the central repository in the Vatican City for all of the acts promulgated by the Holy See. The Pope, as Sovereign of Vatican City and having primal incumbency, owns the archives until his death or resignation, the archives also contain the state papers, correspondence, papal account books, and many other documents which the church has accumulated over the centuries. The use of the secret in the title Vatican Secret Archives does not denote the modern meaning of confidentiality. Parts of the Secret Archives remain truly secret, however, some materials are prohibited for outside viewing, including everything dated after 1939. The Vatican Secret Archives have been estimated to contain 85 kilometres of shelving, indexes must be consulted in the Index Room and replaced in their original location. Publication of the indexes, in part or as a whole, is forbidden, the Archives support their own photographic and conservation studios. According to the website of the Archives, the oldest surviving document dates back to the end of the eighth century, transfers and political upheavals nearly caused the total loss of all the archival material preceding Innocent III. From 1198 onwards, complete archives exist, though documentation is scant before the 13th century, the entrance to the Archives, adjacent to the Vatican Library, is through the Porta di S. Anna in via di Porta Angelica. New underground storage space was added in 1980, qualified scholars from institutions of higher education pursuing scientific researches, with an adequate knowledge of archival research, may apply for an entry card. Scholars need a letter by either a recognized institute of research or by a suitably qualified person in the field of historical research. Applicants need to specify their personal data as well as the purpose of their research, There are strict limitations to what archive users are able to view and access. For example, no materials dated after 1939 are available for public viewing –, Pope Francis is considering when to open the full archives of Pope Pius XII. Customarily, documents are available to the public after a period of 75 years. 1817, Vatican Secret Archive brought back to the Vatican from France,1883, Pope Leo XIII opened archives dated 1815 or earlier. 1924, Documents up to the end of the pontificate of Gregory XVI were released,1966, Documents from the pontificate of Pius IX. 1978, Documents from the pontificate of Leo XIII,1985, Documents from the pontificates of Pius X and Benedict XV. 2002, Documents from the archives of the Secretariat of State pertaining to the Holy Sees relations with Germany during the pontificate of Pope Pius XI. The reason for this action was to put an end to unjust
14.
Petar Stoyanov
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Petar Stefanov Stoyanov is a Bulgarian politician who was President of Bulgaria from 1997 to 2002. He was elected as a candidate of the Union of Democratic Forces, Stoyanov was born on May 25,1952, in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. After graduating from school, Stoyanov entered the Saint Kliment Ohridski University of Sofia law faculty where he graduated with honors in 1976. He practiced civil law in Plovdiv through the fifteen years. Stoyanov also speaks English and German in addition to his mother tongue Bulgarian, quickly after the political changes in Bulgaria at the end of 1989 from communism to democratic rule Stoyanov embarked on a political career, co-founding and chairing a Democracy Club in Plovdiv. Later in the year, he became spokesman of the Plovdiv Coordinating Council of the Union of Democratic Forces. When in 1991 UDF formed first non-communist government after the changes in Bulgaria. In 1993 UDF government fell out of due to parliamentary voting of approval that did not reach enough votes. Thenafter, in May 1993, Stoyanov became a President of the UDF Legal Council, in 1994 he was elected Member of Parliament and he was Deputy Chairman of the UDF Parliamentary Group, also Deputy Chairman of the Parliamentary Commission on Youth, Sports, and Tourism. In 1995 he was Deputy Chairman of UDF responsible for domestic policy, on 1 June 1996 Petar Stoyanov won the primaries with 66% of the 870000 votes cast and was nominated as the presidential candidate of the UDF. In the presidential elections he received more votes than the socialist candidate Ivan Marazov and George Ganchev, founder and leader of Bulgarian Business Bloc and he then defeated Marazov in a runoff by winning 59, 73% of the votes cast. He was elected President of Bulgaria with the support of opposition parties on 3 November 1996. On 19 January 1997 he was sworn in as President and on 22 January 1997 stepped into office, in January 1997 protests ensued in response to the worsening economic situation in Bulgaria under the government of Jean Videnov which was also not internationally supported and accepted. President Stoyanov utilized his constitutional authority and appointed a government headed by Prime Minister Stefan Sofianski. Early elections were called in which a UDF-led coalition won an absolute majority in Parliament. In 2001 after showing a compromate for Bogomil Bonev in a debate broadcast in the National television Stoyanovs public support dropped. In the first round of the 2001 voting he finished in place, as the socialist candidate Georgi Parvanov received 36. 3%, Stoyanov received 34. 9%. Stoyanov lost the runoff to Parvanov 46. 7% to 53. 3%, after leaving office he refrained from media attention for some time
15.
Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya
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Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya is a book by Bulgarian scholar and clergyman Saint Paisius of Hilendar. Written in 1762, it is considered Saint Paisius of Hilendars greatest work and one of the most influential pieces of the Bulgarian revival, at that time the influx of Serbian monks decreased at the expense of Bulgarians, particularly from Macedonia. From the 17th to the 19th century, Hilandar was predominantly Bulgarian-populated, the importance of this manuscript is that it was able to restore national pride to a country, which after 366 years of Ottoman rule was lacking in such passion. What would follow is known as the Bulgarian National Revival, in which Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya played a significant role, the books first manual copy was done by Sophronius of Vratsa in 1765. Although some excerpts appeared in Petar Berons Tsarstvenik of 1844, Paisiis History was not published in book form until the 1920s, there was an adaptation into modern Bulgarian in 1938. Critical editions were prepared in the 1960s, and a Russian translation, a German translation appeared in 1984, and an English version of the Zograph manuscript in 2001. The Zografou draft of the Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya is depicted on the reverse of the Bulgarian 2 levs banknote, traduction et commentaire French translation and commentary by Athanase Popov
16.
Zograf monastery
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The Saint George the Zograf Monastery or Zograf Monastery is a Bulgarian Orthodox monastery on Mount Athos in Greece. The monastery is named after the 13th or 14th century icon of Saint George, the name of the latter comes from the belief that the icon mysteriously painted itself on the prepared board (zograf in Greek means painter. The earliest written evidence of the monasterys existence dates from 980, the Zograf Monastery has also received land endowments by Byzantine and Serbian rulers. The Zograf Monastery was plundered and burnt down by Crusaders, working under orders from the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, in 1275, the reason for this attack was the opposition of the Athonite monks to the Union of Lyons, which the Emperor had supported for political reasons. Since the emperor could not attack the Greek monks without incurring the wrath of his own people, having hanged the Protos, and having killed many monks in Vatopedi, Iveron and other monasteries, the Latins attacked Zographou. Their martyrdom is commemorated annually on October 10 throughout the Eastern Orthodox Church, mercenaries of the Catalan Grand Company raided the Holy Mountain for two years, sacking many monasteries, plundering the treasures of Christendom, and terrorising the monks. Of the 300 monasteries on Athos at the beginning of the 14th century, but the monastery recovered quickly with the help of grants and support from the Palaeologue Emperors and the princes of the Danubian Principalities. The buildings were reconstructed in the late 13th century with the aid of Byzantine Emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus. The monastery was given numerous metochia in parts of Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, and modern-day Turkey. The monastery exists in its modern appearance since the 16th century, the south wing was built in 1750, the east in 1758, the small church was erected in 1764 and the large one in 1801. The north and west wing are from the half of the 19th century and large-scale construction ended in 1896 with the Saints Cyril and Methodius Church. Among the numerous relics and other holy objects treasured at the monastery is the Wonderworking Icon of the Theotokos Of the Akathist, since Mount Athos uses the traditional Julian Calendar, the day they celebrate as October 10 currently falls on October 23 of the modern Gregorian Calendar. Today the Monastery has some 15 monks, the monastic library houses 388 manuscripts in Church Slavonic and 126 in Greek, as well as about 10,000 printed books altogether. Two medieval Bulgarian royal charters, the Zograf Charter and the Rila Charter, have discovered in the monasterys library. Zograf Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after the Zograf Monastery, the monastery and its seal are depicted on the obverse of the Bulgarian 2 levs banknote, issued in 1999 and 2005. On March 21,2011, the Bulgarian National Bank issued a silver coin with nominal value of 10 levs featuring the monastery. As Serbian he instances Docheiariou, Grigoriou, Ayiou Pavlou, a monastery near Ayiou Pavlou and dedicated to St. John the Theologian, panteleïmon is Russian, Simonopetra is Bulgarian, and Karakallou and Philotheou are Albanian. Zograf Monastery at Pravoslavieto. com Zograf Monastery at the Mount Athos website 26 Martyrs of the Zographou Monastery on Mt. Athos at the hands of the Crusaders Orthodox icon and synaxarion, the Holy Martyrs of Zographou from The Prologue from Ohrid
17.
Mayor of Sofia
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This is a chronological list of mayors of Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, since that post was established after the Liberation of Bulgaria in 1878. Initially, the mayors of Sofia were assigned by the Provisional Russian Administration, after the newly restored Bulgarian state was already functioning on its own, in the end of 1878, mayors were chosen by the municipal council. Until 1944, the mayor was appointed through a Tsars decree after a candidate was suggested by the Minister of Internal Affairs, after that date, the mayor was formally chosen by the municipal councilors, albeit after being specified by the Bulgarian Communist Party management. List of mayors of Plovdiv List of mayors of Varna List of mayors of Pleven
18.
Boyko Borisov
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Boyko Metodiev Borisov is a Bulgarian politician who served as Prime Minister of Bulgaria from 2014 to 2017. Previously he served as Prime Minister from 2009 to 2013 and as Mayor of Sofia from 2005 to 2009 and he resigned on 13 November 2016 after his party lost popularity. Parliamentary elections are expected in March 2017, Borisov plays as a forward for Vitosha Bistritsa. In 2013, he became the oldest player ever to play for a Bulgarian professional club when he appeared for Vitosha in the B Group, Borisov was born in 1959 in Bankya to Ministry of Internal Affairs official Metodi Borisov and elementary school teacher Veneta Borisova. In 1977, Borisov graduated from Bankyas high school with excellent marks, between 1982 and 1990, he assumed different positions in the Ministry of Internal Affairs as a firefighter and later as a professor at the Police Academy in Sofia. As a National Security Office member, Borisov took part in the protection of crops, from 1985 to 1990, Borisov was a lecturer at the Higher Institute for Police Officers Training and Scientific Research of the Ministry of Interior. He received a PhD for his dissertation thesis Psycho-Physical Training of the Operational Staff, Borisov quit the Ministry in 1990. In 1991 he founded a security company, Ipon-1, and later guarded statesmen such as Todor Zhivkov. Borisov has been claiming participation in karate championships since 1978, serving as the coach of the Bulgarian national team and he is the chairman of the Bulgarian Karate Federation. Borisov has also been a coach for the Bulgarian national karate team for many years, Borisov is divorced, but for a number of years lived with Tsvetelina Borislavova, head of Bulgarian American Credit Bank. Borisov has a daughter, Veneta, from his marriage to the physician Stela. Borisov also has a sister, Krasimira Ivanova, Borisovs great-grandfather was executed in the wake of the Bulgarian coup détat of 1944. Boyko Borisov was the Chief Secretary of the Bulgarian Ministry of Interior between 2001 and 2005, with the rank of General, during that period he is famous for getting the notorious mobster Sreten Jocić apprehended. Later in 2005 he resigned from that post, instead standing as a candidate in the 2005 mayoral election in Sofia and he was elected as Mayor and succeeded Stefan Sofiyanski. He was re-elected in the 2007 mayoral election, Borisov founded a new political party, GERB in December 2006. Form more information on the cabinet, see First Borisov Government, Borisovs party GERB also won the parliamentary election on 5 July 2009 by collecting 39. 71% of the popular vote and 116 of the 240 seats in parliament. Borisovs policies were aimed at curbing corruption in the public administration. One of the goals in this direction was the expansion of the national motorway network
19.
Sofia
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Sofia is the capital and largest city of Bulgaria. The city has a population of 1.26 million, while 1.68 million people live in its metropolitan area, the city is located at the foot of Vitosha Mountain in the western part of the country, within less than 50 kilometres drive from the Serbian border. Its location in the centre of the Balkan peninsula means that it is the midway between the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea, whereas the Aegean Sea is the closest to it, Sofia has been an area of human habitation since at least 7000 BC. Being Bulgarias primate city, Sofia is a hometown of many of the local universities, cultural institutions. Sofia is one of the top 10 best places for business in the world. Sofia is Europes most affordable capital to visit as of 2013, for the longest time the city possessed a Thracian name, derived from the tribe Serdi, who were either of Thracian, Celtic, or mixed Thracian-Celtic origin. It seems that the first written mention of Serdica was made during his reign, during the Romans civitas Serdenisium was mentioned the brightest city of the Serdi in official inscriptions. The city was major throughout the past ever since Antiquity, when Roman emperor Constantine the Great referred to it as my Rome, other names given to Sofia, such as Serdonpolis and Triaditza, were mentioned by Byzantine Greek sources or coins. The Slavic name Sredets, which is related to middle and to the citys earliest name, the city was called Atralissa by the Arab traveller Idrisi and Strelisa, Stralitsa or Stralitsion by the Crusaders. The name Sofia comes from the Saint Sofia Church, as opposed to the prevailing Slavic etymology among Bulgarian cities and towns. It is ultimately derived from the Egyptian Kemetic word sbÅ, meaning star, door, teaching and wisdom and this was a tradition of collection of wise literature, shared between Mediterranean cultures, which was called sophia in Greek. In these documents the city is called Sofia, but at the time the region and the citys inhabitants are still called Sredecheski. The city became popular to the Ottomans by the name Sofya. In 1879 there was a dispute about what the name of the new Bulgarian capital should be, the citys name is pronounced by Bulgarians with a stress on the o, in contrast with the tendency of foreigners to place the stress on i. The female given name Sofia is pronounced by Bulgarians with a stress on the i, Sofia has an area of 492 km2, while Sofia City Province has an area of 1344 km2. Sofias development as a significant settlement owes much to its position in the Balkans. It is situated in western Bulgaria, at the foot of the Vitosha mountain, in the Sofia Valley that is surrounded by the Balkan mountains to the north. The valley has an altitude of 550 metres
20.
Bulgarian parliamentary election, 2009
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Parliamentary elections were held in Bulgaria on 5 July 2009. With 40% of the vote, the winner of the elections was the established in 2006 personalistic party of Boyko Borisov - GERB. The Socialist Party, in power before the election, was in second place, Оnce-ruling National Movement Simeon II did not cross the 4% threshold and won no seats. The turnout was 60. 2%, one of the lowest ever, following the election, GERB leader Boyko Borisov became Prime Minister. Just like all the parliamentary elections since the fall of communism. The 2009 elections saw the debut of a voting system with a lesser plurality vote element. 209 of the 240 parliament seats were distributed according to the proportional system, an electoral reform was passed in April 2009 with the votes of the BSP, the DPS, Ataka and Order, Law and Justice. It would raise the threshold for alliances from 4% to 8%. After the law had passed, the provision raising the electoral threshold was struck down by the Constitutional Court of Bulgaria. The Blue Coalition was denied registration for the election by the Central Election Commission on 28 May 2009 due to a struggle in the SDS. The Blue Coalition announced it would appeal the ruling, on 29 May 2009, the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the CECs decision, allowing the Blue Coalition to contest the election. The ruling Bulgarian Socialist Party-headed Coalition for Bulgaria gathered 17. 70%, parties such as LIDER and Simeon Saxe-Coburg Gothas once -ruling NDSV did not cross the 4% threshold and won no seats. The voter turnout of 60. 20% was perceived as high, as a result of the election, the government was formed by GERB alone with Boyko Borisov as Prime Minister. BSP and DPS, two of the members of the former centre-left ruling coalition, were put in opposition, due to the partys failure in the elections, not electing a single member of parliament, former Tsar and more recently Prime Minister resigned as NDSV leader on 6 July
21.
Volen Siderov
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Volen Nikolov Siderov is a Bulgarian politician and chairman of the nationalist party Attack. He has been the editor of newspapers and has authored five books. Siderov was born in 1956 in Yambol, Bulgaria and he received an undergraduate degree in Applied Photography in Sofia, and before the fall of Communism in 1989, worked at the National Literature Museum as a photographer. His brother, Dr. Plamen Siderov, is a mathematician, after the fall of Communism, Siderov became a member of the newly established Movement for Human Rights. During the fall of 1990, he became the editor-in-chief of Democracy, at one point he was appointed deputy editor-in-chief of Monitor, a newspaper of a political orientation that could be described as nationalist and conservative. In 2000, Siderov was presented with the award of the Union of the Bulgarian Journalists, later, he came to be the host of Attack, a talk show on the Bulgarian cable TV channel SKAT. In 2002 Siderov was invited to a controversial anti-globalisation conference in Moscow where he rubbed shoulders with people like Ahmed Rami, during the 2003 local elections Siderov ran for mayor of Sofia on the ticket of the marginal National Association-BZNS Party. He received 1,728 votes, or 0. 45% and that attempt passed largely unnoticed for the general public. During the June 2005 parliamentary elections, already a popular TV host, Siderov organised and led the party Attack, the party won 8. 14% of the total vote, thus becoming the 4th largest party in parliament. In the 2009 elections Attack won 9. 4% of the total vote, Siderov reportedly espouses anti-Masonic conspiracy theories, claiming that Masons control the world through puppet regimes, international organizations, and the press. According to Siderov, these seek to commit genocide against Bulgarian people. He compared the accession of Bulgaria to NATO as a new signing of the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, considered as humiliating treaty for Bulgaria, Siderov expressed respect to the Russian president Vladimir Putin, by visiting him on foot for his 60th birthday on 7 October 2012. At the insistence of foreign, hostile to Bulgaria factors, of our people is projected to remain 3.5 to 4 million residents and this is Bulgarophobes plan and this plan is realised in front of us. The goal is for the Bulgarians to live in fear, to be discouraged, crushed, hundreds of thousands of chronically ill are dying right now because mob companies of the previous cabinet make dirty deals with the life and health of the Bulgarians. Siderov has generated increasing controversy as Attack has improved at the polls and he has been labeled xenophobic, and his persona has been called a studied imitation of Hitler. He has criticised the relationship between established political parties and organised criminal groups. Siderov and his party Attack were among the few Bulgarian political forces that opposed the closing of the four units of the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant. Units 1 and 2 were taken shut down in the end of 2003 and units 3 and 4 were taken out of operation in the hours of 2006
22.
Attack (political party)
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Attack is a Bulgarian nationalist party, founded by Volen Siderov in 2005, who was at the time presenter of the homonymous TV Show Attack on SKAT TV. The leadership of the party asserts that their party is neither left nor right, the party is considered ultranationalist and racist, especially antisemitic and anti-Roma, as well as xenophobic, especially anti-Muslim and anti-Turkish. It advocates the re-nationalisation of privatised companies and seeks to prioritize spending on education, in the Bulgarian parliamentary elections of 2005,2009, and 2013 Attack was consistently the fourth-strongest party and won 21 respectively 23 of the 240 seats. In the presidential election 2006, Siderov was placed second and qualified for the run-off, in 2011 he played only a minor role and was placed fourth. In the 2014 European Parliament election, Attack won no seats, Attack was formerly a member of the Identity, Tradition, Sovereignty European parliamentary group. The Attack Party is oriented towards nationalism and its political program consists of two documents, some 20 principles and a program schedule with 10 articles. They define Bulgaria as a state and assert the supremacy of the state. The 20 Principles envisage sanctions for defamation of the Bulgarian national sacraments, Attack has so far called most of the present-day politicians national traitors. According to the 20 principles, the health, social security, education, a legal minimum wage would be introduced, corresponding to the average European wage, as the Bulgarian living standard is below the average European standard and many Bulgarians live in poverty. Another principle states that incomes and taxes should be tailored to the needs of the Bulgarian population and not by the IMF, the party demands general revision of the budget in favor of Bulgarian citizens as opposed to the management elite, and reduction of useless administration. Referendums are required on all issues affecting the lives of more than 10 percent of the nation, another principle demands Bulgaria leave NATO, full neutrality, and no foreign military bases on Bulgarian territory. On 3 March 2006, party leader Siderov called for a meeting to be held in Sofia, during this rally, Siderov declared Bulgaria is not yet free. Bulgaria is still under Turkish rule, Party speakers protested against the ruling government in Bulgaria for forming an alliance with the Movement for Rights and Freedoms and allegedly ignoring ethnic Bulgarian interests. Earlier in 2006, Siderov organized a petition against a decision by the Bulgarian government to set up US military bases in Bulgaria. On 3 March 2009, Attack organized a rally, attended by about 10,000, in 2006, Siderov was second in the presidential election according to the exit polls. According to Siderov himself, the elections had been rigged and this last referred to the lack of any television debate between Parvanov and Siderov. Skat TV – a broadcaster broadly sympathetic to Attacks position – has been dropped from some cable TV providers in Bulgaria, Attack has its own television program – alfa TV, but its broadcasting is limited only to some digital suppliers. The party contends that there is a blackout against them by the anti Bulgarian media, because the major Bulgarian television programmes, such as bTV, Nova TV and TV7 are corrupted and fraudulent
23.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
24.
BNT 1
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BNT1 is a Bulgarian-language public television station founded in 1959. It began broadcasting on December 26 the same year, the headquarters are located in Sofia, Bulgaria. BNT1 is run by the Bulgarian National Television, when it was initially launched, the channel was called simply Bulgarian Television, as it was the only channel available. When a second state-owned channel was started in 1974, it was renamed to First Programme, in 1991, BT1 and BT2 were given separate visual designs and were renamed respectively to Channel 1 and Efir 2. In this period, the channel was referred to as BNT Channel 1. On 14 September 2008 BNT Channel 1 changed its name once more, the second BNT channel called BNT2 broadcasts the local programming of the former four regional TV centres, and broadcasts nationally. BNT1 airs sports like the UEFA Europa League along with bTV Action, BNT1, along with its sister channel BNT2 and the HDTV channel BNT HD holds the rights for the Euro and the Olympics
25.
Bulgars
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The Bulgars were semi-nomadic warrior Turkic tribes who flourished in the Pontic-Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century. Emerging as nomadic equestrians in the Volga-Ural region, according to some researchers their roots can be traced to Central Asia, during their westward migration across the Eurasian steppe the Bulgars absorbed other ethnic groups and cultural influences, including Hunnic, Iranian and Indo-European people. Modern genetic research on Central Asian Turkic people and ethnic groups related to the Bulgars points to an affiliation with western Eurasian and European populations, the Bulgars spoke a Turkic language, i. e. Bulgar language of Oghuric branch. They preserved military titles, organization and customs of Eurasian steppes, as well as pagan shamanism, the Bulgars became semi-sedentary during the 7th century in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, establishing the polity of Old Great Bulgaria c. 635, which was absorbed by the Khazar Empire in 668 AD,679, Khan Asparukh conquered Scythia Minor, opening access to Moesia, and established the First Bulgarian Empire. In the Balkans, the Bulgars became a political and military elite, and merged with previous populations, such as the Thracians and Vlachs, and were Slavicized, thus forming modern Bulgarians. The remaining Pontic Bulgars migrated in the 7th century to the Volga River, the Volga Tatars and Chuvash people claim to be originated from the Volga Bulgars. The etymology of the ethnonym Bulgar is not completely understood and difficult to trace back earlier than the 4th century AD. Since the work of Wilhelm Tomaschek, it is said to be derived from the Common Turkic bulğha, bulga- or bulya. Other scholars have added that bulğha might also imply stir, disturb, confuse. Peter A. Boodberg noted that the Buluoji in the Chinese sources were recorded as remnants of the Xiongnu confederation, and had strong Caucasian elements. Another theory linking the Bulgars to a Turkic people of Inner Asia has been put forward by Boris Simeonov, who identified them with the Pugu, a Tiele and/or Toquz Oguz tribe. The Pugu were mentioned in Chinese sources from 103 BC up to the 8th century AD, the names Onoğur and Bulgar were linked by later Byzantine sources for reasons that are unclear. Karatay interpreted gur/gor as country, and noted the Tekin derivation of gur from the Altaic suffix -gir, generally, modern scholars consider the terms oğuz or oğur, as generic terms for Turkic tribal confederations, to be derived from Turkic *og/uq, meaning kinship or being akin to. The terms initially were not the same, as oq/ogsiz meant arrow, while oğul meant offspring, child, son, oğuš/uğuš was tribe, clan, and the verb oğša-/oqša meant to be like, resemble. There also appears to be an association between the Bulgars and the preceding Kutrigur and Utigur – as Oğur tribes, with the ethnonym Bulgar as a spreading adjective. Golden considered the origin of the Kutrigurs and Utigurs to be obscure and he noted, however, an implication that the Kutrigurs and Utigurs were related to the Šarağur, and that according to Procopius these were Hunnish tribal unions, of partly Cimmerian descent. Karatay considered the Kutrigurs and Utigurs to be two related, ancestral people, and prominent tribes in the later Bulgar union, but different from the Bulgars, among many other theories regarding the etymology of Bulgar, the following have also had limited support. An Eastern Germanic root meaning combative, according to D, the origin of the early Bulgars is still unclear
26.
Bulgarians
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Bulgarians are a South Slavic ethnic group who are native to Bulgaria and its neighboring regions. Bulgarian citizenship shall further be acquirable through naturalization, the population of Bulgaria descend from peoples with different origins and numbers. They became assimilated by the Slavic settlers in the First Bulgarian Empire, from the indigenous Thracian people certain cultural and ethnic elements were taken. Other pre-Slavic Indo-European peoples, including Dacians, Celts, Goths, Romans, Greeks, the Thracian language has been described as a southern Baltic language. Some pre-Slavic linguistic and cultural traces might have preserved in modern Bulgarians. Medieval historians claimed that the Triballi are the largest tribe and that subsequently changed their name to Bulgarians or Serbs. Others claimed that the Paeonians are Bulgarians, others claimed that the Moesi, according to archeological evidence from the late periods of Roman rule, the Romans did not decrease the number of Thracians significantly in major cities. The latter gradually inflicting total linguistic replacement of Thracian if the Thracians had not already been Romanized or Hellenized and they continued coming to the Balkans in many waves, but also leaving, most notably Justinian II settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor. The Byzantines grouped the numerous Slavic tribes into two groups, the Sklavenoi and Antes, some Bulgarian scholars suggest that the Antes became one of the ancestors of the modern Bulgarians. The control of the Bulgars in the west was indirect and in the hands of the Slavic chiefs, the Bulgars are first mentioned in the 4th century in the vicinity of the North Caucasian steppe. However, any connection between the Bulgars and postulated Asian counterparts rest on little more than speculative and contorted etymologies. The Bulgars are not thought to have numerous, becoming a ruling elite in the areas they controlled. Their archeological evidence is concentrated in northeast Bulgaria and in Macedonia, mixed Bulgar-Slavic settlements emerged according to archeological evidence. Omurtag was the last ruler with a Turkic name and during the reign of Boris the Slavonic language reached an official level, a substantional number of loan words of the Bulgar language remained in the Medieval Bulgarian Slavic language and fewer survived in the modern. During the Early Byzantine Era, the Roman provincials in Scythia Minor and Moesia Secunda were already engaged in economic, the major port towns in Pontic Bulgaria remained Byzantine Greek in their outlook. The establishment of a new state molded the various Slav, Bulgar, in different periods to the ethnogenesis of the local population contributed also different Indo-European and Turkic people, who settled or lived on the Balkans. The First Bulgarian Empire was founded in 681, after the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav at the eve of the 10th century
27.
Minister without portfolio
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A minister without portfolio is either a government minister with no specific responsibilities or a minister who does not head a particular ministry. Stanley Bruce was given the title of Minister without Portfolio when he took up his position in 1932 as the Commonwealth Minister in London and he was given the title by Lyons Cabinet so that he could better represent the PM and his colleagues free from the limitations of a portfolio. In this case the title was a promotion and carried considerable responsibilities, bangladesh appoints ministers without portfolio during cabinet reshuffles or fresh appointments. Ministers are not usually appointed without portfolio as a coalition negotiation – all long run ministers end up with a portfolio, suranjit Sengupta was a minister without portfolio in Sheikh Hasinas second government. Notable Conservatives who filled the role include R. B, bennett, and Arthur Meighen, however, Meighen served this role after he had been prime minister. The practice has continued under the guise of ministers of state without responsibilities in the ministers titles, three control ministers served as ministers without portfolio during World War I. After the Liberation of Denmark in May 1945, the first Danish cabinet included four ministers without portfolio, kauffmann served in this capacity from 12 May to 7 November 1945. The three other holders of this title had joined the cabinet a few days before – Aksel Larsen, lise Østergaard held a position as minister without portfolio with special attention to foreign policy issues in Anker Jørgensens cabinet from 26 February 1977 to 28 February 1980. Anders Fogh Rasmussen appointed Bertel Haarder to Minister without Portfolio, Haarder served in this capacity from 27 November 2001 to 18 February 2005. The reason for appointing a minister without a ministry was the Danish European Union Presidency of 2002, Haarder was considered the most experienced Danish politician on European affairs. Tamás Fellegi Kunwar Natwar Singh Since the inception of the state, Indonesia had ministers without portfolio, the number was not fixed, entirely depended on the behest of the President. Below is the list of Ministers without Portfolio in each Cabinet, Mohammad Amir Abdul Wahid Hasyim Sartono Alexander Andries Maramis Mohammad Amir Oto Iskandar di Nata Rasjidi Wikana Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX Abdul Wahid Hasyim Wikana Dr. Such a minister may nevertheless be given a specific title, the only substantive minister without portfolio has been Frank Aiken, the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures during World War II. By the Emergency Powers Act 1939 then in force, the Minister for Defence was able to delegate some competences to him, such delegation is now done instead with Ministers of State, junior ministers who are not members of the government. Junior ministers can be given a right to sit at cabinet and this allows the Government to circumvent the Constitutional limit on the number of Senior Ministers. On several occasions a minister has been appointed to a government with the title of a new Department of State. Between the date of appointment and the date of creation of the department, examples include, It is common practice in Israel to appoint ministers without portfolio as part of the coalition negotiations. All cabinets in recent years have had at least some such appointment, departments on equalities, European affairs and relations with regions, for example, are usually led by ministers without portfolio
28.
Macedonian nationalism
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The idea evolved during the early 20th century alongside the first expressions of ethnic nationalism among the Slavs of Macedonia. The first assertions of Macedonian nationalism arose in the late 19th century, early Macedonian nationalists were encouraged by several foreign governments that held interests in the region. Instead, the Serbian government believed that support to Macedonian nationalists would stimulate opposition to incorporation to Bulgaria. However Slavic Macedonians self-identification and nationalist loyalties remained ambiguous in the late 19th century, Pulevski for instance viewed Macedonians identity as being a regional phenomenon. Pulevskis numerous identifications actually reveals the absence of an ethnic sense in a part of the local Slavic population. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization grew up as the major Macedonian separatist organization in the 1890s, as a rule, the IMRO members had Bulgarian national self-identification, but their autonomist ideas have stimulated the development of the Macedonian nationalism. The IMRO devised the slogan Macedonia for Macedonians and it called for a supranational Macedonia, consisting from different nationalities, included in a future Balkan Federation. However the promotors of this slogan declared their conviction that the majority of the Macedonian Christian Slav population was Bulgarian, in the late 19th and early 20th century the international community viewed the Macedonians predominantly as regional variety of Bulgarians. At the end of the First World War there were very few ethnographers, during the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Allies sanctioned Serbian control of Vardar Macedonia and accepted the belief that Macedonian Slavs were in fact Southern Serbs. This change in opinion can largely be attributed to the Serbian geographer Jovan Cvijić, nevertheless, Macedonist ideas increased during the interbellum, in Yugoslav Vardar Macedonia and among the left diaspora in Bulgaria, and were supported by the Comintern. The development of the Macedonian ethnicity can be said to have begun in the late 19th and this is the time of the first expressions of ethnic nationalism by limited groups of intellectuals in Belgrade, Sofia, Thessaloniki and St. Petersburg. Some authors consider that at time, labels reflecting collective identity, such as Bulgarian. But this manifestation of political separatism by the IMARO was a phenomenon without ethnic affiliation, during the Balkan Wars and the First World War the area was exchanged several times between Bulgaria and Serbia. The IMARO supported the Bulgarian army and authorities when they took control over Vardar Macedonia. Serbian troops performed a policy of disarming the local militia, accompanied by beatings, in this period the political autonomism was abandoned as tactics and annexationist positions were supported, aiming eventual incorporation of the area to Bulgaria. During the interwar period in Vardar Macedonia, then annexed by Serbia, part of the young locals repressed by the Serbs, in 1934 the Comintern issued a resolution about the recognition of separate Macedonian ethnicity. However, the existence of considerable Macedonian national consciousness prior to the 1940s is disputed, in another village he met a man who had been, a Macedonian peasant all his life, but who had varyingly been called a Turk, a Serb and a Bulgarian. During the WWII the area was annexed by Bulgaria and anti-Serbian and pro-Bulgarian feelings among the local population prevailed, because of that Vardar Macedonia was the only region where Yugoslav communist leader Josip Broz Tito had not developed a strong Partisan movement in 1941
29.
Macedonians (ethnic group)
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The Macedonians, also known as Macedonian Slavs or Slavic Macedonians, are a South Slavic ethnic group native to the region of Macedonia. They speak the Macedonian language, a South Slavic language, about two thirds of all ethnic Macedonians live in the Republic of Macedonia and there are also communities in a number of other countries. The origins of Macedonians are varied and rich, in antiquity, much of central-northern Macedonia was inhabited by Paionians who expanded from the lower Strymon basin. The Pelagonian plain was inhabited by the Pelagones, an ancient Greek tribe of Upper Macedonia, Roman conquest brought with it a significant Romanization of the region. During the Dominate period, barbarian federates were at times settled on Macedonian soil, in contrast to frontier provinces, Macedonia continued to be a flourishing Christian, Roman province in Late Antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Traditional historiography has equated these changes with the commencement of raids and invasions of Sclaveni and Antes from Wallachia, the exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined. What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to Bulgaria, northern Macedonia remained Roman in its cultural outlook into the 7th century, yet at the same time, sources attest numerous Slavic tribes in the environs of Thessaloniki and further afield, including the Berziti in Pelagonia. Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, the settlement of Kuvers Pannonian Bulgars- a mix of Roman Christians, Bulgars and Avars- populated the Keramissian plain around Bitola in the late 7th century. Later pockets of settlers included Magyars in the 9th century, Armenians in the 10th-12th centuries, Cumans in the 11th-13th centuries, subsequently, the literary and ecclesiastical centres in Ohrid, not only became a second cultural capital of medieval Bulgaria, but soon eclipsed those in Preslav. Many aspects which now define Macedonian culture are a culmination of the so-called Byzantine commonwealth which consisted of Medieval Byzantine, Cultural, ecclesiastical and political developments of Slav Orthodox Culture occurred in Macedonia itself. Anthropologically, Macedonians possess genetic lineages postulated to represent Balkan prehistoric and historic demographic processes, such lineages are also typically found in other South Slavs, especially Bulgarians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, but also to the Greeks and Romanians. The large majority of Macedonians identify as Orthodox Christians, who speak a South Slavic language, the concept of a Macedonian ethnicity, distinct from their Orthodox Balkan neighbours, is seen to be a comparatively newly emergent one. The earliest manifestation of a Macedonian identity emerged in the late 19th century, however, modern researchers recognize that all nations are modern constructs. Even ethnic groups with long recorded history are characterized by marked discontinuity with the ancient past, heather Rae summarizes that Macedonian identity is no more or less artificial than any other identity. It merely has a more recent ethnogenesis – one that can more easily be traced through the recent historical record. During the formative Middle Ages, there was no distinct ethno-political Macedonian identity, references to Macedonians were varied, from geographical to administrative one. The Byzantine historians categorized the numerous Slavic tribal unions on the early Medieval Balkans as Sclavinias, in the ninth century, Theophanes the Confessor reported that the emperor Constantine V captured the Macedonian Sklavinias in the year 758-759. The modern Macedonian historians have described it as kind of primary ethno-political entity
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Ancient Macedonians
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The Macedonians were an ancient tribe that lived on the alluvial plain around the rivers Haliacmon and lower Axios in the northeastern part of mainland Greece. They spoke a dialect of Greek, although the lingua franca of the region was at first Attic. Aside from the monarchy, the core of Macedonian society was its nobility, similar to the aristocracy of neighboring Thessaly, their wealth was largely built on herding horses and cattle. Although composed of clans, the kingdom of Macedonia, established around the 8th century BC, is mostly associated with the Argead dynasty. The dynasty was founded by Perdiccas I, descendant of the legendary Temenus of Argos, while the region of Macedon perhaps derived its name from Makedon. Traditionally ruled by independent families, the Macedonians seem to have accepted Argead rule by the time of Alexander I, under Philip II, the Macedonians are credited with numerous military innovations, which enlarged their territory and increased their control over other areas extending into Thrace. There is also debate over the classification of the native Macedonian language as a dialect of the Greek language or as its own subdivision of the Hellenic languages. With the scant amount of evidence, the extent to which the native Macedonian tongue may have been influenced by the Phrygian, Thracian. The ancient Macedonians participated in the production and fostering of Classical, in terms of visual arts, they produced frescoes, mosaics, sculptures, and decorative metalwork. The performing arts of music and Greek theatrical dramas were highly appreciated, the kingdom also attracted the presence of renowned philosophers, such as Aristotle, while native Macedonians contributed to the field of ancient Greek literature, especially Greek historiography. Their sport and leisure activities included hunting, foot races, and chariot races, the expansion of the Macedonian kingdom has been described as a three-stage process. Macedonia then led a military force against their primary objective—the conquest of Persia—which they achieved with remarkable ease. With Alexanders conquest of the Achaemenid Empire, Macedonians colonized territories as far east as Central Asia, the Macedonians continued to rule much of Hellenistic Greece, forming alliances with Greek leagues such as the Cretan League and Epirote League. In the aftermath of the Third Macedonian War, the Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy under Perseus of Macedon, a brief revival of the monarchy by the pretender Andriscus led to the Fourth Macedonian War, after which Rome established the Roman province of Macedonia and subjugated the Macedonians. In Greek mythology, Makedon is the hero of Macedonia and is mentioned in Hesiods Catalogue of Women. The first historical attestation of the Macedonians occurs in the works of Herodotus during the mid-5th century BC, the Macedonians are absent in Homers Catalogue of Ships and the term Macedonia itself appears late. The Iliad states that upon leaving Mount Olympus, Hera journeyed via Pieria and Emathia before reaching Athos and this is re-iterated by Strabo in his Geography. Nevertheless, archaeological evidence indicates that Mycenaean contact with or penetration into the Macedonian interior possibly started from the early 14th century BC, in their new Pierian home north of Olympus, the Macedonian tribes mingled with the proto-Dorians
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Slavs
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Slavs are the largest Indo-European ethno-linguistic group in Europe. They are native to Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, Northeastern Europe, North Asia, Slavs speak Slavic languages of the Balto-Slavic language group. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of Central, states with Slavic languages comprise over 50% of the territory of Europe, therefore it is the largest ethno-linguistic group in Europe by land area. Present-day Slavic people are classified into West Slavs, East Slavs, there are an estimated 360 million Slavs worldwide. The Slavic autonym is reconstructed in Proto-Slavic as *Slověninъ, plural *Slověne, the oldest documents written in Old Church Slavonic and dating from the 9th century attest the autonym as Slověne. The word slovo and the related slava and slukh originate from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱlew-, cognate with Ancient Greek κλῆς, whence comes the name Pericles, Latin clueo, some other theories have limited support. The English term slave eventually derives from the ethnonym Slav, Slavs were captured and enslaved by the Muslims of Spain during the ninth century AD. The Slavs under name of the Antes and the Sclaveni make their first appearance in Byzantine records in the early 6th century. Procopius wrote in 545 that the Sclaveni and the Antae actually had a name in the remote past. He described them as barbarians, who lived under democracy, and that believe in one god. They lived in scattered housing, and constantly changed settlement, regarding warfare, they were mainly foot soldiers with small shields and battleaxes, lightly clothed, some entering battle naked with only their genitals covered. And they live a life, giving no heed to bodily comforts. Jordanes described the Sclaveni having swamps and forests for their cities, another 6th-century source refers to them living among nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes. Menander Protector mentions a Daurentius that slew an Avar envoy of Khagan Bayan I. The Avars asked the Slavs to accept the suzerainty of the Avars, he declined and is reported as saying, Others do not conquer our land. The relationship between the Slavs and a called the Veneti east of the River Vistula in the Roman period is uncertain. The name may refer both to Balts and Slavs, perhaps some Slavs migrated with the movement of the Vandals to Iberia and north Africa. Around the 6th century, Slavs appeared on Byzantine borders in great numbers, the Byzantine records note that grass would not regrow in places where the Slavs had marched through, so great were their numbers
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Tatars
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The Tatars are a Turkic people living in Asia and Europe who were one of the five major tribal confederations in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century CE. The name Tatar first appears in form on the Kul Tigin monument as
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Saints Cyril and Methodius
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Saints Cyril and Methodius were two brothers who were Byzantine Christian theologians and Christian missionaries. Through their work influenced the cultural development of all Slavs. They are credited with devising the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet used to transcribe Old Church Slavonic, after their deaths, their pupils continued their missionary work among other Slavs. Both brothers are venerated in the Orthodox Church as saints with the title of equal-to-apostles, in 1880, Pope Leo XIII introduced their feast into the calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1980, Pope John Paul II declared them co-patron saints of Europe, the two brothers were born in Thessalonica, in present-day Greece – Cyril in about 827–828 and Methodius about 815–820. Cyril was reputedly the youngest of seven brothers, he was born Constantine, Methodius was born Michael and took the name Methodius upon becoming a monk at Mysian Olympus, in northwest Turkey. Their father was Leo, a droungarios of the Byzantine theme of Thessalonica, the exact ethnic origins of the brothers are unknown, there is controversy as to whether Cyril and Methodius were of Slavic or Byzantine Greek origin, or both. The two brothers lost their father when Cyril was fourteen, and the powerful minister Theoktistos, who was logothetes tou dromou, one of the ministers of the Empire. Cyril was ordained as priest some time after his education, while his brother Methodius remained only a deacon until 867/868, Cyrils mastery of theology and command of both Arabic and Hebrew made him eligible for his first state mission. He was sent to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil to discuss the principle of the Holy Trinity with the Arab theologians and this mission was unsuccessful, as later the Khagan imposed Judaism on his people as the national religion. It has been claimed that Methodius accompanied Cyril on the mission to the Khazars, the account of his life presented in the Latin Legenda claims that he learned the Khazar language while in Chersonesos, in Taurica. In 862, the brothers began the work which would give them their historical importance and that year Prince Rastislav of Great Moravia requested that Emperor Michael III and the Patriarch Photius send missionaries to evangelize his Slavic subjects. His motives in doing so were more political than religious. Rastislav had become king with the support of the Frankish ruler Louis the German, Rastislav is said to have expelled missionaries of the Roman Church and instead turned to Constantinople for ecclesiastical assistance and, presumably, a degree of political support. The Emperor quickly chose to send Cyril, accompanied by his brother Methodius, the request provided a convenient opportunity to expand Byzantine influence. Their first work seems to have been the training of assistants, in 863, they began the task of translating the Bible into the language now known as Old Church Slavonic and travelled to Great Moravia to promote it. They enjoyed considerable success in this endeavour, however, they came into conflict with German ecclesiastics who opposed their efforts to create a specifically Slavic liturgy. For the purpose of mission, they devised the Glagolitic alphabet
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Samuel of Bulgaria
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Samuel was the Tsar of the First Bulgarian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. As Samuel struggled to preserve his countrys independence from the Byzantine Empire, his rule was characterized by constant warfare against the Byzantines, in his early years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns into their territory. In the late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the principality of Duklja and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of Croatia, but from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire against the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of an attack on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophic battle of Kleidion. His successors failed to organize a resistance, and in 1018, four years after Samuels death, Samuel was considered invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength. Similar comments were even in Constantinople, where John Kyriotes penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the Bulgarian Emperor and Halleys comet, which appeared in 989. During Samuels reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the Balkans as far as southern Greece. He moved the capital from Skopje to Ohrid, which had been the cultural and military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since Boris Is rule, because of this, his realm is sometimes called the Western Bulgarian Empire. Samuels energetic reign restored Bulgarian might on the Balkans, and although the Empire was disestablished after his death and his mother was Ripsimia of Armenia, the daughter of King Ashot II of Armenia. The actual name of the dynasty is not known, Cometopuli is the nickname used by Byzantine historians which is translated as sons of the count. The Cometopuli rose to power out of the disorder that occurred in the Bulgarian Empire from 966 to 971, during the reign of Emperor Peter I, Bulgaria prospered in a long-lasting peace with Byzantium. This was secured by the marriage of Peter with the Byzantine princess Maria Lakapina, during these years the Byzantines and Bulgarians had entangled themselves in a war with Kievan Rus Prince Sviatoslav, who invaded Bulgaria several times. After a defeat from Sviatoslav, Peter I suffered a stroke, Boris was allowed back to Bulgaria to take his fathers throne, restore order and oppose Sviatoslav, but had little success. This was allegedly used by Nicholas and his sons, who were contemplating a revolt in 969, the Rus invaded Byzantine Thrace in 970, but suffered a defeat in the Battle of Arcadiopolis. The new Byzantine Emperor John Tzimiskes used this to his advantage and he quickly invaded Bulgaria the following year, defeated the Rus, and conquered the Bulgarian capital Preslav. Boris II of Bulgaria was ritually divested of his insignia in a public ceremony in Constantinople and he. Although the ceremony in 971 had been intended as a termination of the Bulgarian Empire. Count Nicholas, Samuels father, who had ties to the royal court in Preslav
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First Bulgarian Empire
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The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed in southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded circa 681 when Bulgar tribes led by Asparukh moved to the north-eastern Balkans, there they secured Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the Danube by defeating – possibly with the help of local South Slavic tribes – the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV. At the height of its power, Bulgaria spread from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea, as the state solidified its position in the Balkans, it entered into a centuries-long interaction, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile, with the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria emerged as Byzantiums chief antagonist to its north, resulting in several wars, Byzantium had a strong cultural influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventual adoption of Christianity in 864. After the disintegration of the Avar Khaganate, the country expanded its territory northwest to the Pannonian Plain, later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the Pechenegs and Cumans, and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars, forcing them to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia. During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Simeon I achieved a string of victories over the Byzantines, thereafter, he was recognized with the title of Emperor, and proceeded to expand the state to its greatest extent. After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the battle of Anchialus in 917, the Byzantines, however, eventually recovered, and in 1014, under Basil II, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kleidion. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire, and it was succeeded by the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185. After the adoption of Christianity, Bulgaria became the center of Slavic Europe. Old Bulgarian became the lingua franca of much of Eastern Europe, in 927, the fully independent Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recognized. The Bulgars and other tribes in the empire gradually adopted an essentially foreign Slavic language. Since the late 9th century, the names Bulgarians and Bulgarian gained prevalence and became permanent designations for the local population, the First Bulgarian Empire became known simply as Bulgaria since its recognition by the Byzantine Empire in 681. Some historians use the terms Danube Bulgaria, First Bulgarian State, during its early existence, the country was also called the Bulgar state or Bulgar qaghanate. Between 864 and 917/927, the country was known as the Principality of Bulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bulgaria, in English language sources, the country is often known as the Bulgarian Empire. The eastern Balkan Peninsula was originally inhabited by the Thracians who were a group of Proto-Indo-European tribes, the whole region as far north as the Danube River was gradually incorporated into the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD. The decline of the Roman Empire after the 3rd century AD, nonetheless, it never relinquished the claim to the whole region up to the Danube. A series of administrative, legislative, military and economic reforms somewhat improved the situation, the group of Slavs that came to be known as the South Slavs was divided into Antes and Sclaveni who spoke the same language. The Slavic incursions in the Balkans increased during the half of Justinian Is reign and while these were initially pillaging raids
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Archbishopric of Ohrid
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The Archbishopric of Ohrid was an autonomous Orthodox Church under the tutelage of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople between 1019 and 1767. It was established following the Byzantine conquest of the First Bulgarian Empire in 1018 by lowering the rank of the autocephalous Bulgarian Patriarchate due to its subjugation to Constantinople, in 972, Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimisces conquered and burned down Preslav, capturing the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II. The Patriarch Damyan managed to escape, initially to Sredets, thus, the next Patriarch German resided consecutively in Moglen, Voden and Prespa. Around 990, the last patriarch, Philip, moved to Ohrid, the Archbishopric of Ohrid was a Byzantine resurrection of the Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima. After 1018 it was the church of the Byzantine Slavs, Bulgarians, although the first appointed archbishop was a Bulgarian, his successors, as well as the whole higher clergy, were invariably Greeks, the most famous of them being Saint Theophylact of Bulgaria. The Archbishops were chosen from among the monks in Constantinople, adrian Komnenos, under his monastic name of John, was the cousin of Emperor John II Komnenos, and was the first Archbishop who held the title of Archbishop of Justniana Prima. The later archbishop John V Kamateros was a former imperial clerk, after 1204, the Empire of Nicaea claimed the Byzantine imperial heritage and provided the refuge of the Greek patriarchs of Constantinople in exile. In the newly founded Second Bulgarian Empire, a new Archbishopric was founded with its see in Tarnovo, Tsar Kaloyan did not succeed in putting the Ohrid Archbishopric under the jurisdiction of the Tarnovo Archbishopric. Nevertheless, he managed to expel Greek bishops and install Bulgarians instead, the next Bulgarian rulers were constantly trying to make the Ohrid Archbishopric inferior to the Tarnovo Archbishopric. The Latin conquests and the founding of independent Bulgarian and the Serbian states reduced the jurisdiction of the Ohrid Archbishopric immensely, the southward expansion of the Serbian state reached its apogee at the time of tsar Stefan Dushan. The year when Stephan Dushan occupied Ohrid was around 1334, under Serbian rule Archbishopric of Ohrid kept its autonomy. On April 16,1346 in Serbian capital city of Skopje a joined state, the assembly proclaimed the raising of the autocephalous Serbian Archbishopric to the rank of Patriarchate. The Archbishopric of Ohrid was not annexed to the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć and kept its autonomy, Archbishopric of Ohrid managed to survive the transition and was legalized by new Ottoman authorities. Not long after the fall of the Bulgarian Patriarchate in 1394, thus, in the beginning of the 15th century, the Archbishop of Ohrid, attached the dioceses of Sofia and Vidin to the Archbishopric. In 1408, Ohrid was under Turkish rule, still, the Turks did not reach after the Ohrid Archbishopric, mostly because of their tolerance for monotheistic religions and left the people to govern themselves regarding religion. During the 15th century, dioceses from the side of the Danube, from the Dukedoms of Wallachia and Moldova. Nevertheless, this did not last for more than a hundred years, towards the beginning of the 16th century, the Ohrid Archbishopric expanded its jurisdiction even over territories in Southern Italy, as well as in Dalmatia. The flock of this diocese was made of Greeks and Albanians, since then and until its abolishment in 1767, the Archbishopric neither lost nor gained a diocese under its jurisdiction
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Bulgarian Exarchate
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The Bulgarian Exarchate was the official name of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church before its autocephaly was recognized by the Ecumenical See in 1945 and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was restored in 1953. The Exarchate was unilaterally promulgated on May 231872, in the Bulgarian church in Constantinople in pursuance of the March 121870 firman of Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire. The foundation of the Exarchate was the result of the struggle of the Bulgarian Orthodox against the domination of the Greek Patriarchate of Constantinople in the 1850s and 1860s. Nevertheless, Bulgarian religious leaders continued to extend the borders of the Exarchate in the Ottoman Empire by conducting plebiscites in areas contested by both Churches. In this way, in the struggle for recognition of a separate Church, in History of Slav-Bulgarians, Paisius urged his compatriots to throw off subjugation to the Greek language and culture. The example of Paisius was followed by others, including Saint Sophroniy of Vratsa, Abbot Spiridon of Gabrovo, Abbot Yoakim Karchovski, struggle for church autonomy The result of the work of Paisius and his followers began before long to give fruit. Discontent with the supremacy of the Greek clergy started to flare up in several Bulgarian dioceses as early as the 1820s, thus, if the Bulgarians wanted to have Bulgarian schools and liturgy in Bulgarian, they needed an autonomous ecclesiastical organisation. The struggle between the Bulgarians, led by Neofit Bozveli and Ilarion Stoyanov, and the Phanariotes intensified throughout the 1860s. The firman envisaged a broad autonomy of the Exarchate but would leave it under the canonical authority of the Ecumenical See. The Exarchates borders went on to extend over present-day northern Bulgaria, Thrace without the Vilayet of Adrianople, the Exarchate was also represented in the whole of Greek Macedonia and the Vilayet of Adrianople by vicars. Thus, the borders of the Exarchate included all Bulgarian districts in the Ottoman Empire, the first Bulgarian Exarch was Antim I who was elected by the Holy Synod of the Exarchate on February 281872. On May 231872, in the Bulgarian St, the Patriarchal Synod reacted by defrocking Antim I and excommunicating others, including Ilarion Stoyanov. The decision on the declaration of autocephaly by the Bulgarian Church was not accepted by the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The latter were accused of having “surrendered Orthodoxy to ethnic nationalism”, Exarch Antim I was discharged by the Ottoman government immediately after the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78 on April 24,1877, and was sent into exile in Ankara. In 1879, the Tarnovo Constitution formally established the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as the religion of the nation. Almost all of the schoolmasters had been born in Macedonia and Adrianople Thrace, the immediate effect of the partition of the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars was the anti-Bulgarian campaign in areas under Serbian and Greek rule. The Serbians expelled Exarchist churchmen and teachers and closed Bulgarian schools, thousands of Bulgarian refugees left for Bulgaria, joining an even larger stream from the devastated Aegean Macedonia, where the Greeks burned Kukush, the center of Bulgarian politics and culture. Bulgarian language was prohibited, and its surreptitious use, whenever detected, was ridiculed or punished, the Ottomans managed to keep the Adrianople region, where the whole Thracian Bulgarian population was put to total ethnic cleansing by the Young Turks army
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Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
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The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization was a revolutionary national liberation movement in the Ottoman territories in Europe, that operated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Founded in 1893 in Salonica, its aim was to gain autonomy for Macedonia, According to some authors later it became an agent serving Bulgarian interests in Balkan politics in struggles against the Ottoman Empire. Starting in 1896 it fought the Ottomans using guerrilla tactics, and in this they were successful, even establishing a state within state in some regions and this effort escalated in 1903 into the Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising. The fighting involved about 15,000 IMRO irregulars and 40,000 Ottoman soldiers, after the uprising failed, and the Ottomans destroyed some 100 villages, the IMRO resorted to more systematic forms of terrorism targeting civilians. In this period autonomism as a tactic was abandoned and annexationist positions were supported. After the First World War the combined Macedonian-Thracian revolutionary movement separated into two detached organizations, IMRO and ITRO, after this moment the IMRO earned a reputation as an ultimate terror network, seeking to change state frontiers in the Macedonian regions of Greece and Serbia. They contested the partitioning of Macedonia and launched raids from their Petrich stronghold into Greek, in 1925 the Greek army launched a cross-border operation to reduce the IMRO base area, but it was ultimately stopped by the League of Nations, and IMRO attacks resumed. In the interwar period the IMRO also cooperated with the Croatian Ustaše, after the Bulgarian coup détat of 1934, their Petrich stronghold was subjected to military crackdown by the Bulgarian army, and the IMRO was reduced to a marginal phenomenon. The organization changed its name on several occasions, after the fall of communism in the region, numerous parties claimed the IMRO name and lineage to legitimize themselves. Among them, in Bulgaria a right-wing party carrying the prefix VMRO was established in the 1990s, in practice, IMRO was established by Bulgarians and most of their followers were Bulgarians. The organization was a revolutionary society operating in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the goal of autonomous Macedonia. Initially, they were against the aspirations of neighboring states in the area and saw the future autonomous Macedonia and it appears likely that at the early stages of the struggle, a desired outcome of the autonomy was unification with Bulgaria. This aim was changed later with the idea of transforming the Balkans into a state, in which Macedonia. The idea of autonomy was strictly political and did not imply a secession from Bulgarian ethnicity, even those, who advocated for independent Macedonia and Thrace, never doubted the predominantly Bulgarian character of the Slavic population in both areas. The organization was founded by Hristo Tatarchev, Dame Gruev, Petar Pop-Arsov, Andon Dimitrov, Hristo Batandzhiev, most of them were closely connected with the Bulgarian Mens High School of Thessaloniki. According to Hristo Tatarchevs Memoirs IMRO was first called simply the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, Ivan Hadzhinikolov in his memoirs lists the five basic principles of the MROs foundation, According to Dr. e. Most of it, where the Bulgarian element predominated in the mixed population, the organized revolutionary movement in Thrace dates from 1895, when Dame Gruev recruited Hristo Kotsev, born in Shtip, who was then a teacher in the Bulgarian Mens High School of Adrianople. Acting in the name of the Central Committee, Kotsev set up a committee in Adrianople
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Krste Misirkov
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Krste Petkov Misirkov was a philologist, slavist, historian and ethnographer. A survey conducted in the Republic of Macedonia found Misirkov to be the most significant Macedonian of the 20th century, for his efforts to codify a standard Macedonian language, he is often considered the founder of the modern Macedonian literary language. However, in 1907 he began publishing articles, written from a Bulgarian nationalist perspective. Misirkov reverted to Macedonian nationalism for a short in 1919, during the 1920s his views changed again, and he encouraged the Macedonian Slavs to adopt a Bulgarian national identity. Krste Petkov Misirkov was born on 18 November 1874 in the village of Postol in the Salonica Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, at that period Serbian propaganda began to promote its variant of Macedonism and to recruit young people in order to Serbianize them. After some period, Misirkov applied and was granted a scholarship by the Serbian association St. Sava, Misirkov spent some time in Serbia, where he was studying in Serbian, and soon after he realized that the propaganda was the main goal of the Serbian association. The politics practiced by the association forced Misirkov and the other Macedonian students to participate in a revolt against the Saint Sava society. As a result of that, Misirkov and other companions moved from Belgrade to Sofia, since he was willing to get higher education, he was forced, by a chain of events, to enroll a theological school for teachers. Similar to the association St. Sava, this school as well had its own propagandistic goals, as a result of it, the school stopped working and the students were sent throughout Serbia. Misirkov was sent to Šabac, where he finished the last, fourth, class of secondary education, in both, Serbia and Bulgaria, Misirkov and his friend were treated as Serbians or Bulgarians in order to be accepted in the educational system. After the gymnasium, even though he graduated, Misirkov enrolled in secondary school for teachers in Belgrade. During this time, particularly in 1893, Misirkov founded an association of students called Vardar, in other words, the students were not satisfied by the Serbianization of the Macedonians. This idea was inspired by the Lozari, however, the Serbs were opposed to this thesis of the young students, so their society did not last very long and it was disbanded in 1895. Afterwards he was appointed as a Serbian teacher in Pristina, Misirkov refused and left for Odessa to continue his studies. His educational qualifications obtained in Belgrade were not recognized in Russia, Misirkov had to study from the very beginning in the Seminary at Poltava. In 1897 he was able to enter the Petersburg University, here he entered at first the Bulgarian Students Association. Misirkov carried out here his first scholarly lecture on the ethnography, on November 15,1900, when Misirkov third year student in the Faculty of History and Philosophy, along with other students in Russia created а Petersburg circle. The main objective of the circle is political autonomy of the population of Macedonia and Thrace, at that time Misirkov still considers the Slavic population of Macedonia and Thrace as Bulgarian
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World War II in Yugoslav Macedonia
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World War II in Yugoslav Macedonia started with the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia. Initially it had no success, starting to grow only in 1943 with the capitulation of Italy. The resistance lasted until the end of 1944 when communist Yugoslavia was established, following the end of the Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913, the Treaty of Bucharest divided the region of Macedonia amongst the Kingdom of Greece, the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Serbia. The territory was up until that part of the Ottoman Empire. From 1912 until 1941 the territory of Vardar Macedonia remained within the territory of Serbia, during that period, there were two main autonomist agendas. The right-wing Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization led by Ivan Mihailov, was in favor of the creation of a pro-Bulgarian Macedonian state under German and Italian protection. The leftist IMRO group, who merged with the prior to the beginning of the war. This option was supported by Pavel Shatev, Dimitar Vlahov, Metodi Shatorov, Panko Brashnarov, fearing an invasion of the World War II Axis Powers, Regent Prince Paul of Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941, pledging cooperation with the Axis. On 27 March, the regime of Prince Paul was overthrown by a military coup détat with British support, the 17-year-old Peter II of Yugoslavia was declared to be of age and placed in power. General Dušan Simović became his Prime Minister, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia withdrew its support for the Axis de facto without formally renouncing the Pact. On 6 April 1941 the German armed forces launched the invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, a division of southern Macedonia was drawn up on 19 and 20 April 1941. Bulgarian troops were present in the central and eastern part of Vardar Macedonia. The prominent force which occupied most of Vardar Macedonia was the 5th Army, the westernmost parts of Macedonia was occupied by the fascist Kingdom of Italy. The first of the Bulgarian Action Committees was formed in Skopje on 13 April 1941, former IMRO members in Vardar Macedonia were active members of this committee. On 13 April 1941, at a meeting in Skopje, it was decided one of the first tasks of the newly formed organisation was to regulate the relations with the German authorities. With the arrival of the Bulgarian army mass expulsion of Serbian colonists from Vardar Macedonia took place, once the region and administration became organized, the Action Committees became marginalized, and were ultimately dissolved. Balli Kombëtar in Macedonia – There were 5,500 Balli Kombëtar militants in Albanian occupied Macedonia,2,000 of which were Tetovo-based and 500 of which were based in Debar. Ivan Mihailovs IMRO in Macedonia – After the military Bulgarian coup détat of 1934 the new Bulgarian government banned IMRO as a terrorist organization, Ivan Mihailov fled to Italy, where he made contact with the Italian fascist authorities and with members of the German secret service
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
42.
Dimitrov Cove
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Hoek Glacier and Rusalka Glacier flow into the cove, their termini separated by Veshka Point, while Camacúa Island is lying at the coves entrance. The cove is named after the Bulgarian historian Bozhidar Dimitrov for his support for the Bulgarian Antarctic programme, Dimitrov Cove is centred at 65°57′50″S 65°04′30″W. DOS610 Series, Sheet W6564, directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, UK,1971. Scale 1,250000 topographic map of Antarctica, scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, 1993–2016. This article includes information from the Antarctic Place-names Commission of Bulgaria which is used with permission
43.
Antarctica
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It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres, it is the fifth-largest continent, for comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness, Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is a desert, with precipitation of only 200 mm along the coast. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C, though the average for the quarter is −63 °C. Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra. The continent, however, remained neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of easily accessible resources. In 1895, the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians, Antarctica is a de facto condominium, governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status. Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, and thirty-eight have signed it since then, the treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal, supports scientific research, and protects the continents ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations, the name Antarctica is the romanised version of the Greek compound word ἀνταρκτική, feminine of ἀνταρκτικός, meaning opposite to the Arctic, opposite to the north. Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c.350 B. C, marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A. D. Before acquiring its present geographical connotations, the term was used for locations that could be defined as opposite to the north. For example, the short-lived French colony established in Brazil in the 16th century was called France Antarctique, the first formal use of the name Antarctica as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. Antarctica has no population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. Explorer Matthew Flinders, in particular, has credited with popularising the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia. Cook came within about 120 km of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals, according to various organisations, ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820, von Bellingshausen, Edward Bransfield, and Nathaniel Palmer
44.
Macedonian language
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It is the official language of the Republic of Macedonia and a recognized minority language in parts of Albania, Romania and Serbia. Standard Macedonian was implemented as the language of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia in 1945 and has since developed a modern literature. Most of the codification was formalized during the same period, Macedonian dialects form a continuum with Bulgarian dialects, they in turn form a broader continuum with Serbo-Croatian through the transitional Torlakian dialects. The name of the Macedonian language is a matter of controversy in Greece. Macedonians closest relative is Bulgarian, with which it has a degree of mutual intelligibility. The next closest relative is Serbo-Croatian, all South Slavic languages, including Macedonian, form a dialect continuum. Its other principal members are Romanian, Greek and Albanian, all of which belong to different genetic branches of the Indo-European family and they are also the only Slavic languages with any definite articles. Bulgarian and Macedonian are the only Indo-European languages that use of the narrative mood. Prior to the codification of the language, Macedonian dialects were described by linguists as being either dialects of Bulgarian or Serbian. Similarly, Torlakian was also regarded as Bulgarian. On the other hand, many Macedonian intellectuals maintained that their language was neither a dialect of Serbian nor of Bulgarian, but the core of its standard was not formed out of dialects or variants that had ever been covered by the Bulgarian standard. Consequently, its autonomy could not have resulted from a conscious distancing of a variant of a pluricentric language, like the other South Slavic standards, the Macedonian standard was based on dialects which had never before been covered by a standard. Modern questions of classification are largely shaped by political and social factors, likewise, this view does not take into account the fact that a Macedonian koiné language was already in existence. The codifiers ultimately chose the dialects, but did so because they were most widespread. The population of the Republic of Macedonia was 2,022,547 in 2002, outside of the Republic, there are Macedonians living in other parts of the geographical area of Macedonia. There are ethnic Macedonian minorities in neighbouring Albania, in Bulgaria, in Greece, according to the official Albanian census of 1989,4,697 ethnic Macedonians reside in Albania. A large number of Macedonians live outside the traditional Balkan Macedonian region, with Australia, Canada, according to a 1964 estimate, approximately 580,000 Macedonians live outside of the Macedonian Republic, nearly 30% of the total population. The Macedonian language has the status of official language only in the Republic of Macedonia, and is a minority and official language in parts of Albania, Romania
45.
Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica
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The Gazetteer includes also parts of the International Hydrographic Organization General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans gazetteer for under-sea features situated south of 60° south latitude. Scale 1,250000 topographic map of Antarctica with place-name search, since 1993, regularly upgraded and updated
46.
First Borisov Government
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The eighty-seventh Cabinet of Bulgaria was a minority government chaired by Boyko Borisov. The government was formed after Borisovs party, GERB, won the 2009 parliamentary election and it remained in power relying on support from the opposition parties for almost four years before resigning following nationwide protests. Following the election of Yordanka Fandakova as mayor of Sofia, she was released from the post of Minister of Education and she was replaced by Sergei Ignatov, her former Deputy Minister. Anyu Angelov, former Deputy, was promoted to Minister of Defense, on the 18th of March Tomislav Donchev was appointed Minister without portfolio, responsible to administer the relief funds from the European Union. On the 21st of April Anna-Maria Borisova was appointed Minister of Health after the dismissal of Bozhidar Nanev, on September 29 the most recent addition to cabinet, Borisova, resigns, and is succeeded by Stefan Konstantinov. On December 20, Bozhidar Dimitrov tenders his resignation, effective February 4,2011, aleksandar Tsvetkov resigned from his post on May 18 and was succeeded by Ivaylo Moskovski. Having won his partys nomination for the 2011 presidential election three days earlier, Rosen Plevneliev resigns as Minister of Regional Development and Public Works on September 7 and he was replaced by Lilyana Pavlova. Margarita Popova, having nominated for candidate for vice-president for the election. On November 30, Diana Kovacheva was approved by the National Assembly to take up her portfolio, on 21 March the Minister of Economy and Energy, Traycho Traykov, resigned. He was replaced by Delyan Dobrev, Minister of Health Stefan Konstantinov, who was being criticized by his own party for failing to deal with the increase in drug prices, resigns. Konstantinov, defending himself, said that the lack of support from the party was impeding the implementation of reforms that he claims were leading to improved healthcare. Desislava Atanasova was his chosen successor, on February 6, Academician Stefan Vodenicharov was sworn is as the new Minister of Education and Science. On February 20,2013 the Borisov government offered its resignation, parliament accepted the resignation the next morning with 209 MPs voting for and 5 against with 1 abstention. The move came after nationwide protests demanded it step down, the protests started earlier in the year over monopolies in the energy sector, which have resulted in increasing costs to the consumer. Austerity measures, unemployment and corruption were also given by demonstrators for their discontent. On March 13,2013 a provisional government was set up, chaired by Marin Raykov, second Borisov Government History of Bulgaria since 1989
47.
Tsvetan Tsvetanov
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Tsvetan Genchev Tsvetanov is a Bulgarian politician and ministry of interior official. A former security deputy mayor of Sofia, he was, until 2009, on 8 July 2009, in the wake of the 2009 parliamentary election won by his party, he was specified by de facto party leader Boyko Borisov as future Minister of the Interior. Tsvetanov was born in Sofia and graduated from the National Sports Academy, he also has a degree in law from the University of National. From 2001 to 2005, Tsvetanov was operative assistant to Boyko Borisov, Chief Secretary of the Ministry of the Interior, and director of the ministrys management department. He was a Ministry of the Interior official from 1987 to 2005, from GERBs establishment in 2006 to 2009, the party was chaired by Tsvetanov. This was because Borisov was not allowed to head GERB due to being the mayor of Sofia, Borisov remained, however, the partys informal leader and Tsvetanov is perceived as his closest associate. Tzvetanovs image was first tainted in 2011 when media stories appeared of him owning several properties in the capital city. An audit by the Tax Administration revealed he owns 6 apartments, Tzvetan Tzvetanov offered unconvincing explanations of how he acquired six apartments in Sofia after entering politics in 2006, claiming they were bought by his mother-in-law. The tax case was re-opened in June 2013 after new evidence emerged that two of the apartments may have given to him as a present in exchange for a lucrative government contract. In May 2013 Tzvetan Tzvetanov was indicted on two charges of wiretapping members of the GERB government and parliamentary deputies, in a television interview former agriculture minister Miroslav Naydenov confirmed the charges, describing instances when the wiretapping occurred. Tzvetanov has denied the claims by the prosecutor, even though three members of the wiretapping unit at the Interior Ministry have independently confirmed them. A further charge on obstruction of justice was added in July 2013, Tsvetanov was charged with embezzling BGN50000 from the Budget of the Ministry of Interior. The sum was allegedly embezzled to the benefit of another person, Orlin Todorov, Tsvetanov was acquitted on May 26,2014. Tsvetanov is married to Desislava and has three daughters - Gergana, Vasilena and Sophia
