1.
Louis Braille
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Louis Braille was a French educator and inventor of a system of reading and writing for use by the blind or visually impaired. His system remains known worldwide simply as braille, blinded in both eyes as a result of an early childhood accident, Braille mastered his disability while still a boy. He excelled in his education and received scholarship to Frances Royal Institute for Blind Youth, while still a student there, he began developing a system of tactile code that could allow blind people to read and write quickly and efficiently. Inspired by the cryptography of Charles Barbier, Braille constructed a new method built specifically for the needs of the blind. He presented his work to his peers for the first time in 1824, in adulthood, Braille served as a professor at the Institute and had an avocation as a musician, but he largely spent the remainder of his life refining and extending his system. It went unused by most educators for years after his death, but posterity has recognized braille as a revolutionary invention. Louis Braille was born in Coupvray, France, a town about twenty miles east of Paris. He and his three elder siblings – Monique Catherine, Louis-Simon, and Marie Céline – lived with their parents, Simon-René and Monique, Simon-René maintained a successful enterprise as a leatherer and maker of horse tack. As soon as he could walk, Braille spent time playing in his fathers workshop, at the age of three, the child was toying with some of the tools, trying to make holes in a piece of leather with an awl. Squinting closely at the surface, he pressed down hard to drive the point in, a local physician bound and patched the affected eye and even arranged for Braille to be met the next day in Paris by a surgeon, but no treatment could save the damaged organ. Due to his age, Braille did not realize at first that he had lost his sight. His parents made many efforts – quite uncommon for the era – to raise their youngest child in a normal fashion and he learned to navigate the village and country paths with canes his father hewed for him, and he grew up seemingly at peace with his disability. Brailles bright and creative mind impressed the teachers and priests. Braille studied in Coupvray until the age of ten, Braille, the last of the familys children to leave the household, departed for the school in February 1819. At that time the Royal Institute was an underfunded, ramshackle affair, the children were taught how to read by a system devised by the schools founder, Valentin Haüy. Not blind himself, Haüy was a philanthropist who devoted his life to helping the blind and he designed and manufactured a small library of books for the children using a technique of embossing heavy paper with the raised imprints of Latin letters. Readers would trace their fingers over the text, comprehending slowly, Braille was helped by the Haüy books, but he also despaired over their lack of depth, the amount of information kept in such books was necessarily small. Because the raised letters were made in a complex artisanal process using wet paper pressed against copper wire, so that the young Louis could send letters back home, Simon-René provided him with an alphabet made from bits of thick leather
2.
Alphabet
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An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets
3.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
4.
Night writing
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It was designed in 1808 by Charles Barbier in response to Napoleons demand for a code that soldiers could use to communicate silently and without light at night. Called sonography, each grid of dots stands for a character or phoneme, barbiers system was related to the Polybius square, in which a two-digit code represents a character. g. 4–2 for t represented by As many as twelve dots would be needed to represent one symbol, barbiers system was found to be too difficult for soldiers to learn and was rejected by the military. In 1821, Barbier visited the National Institute for the Blind in Paris, France, Braille identified the major failing of the code, which was that the human finger could not encompass the whole symbol without moving and so could not move rapidly from one symbol to another. His modification was to use a 6-dot cell, the Braille system that revolutionized written communication for the visually impaired
5.
1829 braille
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Louis Brailles original publication, Procedure for Writing Words, Music, and Plainsong in Dots, credits Barbiers night writing as being the basis for the braille script. It differed in a way from modern braille, It contained nine decades of characters rather than the modern five. Braille recognized, however, that the dashes were problematic, being difficult to distinguish from the dots in practice, and those characters were abandoned in the second edition of the book. The first four decades indicated the 40 letters of the alphabet, the fifth the digits, the sixth punctuation, the seventh decade was also used for musical notes. Most of the characters were unassigned. As in modern braille, most of the decades were derived from the first. Decade 5 was not derived from the first, like the first decade, only the top half of the cell was used. The digit 1 was a dash in the top row,2 was dashes in the top and mid rows. 3–5 were a top dash with a left, double, and right dot in the middle, 6–8 were a mid dash with a left, double, and right dot at top. 9 and 0 were a and b shifted to the right and that is, it resembled the 3rd decade with the two bottom dots connected into a line. Decade 7 was formed with a dash in the top row of the cell and that is, it was much like the modern fifth decade with an overstruck dash at the top. Decade 8 was formed by splitting the first decade with a dash and that is, a dash appeared in the middle row, displacing the dots of that row to the bottom of the cell. In the case of first and 3rd characters, which did not have dots in the middle row and that is, this decade was equivalent to adding an overstrike to ⠄⠅⠤⠩⠡⠍⠭⠥⠌⠬. Decade 9 was derived from the fifth by adding a dash in the bottom row and these were left unassigned apart from the first three, which were used when needed as markers of words, music, and plainsong, respectively. Thus the 1st and 5th decades occupied only the top half of the cell, the supplemental signs were ⠄⠤⠜⠼ and a top dash with ⠠⠰. Of the 125 possible patterns,97 were used, the modern 5th decade and other supplemental signs do not appear in the 1829 version of braille, apart from ⠐ and ⠒ in plainsong notation. Punctuation differed slightly from today, even accounting for the shift downward when the dash was dropped from the row of the cell. Anticipating that the dashes might prove problematic, Braille provided that the supplemental sign ⠼ would shift the decade by four and that is, adding it to the first four decades would produce substitutes for the fifth through eighth
6.
French Braille
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French Braille is the original braille alphabet, and the basis of all others. The alphabetic order of French has become the basis of the international braille convention, punctuation is as follows, The lower values are readings within numbers. Formatting and mode-changing marks are, As in English Braille, the sign is doubled for all caps. ⟨⠢⟩ and ⟨⠔⟩ are used to begin. This is the internationally recognized number system, however, in French Braille a new system, the Antoine braille digits, is used for mathematics and is recommended for all academic publications. This uses ⠠ combined with the first nine letters of the decade, from ⠠⠡ for ⟨1⟩ to ⠠⠪ for ⟨9⟩. The period/decimal and fraction bar also change, the Antoine numbers are being promoted in France and Luxembourg, but are not much used in with French Braille in Quebec. See the punctuation section above for Antoine mathematical notation, readings have changed slightly since modern braille was first published in 1837. The greatest change has been various secondary readings which were added to the alphabet, in general, only the assignments of the basic 26 letters of the French alphabet are retained in other braille alphabets. For example, among the additional letters, in German Braille only ü and ö coincide with French Braille, however, there are several alphabets which are much more closely related. Flemish Dutch uses the French Braille alphabet, in contrast to the German-derived Netherlands Dutch Braille, Italian Braille is identical to the French apart from doubling up French Braille ò to Italian ó and ò, since French has no ó. Indeed, a difference of these alphabets is the remapping of French vowels with a grave accent to an acute accent. Spanish changes all five of these vowels, as well as taking ü, the continental Scandinavian languages took the extended French letters â, ä/æ, and ö/ø. Vietnamese Braille is also similar, though it has added tone letters, and according uses French ⠵ z for d. Catalan Braille adds ⠇⠐⠇ for print ⟨l·l⟩, and Spanish Braille uses ⠻ for the non-French consonant ñ, luxembourgish Braille has since switch to eight-point braille, adding a dot at point 8 for the three vowels with accents. Punctuation and formatting are in general similar as well, though changes in French punctuation over time means that languages use older French conventions. For example, French parentheses and quotation marks originally had the values they do today. Other changes have accrued over time, and in some cases vary from country to country
7.
English Braille
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English Braille, also known as Grade-2 Braille, is the braille alphabet used for English. It consists of 250 or so letters, numerals, punctuation marks, formatting marks, contractions, some English Braille letters, such as ⠡ ⟨ch⟩, correspond to more than one letter in print. There are three levels of complexity in English Braille, Grade 1 is a one-to-one transcription of printed English, and is restricted to basic literacy. Grade 2, which is universal in print beyond basic literacy materials, abandons one-to-one transcription in many places. Grade 3 is not a system, but any of various personal shorthands. It is almost never found in publications, most of this article describes the 1994 American edition of Grade-2 Braille, which is largely equivalent to British Grade-2 Braille. Some of the differences with Unified English Braille, which was adopted by various countries between 2005 and 2012, are discussed at the end. Braille was originally intended, and is portrayed, as a re-encoding of the English orthography that is used by sighted people. However, for the blind, braille is an independent writing system, Braille was introduced to Britain in 1861. In 1876, a French-based system with a few hundred English contractions and abbreviations was adopted as the predominant script in Great Britain, however, the contractions and abbreviations proved unsatisfactory, and in 1902 the current grade-2 system, called Revised Braille, was adopted in the British Commonwealth. In 1878, the ideal of basing all braille alphabets of the world on the original French alphabetic order was accepted by Britain, Germany, and Egypt. A partially contracted English Braille, Grade 1½, was adopted in Britain in 1918, in 1991, an American proposal was made for Unified English Braille, intended to eliminate the confusion caused by competing standards for academic uses of English Braille. After several design revisions, it has since adopted by the Commonwealth countries starting in 2005. The chief differences with Revised Braille are in punctuation, symbols, and formatting, more accurately reflecting print conventions in matters such as brackets, mathematical notation, the 64 braille patterns are arranged into decades based on the numerical order of those patterns. In addition, for each there are two additional mirror-image patterns, and finally there are three patterns that utilize only the bottom row of the cell. The final pattern, the empty cell ⟨⠀⟩, is used as a space, cells 1 through 25 plus 40 are assigned to the 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet. The other 37 cells, when they are used at all, are used for punctuation and are typically assigned different values in different languages. The English grade-two values are as follows, cells with dots on only the right side do not have equivalents in printed English, and are explained in the notes
8.
Bharati Braille
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Bharati braille /ˈbɑːrətiː/ BAR-ə-tee, or Bharatiya Braille, is a largely unified braille script for writing the languages of India. When India gained independence, eleven braille scripts were in use, in different parts of the country, by 1951 a single national standard had been settled on, Bharati braille, which has since been adopted by Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bangladesh. There are slight differences in the orthographies for Nepali in India and Nepal, there are significant differences in Bengali Braille between India and Bangladesh, with several letters differing. Sinhalese Braille largely conforms to other Bharati, but differs significantly toward the end of the alphabet, Bharati braille alphabets use a 6-dot cell with values based largely on English Braille. Although basically alphabetic, Bharati braille retains one aspect of Indian abugidas and this has been called a linearized alphasyllabary. For example, and taking Devanagari as a representative printed script, the braille letter ⠅ renders print क ka, to indicate that a consonant occurs without a following vowel, a virama prefix is used, ⠈⠅ is क k, and ⠈⠹ is थ th. However, unlike in print, there are no diacritics in Bharati braille, vowels are written as full letters following the consonant. Thus print क्लिक klika is written in braille as ⠈⠅⠇⠊⠅, the one time a non-initial short a is written in braille is when it is followed by another vowel. In this environment the a must be written, because otherwise the subsequent vowel will be read as following the consonant immediately, thus print ⟨कइ⟩ kai is rendered in braille as ⠅⠁⠊, to disambiguate it from ⠅⠊ for कि ki. Apart from the kṣ and jñ, Bharati braille does not handle conjuncts, consonant clusters written as conjuncts in print are handled with the virama in braille, just as they are with computer fonts that lack the conjuncts. Bharati braille is thus equivalent to Grade-1 English braille, though there are plans to all the Bharati alphabets to include conjuncts. Following are the charts of the correspondences of the main Indian scripts. Irregularities, where a letter does not match the romanized heading, are placed in parentheses, in Hindi, halanta is not used with the last letter when a word ends in a consonant. Some of the punctuation marks duplicate letters, the caps mark is only used when transcribing English. The accent, ⠈, transcribes Urdu ّ shaddah, and the colon, in Bangladesh and Nepal, several additional punctuation marks are noted, but they do not agree with each other. It is not clear which are used in India, the pointing symbol, ⠐, is used for consonant letters that in print are derived by adding a dot to another consonant. For Urdu, the letter in Devanagari is used, the pointing of the Arabic/Persian script is not reflected. For example, Gurmukhi ਗ਼ / Urdu غ / Devanagari ग़ ġa, formed by adding a dot to g in Gurmukhi, with Urdu, this is only done in India
9.
Japanese Braille
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Japanese Braille is the braille script of the Japanese language. It is based on the original script, though the connection is tenuous. In Japanese it is known as tenji, literally dot characters and it transcribes Japanese more or less as it would be written in the hiragana or katakana syllabaries, without any provision for writing kanji. Japanese Braille is a vowel-based abugida and that is, the glyphs are syllabic, but unlike kana they contain separate symbols for consonant and vowel, and the vowel takes primacy. The vowels are written in the left corner and may be used alone. The consonants are written in the right corner and cannot occur alone. However, the y is indicated by point 4, one of the vowel points. When this point is written in isolation, it indicates that the syllable has a medial y. Syllables beginning with w are indicated by dropping the points to the bottom of the cell without additional consonant points. The chart below shows each braille character under the corresponding hiragana, in order to illustrate the derivation of each character from its component vowel and consonant, the vowel points are written in black, and the consonant points in green. There is no distinction in braille as it is actually used. The vowels are assigned the braille patterns that occupy the upper-left half of the cell in numerical order, the consonantal diacritics, on the other hand, have no apparent connection to international values or numerical order, corresponding as they do to international punctuation and formatting marks. In kana, a small tsu, called sokuon, is used to indicate that the consonant is geminate. In katakana only, a vowel is indicated with a horizontal stroke called a chōon. Similarly, p is derived from h by adding a small circle, two kana are fused into a single syllable by writing the second small, as in きゃ kya from ki + ya, this is called yōon. In Japanese Braille, the signs for these are prefixes and that is, the order is dakuten + ki for ぎ gi. When more than one occurs in a syllable, they are combined in a single prefix block. The yōon prefix uses the point that represents y in the blocks ya, yu, when placed before ka, ku, ko, it produces kya, kyu, kyo
10.
Korean Braille
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Korean Braille is the braille alphabet of the Korean language. It is not graphically-related to other braille scripts found around the world, instead, it reflects the patterns found in hangul, and differentiates initial consonants, vowels, and final consonants. It features characters for grammatical devices and punctuation, numerals are similar to those of other braille systems. Consonants have different syllable-initial and -final variants, capturing some of the feel of hangul, the initial and final variants have the same shapes, but are shifted across the braille block. There are two patterns, The consonants that span the width of the block are shifted one space downward when final and those that dont span the width of the block are on the right side of the block when initial, but on the left side when final. No consonant occupies more than two rows, *There is no initial version of ng. Initial ieung in hangul is not written in Korean Braille, however, the expected form is reserved and may not serve other uses, such as punctuation. The heavy consonants are written by prefixing an s, an old hangul convention, in initial position, they are, ⠠⠠ ㅆ ss ⠠⠈ ㄲ kk ⠠⠊ ㄸ tt ⠠⠘ ㅃ pp ⠠⠨ ㅉ jj All vowels span the width and height of the block. Because the consonants are specifically syllable-initial or syllable-final, a syllable that begins with a vowel causes no confusion when written without ieung. The simpler vowels reflect the symmetries of hangul, the yin–yang pairs a, eo and o, u are related through inversion and this creates a different pattern of symmetry than in hangul. The graphically-similar hangul letters i and eu are also related by reflection, the w in wa, wo is indicated by making the left side of the block solid, while the i in ui, oe is shown by making the right side solid. However, the e, ae and their yotized variants show no such patterns. Four diphthongs are represented with two blocks, by adding ⠗ to the appropriate vowel for the final element -i. Korean Braille contains several single cell syllable defined, many are the braille cell for an initial consonant, with an assumed vowel a added. Some make use of unused cell definitions, while others utilize multi-cell abbreviations, as in most braille scripts, ⠼ is prefixed to digits, which are the same as in English Braille. ⠴ is prefixed to the 26 basic roman letters in the same way. The first tactile encoding of hangul was developed by Rosetta Sherwood Hall in 1894 and it used a cell 4 dots wide by 2 dots high, like New York Point. 6-dot braille was adapted to Korean by Park Du-seong in 1926, there have since been a number of revisions. The current form was announced in 1994, Korean Braille library, chart is here
11.
New York Point
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New York Point is a braille-like system of tactile writing for the blind invented by William Bell Wait, a teacher in the New York Institute for the Education of the Blind. The system used one to four pairs of points set side by side, the most common letters are written with the fewest points, a strategy also employed by the competing American Braille. Capital letters were cumbersome in New York Point, each being four dots wide, likewise, the four-dot-wide hyphen and apostrophe were generally omitted. When capitals, hyphens, or apostrophes were used, they sometimes caused legibility problems, according to Helen Keller, this caused literacy problems among blind children, and was one of the chief arguments against New York Point and in favor of one of the braille alphabets. New York Point competed with the American Braille alphabet, which consisted of fixed cells two points wide and three high. Wait advocated the New York System as more logical than either the American Braille or the English Braille alphabets, and the three scripts competed in what was known as the War of the Dots. Wait also invented the Kleidograph, a typewriter with twelve keys for embossing New York Point on paper, New York Point is not supported by Unicode, as of version 6.3. In the charts below, the first row of NYP are graphic images, older browsers may not support the latter. Like braille, there are contractions, single letters in NYP that correspond to sequences of letter in print, like in braille, there is a number sign that converts letters to digits. The dash, hyphen, and apostrophe are four dots wide, notes are made by combining two primitives, which are the digits 1–7, ⟨⟩ is thus a whole C note, ⟨⟩ a quarter D note, etc. In chords, the length is given for the first note mentioned. These may be prefixed by ⟨⟩ ♯, ⟨⟩ ♭, or ⟨⟩ ♮ and these may be doubled, as in print. The note is preceded by its octave, which is written as the number plus an upper dot, ⟨⟩ 5th 8va, ⟨⟩ 2nd 8va, rests are two lower dots plus the length, ⟨⟩ a whole rest, ⟨⟩ a half rest, etc. Chords are written as intervals, which is the number plus a lower dot, ⟨⟩ is a third, the sign ⟨⟩ signals a change in octave. Thus a chord of three notes spanning the 4th to 5th octaves is 4th-8va C-whole 5th-invl with 5th-8va E See Waits publications for additional conventions, blindness education Korean Braille#History – A script like New York Point was used for Korean before 6-dot braille was introduced. Kleidograph,1894 - The Martin Howard Collection, a Look Back, published in JVIB, March 2006, documents the War of the Dots
12.
Universal Character Set characters
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The Unicode Consortium and the International Organisation for Standardisation collaborate on the Universal Character Set. The UCS is a standard to map characters used in natural language, mathematics, music. By creating this mapping, the UCS enables computer software vendors to interoperate, because it is a universal map, it can be used to represent multiple languages at the same time. UCS has a capacity to encode over 1 million characters. Each UCS character is represented by a code point, which is an integer between 0 and 1,114,111, used to represent each character within the internal logic of text processing software. The number of encoded characters is made up as follows,128,019 graphical characters 218 special purpose characters for control, ISO maintains the basic mapping of characters from character name to code point. Often the terms character and code point will get used interchangeably, however, when a distinction is made, a code point refers to the integer of the character, what one might think of as its address. Input methods can be through keyboard or a character palette. The UCS can be divided in various ways, such as by plane, block, character category, the x must be lowercase in XML documents. The nnnn or hhhh may be any number of digits and may include leading zeros, the hhhh may mix uppercase and lowercase, though uppercase is the usual style. In contrast, an entity reference refers to a character by the name of an entity which has the desired character as its replacement text. The entity must either be predefined or explicitly declared in a Document Type Definition, the format is the same as for any entity reference, &name, where name is the case-sensitive name of the entity. Unicode and ISO divide the set of points into 17 planes. As of 2016 ISO and the Unicode Consortium has only allocated characters, the others remain empty and reserved for future use. Most characters are assigned to the first plane, the Basic Multilingual Plane. This is to ease the transition for legacy software since the Basic Multilingual Plane is addressable with just two octets. The characters outside the first plane usually have very specialized or rare use. Each plane corresponds with the value of the one or two hexadecimal digits preceding the four ones, hence U+24321 is in Plane 2, U+4321 is in Plane 0
13.
Braille Patterns
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In Unicode, braille is represented in a block called Braille Patterns. The block contains all 256 possible patterns of an 8-dot braille cell, in Unicode the braille characters are not defined into any script. That is, the patterns are available as symbols, without connection to a letter or a number. This is because the symbol can be used in multiple scripts, e. g. as a Latin character, a Vietnamese character, a Chinese character. For this reason – a dot-pattern is not a letter – Unicode declares that, strictly speaking, braille patterns are symbols, the General Property is So, not Lo. Beyond that declaration, however, braille is treated as a script in multiple places, E. g. the character property Script for the 256 braille code points is ISO15924 Brai, for braille. This way, searching users and programs are led to the right place, the coding is in accordance with ISO/TR 11548-1 Communication aids for blind persons. Unicode uses the standard dot-numbering 1 to 8, historically only the 6-dot cell was used in braille. The lower two dots were added later, which explains the irregular numbering 1-2-3-7 in the left column, where dots 7 and 8 are not raised, there is no distinction between 6-dot and 8-dot definitions. The Unicode name of a specific pattern mentions the raised dots, by exception, the zero dot raised pattern is named U+2800 ⠀ BRAILLE PATTERN BLANK. In the 8-dot cell each dot individually can be raised or not, by mapping each of the eight dots to a bit in a byte, and by defining 0/1 for not raised/raised per bit, every specific pattern generates an identifying binary number. So the pattern with dots 1-2-5 raised would yield 2, equivalent to 16 or 10, the mapping can also be computed by adding together the hexadecimal values, seen at right, of the dots raised. So the pattern with dots 1-2-5 raised would yield 116+216+1016 =1316, whether computed directly in hexadecimal, or indirectly via binary, the result is added to 280016, the offset for the Braille Patterns Unicode block. There is no regular mapping to the braille ASCII numbering, the Unicode names of braille dot patterns are not the same as what many English speakers would use colloquially. Some English users of braille additionally use the word and when listing only two dots, thus braille pattern dots-45 would be spoken as braille dots 4 and 5. The word and is not always used when listing many dots however, Braille was added to the Unicode Standard in September,1999 with the release of version 3.0. When using punching, the dots are to be punched. The Unicode block for braille is U+2800, the current Unicode charts, and some fonts, use empty circles to indicate dots that are not punched
14.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
15.
Refreshable braille display
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A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. Blind computer users who use a computer monitor can use it to read text output. Speech synthesizers are also used for the same task. Deafblind computer users may also use refreshable braille displays, the base of a refreshable braille display often integrates a pure braille keyboard. Other variants exist that use a conventional QWERTY keyboard for input and braille pins for output, on some models the position of the cursor is represented by vibrating the dots, and some models have a switch associated with each cell to move the cursor to that cell directly. The mechanism which raises the dots uses the effect of some crystals. Such a crystal is connected to a lever, which in turn raises the dot, there has to be a crystal for each dot of the display, i. e. eight per character. Because of the complexity of producing a reliable display that will cope with daily wear and tear, usually, only 40 or 80 braille cells are displayed. Models with between 18 and 40 cells exist in some notetaker devices, the software that controls the display is called a screen reader. It gathers the content of the screen from the system, converts it into braille characters. Screen readers for graphical operating systems are complex, because graphical elements like windows or slidebars have to be interpreted and described in text form. A rotating-wheel Braille display was developed in 2000 by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, both wheels are still in the process of commercialization. In these units, braille dots are put on the edge of a spinning wheel, the braille dots are set in a simple scanning-style fashion as the dots on the wheel spin past a stationary actuator that sets the braille characters. As a result, manufacturing complexity is reduced and rotating-wheel braille displays. Designs for a full braille computer monitor have been patented but not yet produced, a full page braille display with 1,000 cells was developed in 2015 by the Tactisplay Corp. With total 12,000 pixels configured in 120*100, it can show any BANA compatible braille graphic page in 8 seconds and this video shows operation of the device. Tactile is a real-time text-to-braille translation device currently under development at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, GNOME accessibility NIST, Converting Digital Information to Braille at the Wayback Machine Information on Bi-directional Refreshable Tactile Display US Patent 6,692,255
16.
Slate and stylus
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The slate and stylus are tools used by blind persons to write text that they can read without assistance. Prior methods of making raised printing for the blind required a movable type printing press, the basic design of the slate consists of two pieces of metal, plastic or wood fastened together with a hinge at one side. The back part of the slate is solid with slight depressions spaced in braille cells of six dots each, the depressions are approximately.75 mm deep and about 1.5 mm in diameter. The horizontal and vertical spacing between dots within a cell is approximately 2.5 mm, while the distance between adjacent cells is about 4 mm, the front of the slate consists of rectangular windows that fit over the braille cells in the back. The inner rim of each window is provided with six indentations, there are pins or posts in the back of the slate positioned in non-cell areas to hold the paper in place and keep the top properly positioned over the back. The pins align with matching depressions on the side of the slate. A slate as designed for a normal 8.5 inch piece of paper has 28 cells in each row, the rows can be any number, usually at least four. The stylus is a short blunted awl with a handle to fit comfortably the hand of the user, Writing is accomplished by placing a piece of heavy paper in the slate, aligning it correctly and closing the slate. The pins in the back of the puncture or pinch the paper securely between the two halves of the slate. The person writing begins in the right, each combination of dots in the cell has to be completed backward. The awl is positioned and pressed to form a depression in the paper, the writer moves to one of the other dots in the cell or to the next cell as appropriate. The slate is repositioned as needed to continue writing on the paper, when completed the writer removes the slate and turns the paper over to read the braille by feeling the dots that were pushed up from the back. Prior to the system devised by Louis Braille, a number of methods for blind people to read and/or write on paper were used. One of the most popular was the English system of Dr. William Moon invented in 1845. Braille with its slate and stylus was unique in that it was the first and, until computers with screen readers, in June 1784, Haüy sought his first pupil at the church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés. On 5 December 1786, Haüys pupils had embossed from movable letterpress type his Essai sur léducation des aveugles the first book published for the blind. Prior to 1786 tools for the blind to read or write were the results of personal approaches to solutions. One of the more notable approach was that of Nicholas Saunderson blind nearly from birth, Braille evolved from the night writing of Charles Barbier
17.
Braille
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Braille /ˈbreɪl/ is a tactile writing system used by people who are blind or visually impaired. It is traditionally written with embossed paper, braille-users can read computer screens and other electronic supports thanks to refreshable braille displays. They can write braille with the slate and stylus or type it on a braille writer, such as a portable braille note-taker. Braille is named after its creator, Frenchman Louis Braille, who lost his eyesight due to a childhood accident, in 1824, at the age of 15, Braille developed his code for the French alphabet as an improvement on night writing. He published his system, which included musical notation, in 1829. The second revision, published in 1837, was the first binary form of writing developed in the modern era, Braille characters are small rectangular blocks called cells that contain tiny palpable bumps called raised dots. The number and arrangement of these dots distinguish one character from another, since the various braille alphabets originated as transcription codes of printed writing systems, the mappings vary from language to language. Braille cells are not the thing to appear in braille text. There may be embossed illustrations and graphs, with the lines either solid or made of series of dots, arrows, bullets that are larger than braille dots, a full Braille cell includes six raised dots arranged in two lateral rows each having three dots. The dot positions are identified by numbers from one through six,64 solutions are possible from using one or more dots. A single cell can be used to represent a letter, number, punctuation mark. In the face of screen-reader software, braille usage has declined, in Barbiers system, sets of 12 embossed dots encoded 36 different sounds. It proved to be too difficult for soldiers to recognize by touch, in 1821 Barbier visited the Royal Institute for the Blind in Paris, where he met Louis Braille. Brailles solution was to use 6-dot cells and to assign a specific pattern to each letter of the alphabet. At first, braille was a transliteration of French orthography, but soon various abbreviations, contractions. The expanded English system, called Grade-2 Braille, was complete by 1905, for blind readers, Braille is an independent writing system, rather than a code of printed orthography. Braille is derived from the Latin alphabet, albeit indirectly, in Brailles original system, the dot patterns were assigned to letters according to their position within the alphabetic order of the French alphabet, with accented letters and w sorted at the end. The first ten letters of the alphabet, a–j, use the upper four dot positions and these stand for the ten digits 1–9 and 0 in a system parallel to Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy
18.
Perkins Brailler
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The Perkins Brailler is a braille typewriter with a key corresponding to each of the six dots of the braille code, a space key, a backspace key, and a line space key. Like a manual typewriter, it has two knobs to advance paper through the machine and a carriage return lever above the keys. The rollers that hold and advance the paper have grooves designed to avoid crushing the raised dots the brailler creates. Although braille notation was designed for people who are blind or visually impaired to read, prior to the introduction of the Perkins Brailler, writing braille was a cumbersome process. Braille writers created braille characters with a stylus and slate or by using one of the complex, expensive, the original Perkins Brailler was produced in 1951 by David Abraham, a woodworking teacher at the Perkins School for the Blind. The director of the Perkins School for the Blind, Gabriel Farrell, asked Abraham to create an inexpensive, Farrell and Abraham worked with Edward Waterhouse, who was a math teacher at Perkins, to create the design for the Brailler. In 2008, a lighter and quieter version was developed and launched and it also includes an erase key and an integrated carrying handle. The new model won the Silver Award in the 2009 International Design Excellence Awards, a system of six cams consisting of rods with a square cross-section transfers keystrokes to the wire-like styli contained in the carriage. Tolerances are close, and the buildup of dirt with normal use necessitates periodic cleaning. With the advent of computers, many users create braille output using a computer, visually impaired users can read the computer screen by using screen reader computer software and/or braille displays. Notetakers include PDA features such as a book and calculator. Because of the moving parts and the accessibility of the refreshable braille displays to the environment. They are easily damaged and must be returned to their country of origin for periodic cleaning
19.
Musical notation
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Types and methods of notation have varied between cultures and throughout history, and much information about ancient music notation is fragmentary. Although many ancient cultures used symbols to represent melodies and rhythms, none of them were particularly comprehensive, the seeds of what would eventually become modern western notation were sown in medieval Europe, starting with the Catholic churchs goal for ecclesiastical uniformity. The church began notating plainchant melodies so that the same chants could be used throughout the church, Music notation developed in the Renaissance and Baroque music eras. The introduction of figured bass notation in the Baroque era marked the beginning of the first compositions based around chord progressions, in the classical period and the Romantic music era, notation continued to develop as new musical instrument technologies were developed. Music notation has been adapted to many kinds of music, including music, popular music. The earliest form of notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, in Sumer. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, a tablet from about 1250 BC shows a more developed form of notation. Although the interpretation of the system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre. Although they are fragmentary, these represent the earliest notated melodies found anywhere in the world. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables, an example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript, the Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BC, also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved. Ancient Greek notation appears to have out of use around the time of the Decline of the Roman Empire. Byzantine music has survived as music for court ceremonies, including vocal religious music. It is not known if it is based on the monodic modal singing, unlike Western notation Byzantine neumes always indicate modal steps in relation to a clef or modal key. These step symbols themselves, or better phonic neumes, resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called gántzoi in Modern Greek, Notes as pitch classes or modal keys are represented in written form only between these neumes. In modern notation they simply serve as a reminder and modal and tempo directions have been added. In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a change into another echos. With exception of vú and zō they do correspond to Western solmization syllables as re, mi, fa, sol, la, si
20.
Binary number
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
21.
Learning to read
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Learning to read is the process of acquiring the skills necessary for reading, that is, the ability to acquire meaning from print. Learning to read is paradoxical in some ways, Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that one must usually understand something of the associated spoken language to comprehend the text. Once established, writing systems on the change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. The great benefit of writing systems is their ability to maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act of formulation. A childs ability to learn to read, known as reading readiness, begins in infancy, as the child begins attending to the signals in their environment. Taking time to read to children is the most important precursor to a development of reading. Preschool-aged children with limited exposure to books and reading in their home, the environment in which a child lives may also impact their ability to acquire reading skills. Thus, the process of what is called emergent or early literacy begins in the relationship between hearing spoken language, seeing written language and feeling loved. However, reading to children and ensuring exposure to books is not enough to prepare them for reading. Another critical skill is the ability to name letters or characters, learning to read at an earlier age does not ultimately result in better reading skills. Elkind emphasized the principle that education must start with the child. The PISA2007 OECD data from 54 countries demonstrates no association between school entry age, and reading achievement at age 15. There are five stages of reading development and they are the emerging pre-reader, novice reader, decoding reader, fluent comprehending reader, and the expert reader. It is normal that children will move through different stages at different rates. The emerging pre-reader stage, also known as reading readiness, happens when a child sits. Emerging reading takes many years of experience, along with the increase of both conceptual and social development. Showing that this process early in a childs life is the fact that children typically produce their first few words before their first birthday. This emerging pre-reader stage usually lasts for the first five years of a childs life, during the emerging pre-reader stage children will often read books and stories
22.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
23.
Code
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An early example is the invention of language which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what he or she saw, heard, felt, or thought to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry, decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient of that understands time. One reason for coding is to communication in places where ordinary plain language. For example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. An extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings. Before giving a precise definition, this is a brief example. The mapping C = is a code, whose alphabet is the set. Using the extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001011 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01 011, and these in turn can be decoded to the sequence of source symbols acabc. Using terms from formal language theory, the mathematical definition of this concept is as follows. In this section, we consider codes which encode each character by a code word from some dictionary. Variable-length codes are useful when clear text characters have different probabilities. A prefix code is a code with the property, there is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix of any other valid code word in the set. Huffman coding is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes, prefix codes are widely referred to as Huffman codes even when the code was not produced by a Huffman algorithm. Other examples of prefix codes are country calling codes, the country and publisher parts of ISBNs, Krafts inequality characterizes the sets of codeword lengths that are possible in a prefix code. Virtually any uniquely decodable code, not necessary a prefix one. Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage, such a code is called an error-correcting code, and works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored data. Examples include Hamming codes, Reed–Solomon, Reed–Muller, Walsh–Hadamard, Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem, Turbo, Golay, Goppa, low-density parity-check codes, error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors, or random errors. A cable code replaces words with words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer characters, more quickly
24.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
25.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
26.
Logogram
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In written language, a logogram or logograph is a written character that represents a word or phrase. Chinese characters and Japanese kanji are logograms, some Egyptian hieroglyphs, the use of logograms in writing is called logography. A writing system that is based on logograms is called a logographic system, in alphabets and syllabaries, individual written characters represent sounds rather than concepts. Unlike logograms, phonograms do not necessarily have meaning by themselves, Writing language in this way is called phonemic orthography. Logographic systems include the earliest writing systems, the first historical civilizations of the Near East, Africa, China, a more recent attempt is Zlango, intended for use in text messaging, currently including around 300 icons. The term logosyllabary is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the domain is the syllable. For example, Egyptian was used to write both sȝ duck and sȝ son, though it is likely that these words were not pronounced the same apart from their consonants and this can be illustrated with Chinese. Not all Chinese characters represent morphemes, some morphemes are composed of more than one character, for example, the Chinese word for spider, 蜘蛛 zhīzhū, was created by fusing the rebus 知朱 zhīzhū with the bug determinative 虫. Neither *蜘 zhī nor *蛛 zhū can be used separately, in Archaic Chinese, one can find the reverse, a single character representing more than one morpheme. An example is Archaic Chinese 王 hjwangs, a combination of a morpheme hjwang meaning king, in modern Mandarin, bimorphemic syllables are always written with two characters, for example 花儿 huār flower. These logograms, called hozwārishn, were dispensed with altogether after the Arab conquest of Persia, logograms are used in modern shorthand to represent common words. In addition, the numerals and mathematical symbols used in systems are logograms—1 one,2 two, + plus, = equals, and so on. In English, the ampersand & is used for and and et, % for percent, # for number, § for section, $ for dollar, € for euro, £ for pound, ° for degree, @ for at, etc. All historical logographic systems include a dimension, as it is impractical to have a separate basic character for every word or morpheme in a language. In some cases, such as cuneiform as it was used for Akkadian, many logographic systems also have a semantic/ideographic component, called determinatives in the case of Egyptian and radicals in the case of Chinese. In the case of Chinese, the vast majority of characters are a combination of a radical that indicates its nominal category. The Mayan system used logograms with phonetic complements like the Egyptian, Chinese scholars have traditionally classified the Chinese characters hanzi into six types by etymology. The first two types are single-body, meaning that the character was created independently of other characters, single-body pictograms and ideograms make up only a small proportion of Chinese logograms
27.
Diacritic
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A diacritic – also diacritical mark, diacritical point, or diacritical sign – is a glyph added to a letter, or basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek διακριτικός, from διακρίνω, diacritic is primarily an adjective, though sometimes used as a noun, whereas diacritical is only ever an adjective. Some diacritical marks, such as the acute and grave, are often called accents, diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters. The main use of marks in the Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. In other Latin alphabets, they may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French là versus la that are both pronounced /la/, in Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question. In other alphabetic systems, diacritical marks may perform other functions, vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat and the Hebrew niqqud systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama and the Arabic sukūn mark the absence of a vowel, in the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Chinese, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur. In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new and this varies from language to language, and may vary from case to case within a language. ◌ː – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels, not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, the tittle on the letter i of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish i from the minims of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii, then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, the j, originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling todays acute accent to a flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today, tanwīn symbols, Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, waṣla, Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word. Indicates a type of hamza that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk, ḥarakāt, fatḥa kasra ḍamma sukūn The ḥarakāt or vowel points serve two purposes, They serve as a phonetic guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels or their absence, at the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood. For nouns, The ḍamma is for the nominative, fatḥa for the accusative, for verbs, the ḍamma is for the imperfective, fatḥa for the perfective, and the sukūn is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods
28.
Isopsephy
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Isopsephy is the Greek word for the practice of adding up the number values of the letters in a word to form a single number. Isopsephism, the occurrence of isopsephy, is used as a synonym. The early Greeks used pebbles arranged in patterns to learn arithmetic, isopsephy is related to gematria, the same practice using the Hebrew alphabet, and the ancient number systems of many other peoples. A gematria of Latin-script languages was also popular in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance and its remains in numerology. For instance in Ancient Greece, Greek numerals used the alphabet and it is just a short step from using letters of the alphabet in everyday arithmetic and mathematics to seeing numbers in words, and to writing with an awareness of the numerical dimension of words. An early reference to isopsephy, albeit of more-than-usual sophistication, is from the mathematician Apollonius of Perga and he asks, Given the verse, ΑΡΤΕΜΙΔΟΣ ΚΛΕΙΤΕ ΚΡΑΤΟΣ ΕΞΟΧΟΝ ΕΝΝΕΑ ΚΟΥΡΑΙ, what does the product of all its elements equal. More conventional are the instances of found in graffiti at Pompeii. One reads Φιλω ης αριθμος ϕμε, I love her whose number is 545, another says, Amerimnus thought upon his lady Harmonia for good. The number of her name is 45. Suetonius, writing in 121 AD, reports a political slogan that someone wrote on a wall in Rome, Nero, Orestes, Nero his mother slew which appears to be another example. In Greek, Νερων, Nero, has the numerical value 50+5+100+800+50=1005, also in the 1st century AD, Leonidas of Alexandria created isopsephs, epigrams with equinumeral distichs, where the first hexameter and pentameter equal the next two verses in numerical value. He addressed some of them to Nero, Θυει σοι τοδε γραμμα γενεθλιακαισιν εν ὡραις, Καισαρ, Καλλιοπης γαρ ακαπνον αει θυος· εις δε νεωτα Ην εθελῃς, θυσει τουδε περισσοτερα. Here the sum of both the first and second distich is 5699, in another of his distichs the hexameter line is equal in number to its corresponding pentameter, Εἱς προς ἑνα ψηφοισιν ισαζεται, ου δυο δοιοις, Ου γαρ ετι στεργω την δολιχογραφιην. One line is equal in number to one, not two to two, for I no longer approve of long epigrams. A headstone found at the Temple of Artemis at Sparta Orthia is a 2nd-century AD example of elegiac verse. It says, ΟΡΘΕΙΗ ΔΩΡΟΝ ΛΕΟΝΤΕΥΣ ΑΝΕΘΗΚΕ ΒΟΑΓΟΣ ΒΨΛ ΜΩΑΝ ΝΙΚΗΣΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΤΑΔΕ ΕΠΑΘΛΑ ΛΑΒΩΝ ΒΨΛ ΚΑΙ Μ ΕΣΤΕΨΕ ΠΑΤΗΡ ΕΙΣΑΡΙΘΜΟΙΣ ΕΠΕΣΙ ΒΨΛ It is the votive stele for a boy who won a competition in singing. The words in each line add up to ΄ΒΨΛ, that is 2730, in Greek, each unit was assigned a separate letter, each tens a separate letter, and each hundreds a separate letter. This requires 27 letters, so the 24-letter alphabet was extended by using three obsolete letters, digamma ϝ, for 6, qoppa ϙ for 90, and sampi ϡ for 900
29.
A
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A is the first letter and the first vowel in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives, the upper-case version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lower-case version can be written in two forms, the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ, the latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type. The earliest certain ancestor of A is aleph, the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, in turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. The Phoenician alphabet letter had a form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the Hebrew or Arabic aleph, the Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter A, first was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other permanent mediums. There was also a style used for everyday or utilitarian writing. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles, the known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. At the end of the Roman Empire, several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms, 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version, the Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers, the Roman form is used in most printed material, it consists of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule form, in Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical, in some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Italic type is used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest. There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a, the double ⟨aa⟩ sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark
30.
1 (number)
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1, is a number, a numeral, and the name of the glyph representing that number. It represents a single entity, the unit of counting or measurement, for example, a line segment of unit length is a line segment of length 1. It is also the first of the series of natural numbers. The word one can be used as a noun, an adjective and it comes from the English word an, which comes from the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz. The Proto-Germanic root *ainaz comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no-, compare the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz to Old Frisian an, Gothic ains, Danish een, Dutch een, German eins and Old Norse einn. Compare the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no- to Greek oinos, Latin unus, Old Persian aivam, Old Church Slavonic -inu and ino-, Lithuanian vienas, Old Irish oin, One, sometimes referred to as unity, is the first non-zero natural number. It is thus the integer before two and after zero, and the first positive odd number, any number multiplied by one is that number, as one is the identity for multiplication. As a result,1 is its own factorial, its own square, its own cube, One is also the result of the empty product, as any number multiplied by one is itself. It is also the natural number that is neither composite nor prime with respect to division. The Gupta wrote it as a line, and the Nagari sometimes added a small circle on the left. The Nepali also rotated it to the right but kept the circle small and this eventually became the top serif in the modern numeral, but the occasional short horizontal line at the bottom probably originates from similarity with the Roman numeral I. Where the 1 is written with an upstroke, the number 7 has a horizontal stroke through the vertical line. While the shape of the 1 character has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures, many older typewriters do not have a separate symbol for 1 and use the lowercase letter l instead. It is possible to find cases when the uppercase J is used,1 cannot be used as the base of a positional numeral system, as the only digit that would be permitted in such a system would be 0. Since the base 1 exponential function always equals 1, its inverse does not exist, there are two ways to write the real number 1 as a recurring decimal, as 1.000. and as 0.999. There is only one way to represent the real number 1 as a Dedekind cut, in a multiplicative group or monoid, the identity element is sometimes denoted 1, but e is also traditional. However,1 is especially common for the identity of a ring. When such a ring has characteristic n not equal to 0,1 is the first figurate number of every kind, such as triangular number, pentagonal number and centered hexagonal number, to name just a few
31.
B
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B or b is the second letter in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It represents the voiced stop in many languages, including English. In some other languages, it is used to represent other bilabial consonants, Old English was originally written in runes, whose equivalent letter was beorc ⟨ᛒ⟩, meaning birch. Beorc dates to at least the 2nd-century Elder Futhark, which is now thought to have derived from the Old Italic alphabets ⟨
32.
2 (number)
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2 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 1 and preceding 3. The number two has many properties in mathematics, an integer is called even if it is divisible by 2. For integers written in a system based on an even number, such as decimal and hexadecimal. If it is even, then the number is even. In particular, when written in the system, all multiples of 2 will end in 0,2,4,6. In numeral systems based on an odd number, divisibility by 2 can be tested by having a root that is even. Two is the smallest and first prime number, and the only prime number. Two and three are the two consecutive prime numbers. 2 is the first Sophie Germain prime, the first factorial prime, the first Lucas prime, the first Ramanujan prime, and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also a Stern prime, a Pell number, the first Fibonacci prime, and it is the third Fibonacci number, and the second and fourth Perrin numbers. Despite being prime, two is also a highly composite number, because it is a natural number which has more divisors than any other number scaled relative to the number itself. The next superior highly composite number is six, vulgar fractions with only 2 or 5 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, as is the case with all other primes, because 2 and 5 are factors of ten, the decimal base. Two is the number x such that the sum of the reciprocals of the powers of x equals itself. In symbols ∑ k =0 ∞12 k =1 +12 +14 +18 +116 + ⋯ =2. This comes from the fact that, ∑ k =0 ∞1 n k =1 +1 n −1 for all n ∈ R >1, powers of two are central to the concept of Mersenne primes, and important to computer science. Two is the first Mersenne prime exponent, the square root of 2 was the first known irrational number. The smallest field has two elements, in the set-theoretical construction of the natural numbers,2 is identified with the set
33.
C
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C is the third letter in the English alphabet and a letter of the alphabets of many other writing systems which inherited it from the Latin alphabet. It is also the letter of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is named cee in English, C comes from the same letter as G. The sign is possibly adapted from an Egyptian hieroglyph for a staff sling, another possibility is that it depicted a camel, the Semitic name for which was gamal. Powell, a specialist in the history of writing, states It is hard to imagine how gimel = camel can be derived from the picture of a camel. In the Etruscan language, plosive consonants had no contrastive voicing, already in the Western Greek alphabet, Gamma first took a form in Early Etruscan, then in Classical Etruscan. In Latin it eventually took the c form in Classical Latin, in the earliest Latin inscriptions, the letters c k q were used to represent the sounds /k/ and /ɡ/. Of these, q was used to represent /k/ or /ɡ/ before a vowel, k before a. During the 3rd century BC, a character was introduced for /ɡ/. The use of c replaced most usages of k and q, but during the course of the Old English period, /k/ before front vowels were palatalized, having changed by the tenth century to, though ⟨c⟩ was still used, as in circe, wrecca. On the continent, meanwhile, a similar phonetic change had also been going on, in Vulgar Latin, /k/ became palatalized to in Italy and Dalmatia, in France and the Iberian peninsula, it became. Yet for these new sounds ⟨c⟩ was still used before the letters ⟨e⟩, the letter thus represented two distinct values. Subsequently, the Latin phoneme /kʷ/ de-labialized to /k/ meaning that the various Romance languages had /k/ before front vowels, the convention of using both ⟨c⟩ and ⟨k⟩ was applied to the writing of English after the Norman Conquest, causing a considerable re-spelling of the Old English words. The Old English cw was also at length displaced by the French qu so that the Old English cwén and cwic became Middle English quen quik, the sound, to which Old English palatalized /k/ had advanced, also occurred in French, chiefly from Latin /k/ before a. In French it was represented by the digraph ⟨ch⟩, as in champ and this spelling was introduced into English, i-iii, child, chyld, riche, mychel, for the cild, rice, mycel, of the Old English version whence they were copied. Former generations also wrote sence for sense, hence, today the Romance languages and English have a common feature inherited from Vulgar Latin spelling conventions where ⟨c⟩ takes on either a hard or soft value depending on the following letter. In English orthography, ⟨c⟩ generally represents the value of /s/ before the letters ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, and ⟨y⟩. However, there are a number of exceptions in English, soccer, the soft ⟨c⟩ may represent the /ʃ/ sound in the digraph ⟨ci⟩ when this precedes a vowel, as in the words delicious and appreciate
34.
3 (number)
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3 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 2 and preceding 4. Three is the largest number still written with as many lines as the number represents, to this day 3 is written as three lines in Roman and Chinese numerals. This was the way the Brahmin Indians wrote it, and the Gupta made the three lines more curved, the Nagari started rotating the lines clockwise and ending each line with a slight downward stroke on the right. Eventually they made these strokes connect with the lines below, and it was the Western Ghubar Arabs who finally eliminated the extra stroke and created our modern 3. ٣ While the shape of the 3 character has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character usually has a descender, as, for example, in some French text-figure typefaces, though, it has an ascender instead of a descender. A common variant of the digit 3 has a flat top and this form is sometimes used to prevent people from fraudulently changing a 3 into an 8. It is usually found on UPC-A barcodes and standard 52-card decks,3 is, a rough approximation of π and a very rough approximation of e when doing quick estimates. The first odd prime number, and the second smallest prime, the only number that is both a Fermat prime and a Mersenne prime. The first unique prime due to the properties of its reciprocal, the second triangular number and it is the only prime triangular number. Both the zeroth and third Perrin numbers in the Perrin sequence, the smallest number of sides that a simple polygon can have. The only prime which is one less than a perfect square, any other number which is n2 −1 for some integer n is not prime, since it is. This is true for 3 as well, but in case the smaller factor is 1. If n is greater than 2, both n −1 and n +1 are greater than 1 so their product is not prime, the number of non-collinear points needed to determine a plane and a circle. Also, Vulgar fractions with 3 in the denominator have a single digit repeating sequences in their decimal expansions,0.000, a natural number is divisible by three if the sum of its digits in base 10 is divisible by 3. For example, the number 21 is divisible by three and the sum of its digits is 2 +1 =3, because of this, the reverse of any number that is divisible by three is also divisible by three. For instance,1368 and its reverse 8631 are both divisible by three and this works in base 10 and in any positional numeral system whose base divided by three leaves a remainder of one. Three of the five regular polyhedra have triangular faces – the tetrahedron, the octahedron, also, three of the five regular polyhedra have vertices where three faces meet – the tetrahedron, the hexahedron, and the dodecahedron
35.
D
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D is the fourth letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The Semitic letter Dāleth may have developed from the logogram for a fish or a door, there are many different Egyptian hieroglyphs that might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter represented /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous, the equivalent Greek letter is Delta, Δ. The minuscule form of d consists of a loop and a vertical stroke. It developed by gradual variations on the majuscule form, in handwriting, it was common to start the arc to the left of the vertical stroke, resulting in a serif at the top of the arc. This serif was extended while the rest of the letter was reduced, resulting in an angled stroke, the angled stroke slowly developed into a vertical stroke. In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, and in the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, in the Vietnamese alphabet, it represents the sound /z/ in northern dialects or /j/ in southern dialects. In Fijian it represents a prenasalized stop /nd/, in some languages where voiceless unaspirated stops contrast with voiceless aspirated stops, ⟨d⟩ represents an unaspirated /t/, while ⟨t⟩ represents an aspirated /tʰ/. Examples of such languages include Icelandic, Scottish Gaelic, Navajo, the Roman numeral Ⅾ represents the number 500. D is the grade below C but above E in the grading system. The dictionary definition of D at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of d at Wiktionary
36.
4 (number)
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4 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 3 and preceding 5. Four is the only cardinal numeral in the English language that has the number of letters as its number value. Four is the smallest composite number, its divisors being 1 and 2. Four is also a composite number. The next highly composite number is 6, Four is the second square number, the second centered triangular number. 4 is the smallest squared prime and the even number in this form. It has a sum of 3 which is itself prime. The aliquot sequence of 4 has 4 members and is accordingly the first member of the 3-aliquot tree, a number is a multiple of 4 if its last two digits are a multiple of 4. For example,1092 is a multiple of 4 because 92 =4 ×23, only one number has an aliquot sum of 4 and that is squared prime 9. Four is the smallest composite number that is equal to the sum of its prime factors, however, it is the only composite number n for which. It is also a Motzkin number, in bases 6 and 12,4 is a 1-automorphic number. In addition,2 +2 =2 ×2 =22 =4, continuing the pattern in Knuths up-arrow notation,2 ↑↑2 =2 ↑↑↑2 =4, and so on, for any number of up arrows. A four-sided plane figure is a quadrilateral which include kites, rhombi, a circle divided by 4 makes right angles and four quadrants. Because of it, four is the number of plane. Four cardinal directions, four seasons, duodecimal system, and vigesimal system are based on four, a solid figure with four faces as well as four vertices is a tetrahedron, and 4 is the smallest possible number of faces of a polyhedron. The regular tetrahedron is the simplest Platonic solid, a tetrahedron, which can also be called a 3-simplex, has four triangular faces and four vertices. It is the only regular polyhedron
37.
E
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E is the fifth letter and the second vowel in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used letter in many languages, including Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Latin, Latvian, Norwegian, Spanish, the Latin letter E differs little from its source, the Greek letter epsilon, Ε. In Semitic, the letter represented /h/, in Greek, hê became the letter epsilon, the various forms of the Old Italic script and the Latin alphabet followed this usage. Although Middle English spelling used ⟨e⟩ to represent long and short /e/, in other cases, the letter is silent, generally at the end of words. In the orthography of languages it represents either these or /ɛ/, or some variation of these sounds. Less commonly, as in French, German, or Saanich, ⟨e⟩ represents a mid-central vowel /ə/. Digraphs with ⟨e⟩ are common to indicate either diphthongs or monophthongs, such as ⟨ea⟩ or ⟨ee⟩ for /iː/ or /eɪ/ in English, ⟨ei⟩ for /aɪ/ in German, the International Phonetic Alphabet uses ⟨e⟩ for the close-mid front unrounded vowel or the mid front unrounded vowel. E is the most common letter in the English alphabet and several other European languages, in the story The Gold Bug by Edgar Allan Poe, a character figures out a random character code by remembering that the most used letter in English is E. This makes it a hard and popular letter to use when writing lipograms, ernest Vincent Wrights Gadsby is considered a dreadful novel, and supposedly at least part of Wrights narrative issues were caused by language limitations imposed by the lack of E. Both Georges Perecs novel A Void and its English translation by Gilbert Adair omit e and are considered better works, ∃, existential quantifier in predicate logic. ∈, the symbol for set membership in set theory, ℯ, the base of the natural logarithm. 1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings. In British Sign Language, the e is signed by extending the index finger of the right hand touching the tip of index on the left hand. Media related to E at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of E at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of e at Wiktionary
38.
5 (number)
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5 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 4 and preceding 6. Five is the prime number. Because it can be written as 221 +1, five is classified as a Fermat prime, therefore a regular polygon with 5 sides is constructible with compass and unmarked straightedge. 5 is the third Sophie Germain prime, the first safe prime, the third Catalan number, Five is the first Wilson prime and the third factorial prime, also an alternating factorial. Five is the first good prime and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also the number that is part of more than one pair of twin primes. Five is conjectured to be the only odd number and if this is the case then five will be the only odd prime number that is not the base of an aliquot tree. Five is also the only prime that is the sum of two primes, namely 2 and 3. The number 5 is the fifth Fibonacci number, being 2 plus 3,5 is also a Pell number and a Markov number, appearing in solutions to the Markov Diophantine equation. Whereas 5 is unique in the Fibonacci sequence, in the Perrin sequence 5 is both the fifth and sixth Perrin numbers,5 is the length of the hypotenuse of the smallest integer-sided right triangle. In bases 10 and 20,5 is a 1-automorphic number,5 and 6 form a Ruth–Aaron pair under either definition. There are five solutions to Známs problem of length 6 and this is related to the fact that the symmetric group Sn is a solvable group for n ≤4 and not solvable for n ≥5. While all graphs with 4 or fewer vertices are planar, there exists a graph with 5 vertices which is not planar, K5, Five is also the number of Platonic solids. A polygon with five sides is a pentagon, figurate numbers representing pentagons are called pentagonal numbers. Five is also a square pyramidal number, Five is the only prime number to end in the digit 5, because all other numbers written with a 5 in the ones-place under the decimal system are multiples of five. As a consequence of this,5 is in base 10 a 1-automorphic number, vulgar fractions with 5 or 2 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, unlike expansions with all other prime denominators, because they are prime factors of ten, the base. When written in the system, all multiples of 5 will end in either 5 or 0
