1.
Moral and national education
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Moral and national education is a school curriculum proposed by the Education Bureau of Hong Kong, changed from the moral and civic education. The subject was particularly controversial for applauding the communist and nationalist positions of Chinas government on the one hand, and criticizing republicanism and democracy on the other. Moral and civic education was one of the four key tasks in the 2001 curriculum reform undertaken by the Education and Manpower Bureau, on 13 October 2010, Chief Executive Donald Tsang stated in the Policy Address 2010–2011 that moral and national education would replace MCE to strengthen national education. The government planned to introduce the new subject in schools in 2012 and secondary schools in 2013. Following the opposition from the public, the government postponed the commencement of the subject indefinitely and it also claims to enhance students commitment and contribution to analyse and judge personal, family, social, national and global issues. Since 2001, Moral and Civic Education has been accorded as one of the four Key Tasks under the Curriculum Reform to cultivate students positive values and attitudes and it has been suggested life event exemplars being used as learning contexts to enable students to realise positive values. Its vice-president Cheung Man-kwong claims that introduction of MNE is an action ordered by the central government of the Peoples Republic of China. Scholarism – The Alliance Against Moral & National Education was founded by a group of school students on 29 May 2011. Scholarism is the first pressure group formed and has become the organisation against MNE. The group is known for being one of the few organisations that protested outside the Central Government Liaison Office after the 1 July March 2012, another prominent pressure group, the National Education Parents Concern Group was formed in July 2012. The group issued a petition opposing to MNE, initiated by Cardinal Joseph Zen, Ching Cheong, Allen Lee and 27 other public figures, on 29 July 2012,30 organisations protested in a march. According to the organisers, over 90000 protestors, including parents and their children, scholarism began their occupation of the Hong Kong government headquarters on 30 August 2012. Fifty members occupied the park beneath the government offices, of which three began a hunger strike. The goal of the protest was, expressly, to compel the government to back its plans of Moral and National Education. The initial planned length of the occupation was three days. On 1 September, a concert was held as part of the protest, with an attendance of 40,000, guest performers at the protest include RubberBand, C AllStar, Wong Ka Keung, Anthony Wong. During the event the three hunger-strikers ended their strike, and were succeeded by a team of ten other hunger-strikers.30 pm. In mid-September 2012, Anonymous hackers threatened the Hong Kong government organisation National Education Services Centre, resistance to the NME was documented in the 2014 film, Lessons in Dissent
2.
Human mind
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The mind is a set of cognitive faculties including consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. It is usually defined as the faculty of an entitys reasoning and it holds the power of imagination, recognition, and appreciation, and is responsible for processing feelings and emotions, resulting in attitudes and actions. One open question regarding the nature of the mind is the mind–body problem, pre-scientific viewpoints included dualism and idealism, which considered the mind somehow non-physical. Modern views center around physicalism and functionalism, which hold that the mind is identical with the brain or reducible to physical phenomena such as neuronal activity. Another question concerns which types of beings are capable of having minds, the concept of mind is understood in many different ways by many different cultural and religious traditions. Some see mind as a property exclusive to humans whereas others ascribe properties of mind to non-living entities, to animals, important philosophers of mind include Plato, Descartes, Leibniz, Searle, Dennett, Fodor, Nagel, and Chalmers. Psychologists such as Freud and James, and computer scientists such as Turing, the original meaning of Old English gemynd was the faculty of memory, not of thought in general. Hence call to mind, come to mind, keep in mind, to have mind of, the word retains this sense in Scotland. Old English had other words to mind, such as hyge mind. The meaning of memory is shared with Old Norse, which has munr, the word is originally from a PIE verbal root *men-, meaning to think, remember, whence also Latin mens mind, Sanskrit manas mind and Greek μένος mind, courage, anger. The generalization of mind to all mental faculties, thought, volition, feeling and memory. The attributes that make up the mind is debated, some psychologists argue that only the higher intellectual functions constitute mind, particularly reason and memory. In this view the emotions — love, hate, fear, joy — are more primitive or subjective in nature and should be seen as different from the mind as such. Others argue that rational and emotional states cannot be so separated, that they are of the same nature and origin. In popular usage, mind is frequently synonymous with thought, the conversation with ourselves that we carry on inside our heads. Thus we make up our minds, change our minds or are of two minds about something, one of the key attributes of the mind in this sense is that it is a private sphere to which no one but the owner has access. No one else can know our mind and they can only interpret what we consciously or unconsciously communicate. Broadly speaking, mental faculties are the functions of the mind
3.
Psychological
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
4.
Think
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Thought refers to ideas or arrangements of ideas that are the result of the process of thinking. Though thinking is an activity considered essential to humanity, there is no consensus as to how we define or understand it. Thinking allows humans to sense of, interpret, represent or model the world they experience. It is therefore helpful to an organism with needs, objectives, the word thought comes from Old English þoht, or geþoht, from stem of þencan to conceive of in the mind, consider. Definitions of thought may also be derived directly or indirectly from theories of thought, the notion of the fundamental role of non-cognitive understanding in rendering possible thematic consciousness informed the discussion surrounding Artificial Intelligence during the 1970s and 1980s. Phenomenology, however, is not the approach to thinking in modern Western philosophy. The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes. The main aim of working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes. Someones desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how propositional attitudes can cause that individuals neurons to fire. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes, the above reflects a classical, functional description of how we work as cognitive, thinking systems. Therefore, functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the problem which cannot be solved. A neuron is a cell in the nervous system that processes. Neurons are the components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions, interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the presence of stimuli to the nervous system. Neurons do not go through mitosis, and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem
5.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
6.
Prisoners of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
7.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
8.
Margaret Singer
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Margaret Thaler Singer was a clinical psychologist and researcher with her colleague Lyman Wynne of family communication. She was a prominent figure in the study of influence in social. Singers main areas of research included schizophrenia, family therapy, brainwashing and she was the co-author of the book Cults in Our Midst. Singer was born in Denver, Colorado and she received her BA and MS from the University of Denver. Singer received her PhD in clinical psychology from the University of Denver in 1943, after obtaining her PhD, Singer worked at the University of Colorados School of Medicines department of psychiatry for eight years. In the scientific community, Singer was best known and respected for her studies in schizophrenia and she conducted research with the National Institute of Mental Health, the United States Air Force, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Singers work on family communication won her a place as one of the pioneers in the field of family therapy. As noted in one obituary, her collaboration with Lyman Wynne was particularly important, lyman’s work with Margaret Singer on communication deviance of parents of patients with schizophrenia created a new method of analysis of thought disorders. Singer began to study brainwashing in the 1950s at Walter Reed in Washington, beginning in the late 1960s, she expanded her studies in the field of cults and published a number of articles on mind control and similar areas. She developed theories about how cults recruit and retain members and was on the board of many of the major anti-cult groups, at one point, Singer interviewed Charles Manson. By the 1970s Singer was a researcher in the field of psychosomatic medicine. She also served as a member of the Kaiser Foundation Research Institute review board, Singer testified as a brainwashing expert at the trial of Patty Hearst. At the time of Hearsts arrest, Singer described Hearst as a low-IQ and she later testified in a hearing that by using speech patterns, she determined that Hearst was reading statements prepared by her captors. The judge did not allow this testimony, and Hearst was convicted, Singer played a role in the Hillside Strangler trial of Kenneth Bianchi. Singer concluded that Bianchi had faked symptoms of multiple personality disorder, later, she spoke about the trial on PBS Frontline in a special show entitled, The Mind of a Murderer. Singer asserted that Bianchi was a psychopath, and stated, He may simply be evil, an article by religious scholar J. J. According to Melton, this had significant consequences later on, since it meant that brainwashing could no longer be used as a defense for the practice of deprogramming. In the early 1980s, some U. S. mental health professionals became well-known figures due to their involvement as expert witnesses in cases against groups they considered to be cults
9.
Philip Zimbardo
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Philip George Zimbardo is a psychologist and a professor emeritus at Stanford University. He is also the founder and president of the Heroic Imagination Project, Zimbardo was born in New York City on March 23,1933, from a family of Italian immigrants from Sicily. He completed his BA with a major in psychology, sociology, and anthropology from Brooklyn College in 1954. He completed his M. S. and Ph. D in psychology from Yale University and he taught at Yale from 1959 to 1960. From 1960 to 1967, he was a professor of psychology at New York University From 1967 to 1968 and he joined the faculty at Stanford University in 1968. In 1971, Zimbardo accepted a position as professor of psychology at Stanford University. With a government grant from the U. S, the planned two-week study into the psychology of prison life ended after only six days due to emotional trauma being experienced by the participants. The students quickly began acting out their roles, with guards becoming sadistic and prisoners showing extreme passivity, on arrival, the prisoners were stripped, searched, shaved and deloused, which caused a great deal of humiliation. They were then issued uniforms, ID numbers, and escorted to their cells by the prison guards. The guards themselves were not given any specific instruction or guidelines for the way they were to treat the prisoners besides the fact they were not allowed to use corporal punishment, instead, the psychologists allowed them to do whatever was needed to keep order in the prison. They were dressed in uniforms, wore a whistle around their neck. At the beginning of the experiment, Zimbardo started off with nine guards, all the original volunteers were kept as backups and three prisoners as well as three guards occupied the prison at a time. Their first night in the prison, the prisoners were awakened at 2,30 AM by the guards blowing their whistles. The study shows that before the prisoners started showing signs of distress, they did not take the guards. The prisoners mocked the guards, trying to regain their individuality, the prisoners soon realized that the attitude of the guards was very serious and that they demanded obedience. This began a string of confrontational quarrels between the guards and prisoners. The guards used physical punishment and exercises, such as pushups, in the morning of only the second day, a rebellion broke out among the volunteer prisoners. They ripped off their uniforms and locked themselves in their cells by pushing their beds up against the door, in response to this, the guards became very angry and called for backup
10.
New religious movements
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NRMs can be novel in origin or part of a wider religion, in which case they are distinct from pre-existing denominations. Some NRMs deal with the challenges posed by the world by embracing individualism whereas others seek tightly knit collective means. Scholars have estimated that NRMs now number in the tens of thousands worldwide, with most of their members living in Asia, most have only a few members, some have thousands, and only very few have more than one million members. New religions have often faced a hostile reception from established religious organisations, in Western nations, a secular anti-cult movement and a Christian countercult movement emerged during the 1970s and 1980s to oppose emergent groups. In the 1970s, the field of new religions studies developed within the academic study of religion. There are now several organisations and peer-reviewed journals devoted to the subject. Scholars continue to try to reach definitions and define boundaries, there is no singular, agreed upon criteria for defining a new religious movement. However, the term usually requires that the group be both of recent origin and different from existing religions, there is debate as to what the term new should designate in this context. According to him, NRMs constituted those religious groups that have found, from the perspective of the dominant religious community, to be not just different. This definition would mean that which religions were regarded as NRMs would differ from country to country and would be open to change, as noted by scholars of religion Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein, new religions are just young religions. Melton has stated that those NRMs which were offshoots of older religious groups, tended to resemble their parent group far more than each other. One question that faces scholars of religion is when a new religious movement ceases to be new, some NRMs are strongly counter-cultural and alternative in the society they appear in, while others are far more similar to a societys established traditional religions. There are also problems in the use of religion within the new religious movements. Since at least the early 2000s, most sociologists of religion have used the new religious movement to avoid the pejorative undertones of terms like cult. These are words that have used in different ways by different groups. For instance, from the nineteenth century onward a number of sociologists used the terms cult, the term cult is used in reference to devotion or dedication to a particular person or place. For instance, within the Roman Catholic Church devotion to Mary and it is also used in non-religious contexts to refer to fandoms devoted to television shows like The Prisoner, The X-Files, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer. In the United States, the term began to be used in a pejorative manner to refer to Spiritualism
11.
Scientific
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
12.
Legal
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
13.
Eileen Barker
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Eileen Vartan Barker OBE, is a professor in sociology, an emeritus member of the London School of Economics, and a consultant to that institutions Centre for the Study of Human Rights. She is the chairperson and founder of the Information Network Focus on Religious Movements and has written studies about groups she defines as cults and she has been involved with the LSEs sociology department, where she received her PhD, since 1970. In 1988, she was engaged in research on the preservation of identity in the Armenian diaspora. In the same year she founded the Information Network Focus on Religious Movements, with the support of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Eileen Barker has held numerous positions of leadership in the academic study of religion. In 2000, Barker was appointed as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, marty Award for Contributions to the Public Understanding of Religion. In her 1984 book The Making of a Moonie, Choice or Brainwashing, based on close to seven years of study of Unification Church members in the United Kingdom and the United States. Brainwashing proponents Margaret Singer and Janja Lalich have criticised Barkers rejection of the hypothesis in her study of the conversion process for members of the Unification Church. Barker defended this by stating that it had been approved by her university and a government grants council, Singer and Lalich likened the behaviour of Barker and other researchers who received such funding as being not unlike the Nazi doctors whom. In 1999, it was reported that INFORM was facing closure, criticism of INFORM has focused on Barkers reluctance to condemn all new religions as cults. Barker responded to the criticism by saying, We are not cult apologists, people make a lot of noise without doing serious research – so much so that they can end up sounding as closed to reason as the cults theyre attacking. Besides, I imagine FAIR was disappointed not to get our funding and it may be able to deflate some widely circulated rumours and false impressions derived from media comment. Barker, a member of the Liberal Democrats, was an unsuccessful Queens Park ward candidate in May 2002, James A. Beckford, James T. Richardson, eds. Challenging Religion, Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker, sociological Review Monograph 27, Keele,1979, pp. 179–200 Barker, Eileen The Making of a Moonie, Choice or Brainwashing. New Religions, Haft Asman, A Journal for the Center for Religious Studies, Vol.4,19, translated into Persian by Baqer Talebi Darabi, Autumn 2002. Barker, Eileen New Religious Movements Religions and Beliefs in Britain, Craig Donnellan, Cambridge, Independence,2005, 19–22
14.
James Richardson (sociologist)
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James T. Richardson is a Professor of Sociology and Judicial Studies, and the Director of the Master of Judicial Studies Degree Program at the University of Nevada, Reno. Richardson specializes in social and behavioral science evidence, Sociology of Religions and New Religious Movements, Sociology of law and he is notably outspoken on high-profile cases such as Elizabeth Smart and Patty Hearst. He is a critic of brainwashing theories. He has been a teacher for 30 years, with most of that time spent at the University of Nevada, Reno where he is currently Professor of Sociology. He directs the Master of Judicial Studies Degree Program, which has nearly 100 trial judges working on degrees and he is the director or of the Justice Management Degree Program. He is on the faculty for the large Interdisciplinary Social Psychology Doctoral Program and he teaches in the undergraduate, Richardson, James T. Bromley, David G. The Brainwashing/deprogramming controversy, sociological, psychological, legal, and historical perspectives, conversion careers, in and out of the new religions. Money and power in the new religions, programmed Learning Aid for BASIC Programming Language, Richard Irwin Co. Organized Miracles, A Sociological Study of a Jesus Movement Organization, with M. Stewart, transaction Books,1979 The Satanism Scare, with Joel Best and David Bromley, New York, Aldine de Gruyter,1991 Regulating Religion. 0593-ead. xml A Guide to the James T. Richardson Papers, University Archives, University Libraries, University of Nevada, Reno
15.
Robert Cialdini
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He is best known for his 1984 book on persuasion and marketing, Influence, The Psychology of Persuasion. The book has sold three million copies and has been translated into thirty languages. It has been listed on the New York Times Best Seller list, additionally, one of Cialdinis other books, Yes. 50 Scientifically Proven Ways to Be Persuasive, was a New York Times Bestseller, Cialdinis most-recent book is Pre-suasion, which was published in 2016. Cialdini received his Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Wisconsin in June 1967 and he has held Visiting Scholar Appointments at Ohio State University, the University of California, the Annenberg School of Communications, and the Graduate School of Business of Stanford University. Currently, Cialdini is Regents’ Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Marketing at Arizona State University, Cialdinis theory of influence is based on six key principles, reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, authority, liking, scarcity. Reciprocity – People tend to return a favor, thus the pervasiveness of free samples in marketing, Ethiopia had been reciprocating for the diplomatic support Mexico provided when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. The good cop/bad cop strategy is based on this principle. Even if the original incentive or motivation is removed after they have already agreed, Cialdini notes Chinese brainwashing of American prisoners of war to rewrite their self-image and gain automatic unenforced compliance. Another example is children being made to repeat the Pledge of Allegiance each morning, social Proof – People will do things that they see other people are doing. For example, in one experiment, one or more confederates would look up into the sky, at one point this experiment aborted, as so many people were looking up that they stopped traffic. See conformity, and the Asch conformity experiments, authority – People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts. Cialdini cites incidents such as the Milgram experiments in the early 1960s, liking – People are easily persuaded by other people that they like. Cialdini cites the marketing of Tupperware in what might now be called viral marketing, People were more likely to buy if they liked the person selling it to them. Some of the many biases favoring more attractive people are discussed, scarcity – Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying offers are available for a time only encourages sales. It has been mentioned in 50 Psychology Classics, recently, Cialdini discovered a seventh principle that was previously overlooked. He called this principle, the unity principle
16.
Michael J. Freeman
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Michael J. Freeman is an American inventor and entrepreneur. He has been involved in developments of smart toys, interactive television, robotics, interactive telephone systems and he is also a behavioral consultant to government and industry and specializes in predicting upcoming trends. He has authored 42 US patents, michael J. Freemans US patents at Google Patents
17.
Robert Jay Lifton
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Robert Jay Lifton is an American psychiatrist and author, chiefly known for his studies of the psychological causes and effects of war and political violence and for his theory of thought reform. He was a proponent of the techniques of psychohistory. Lifton was born in 1926, in Brooklyn, New York, in 1942, he enrolled at Cornell University at the age of 16 and was admitted to New York Medical College in 1944, graduating in 1948. He interned at the Jewish Hospital of Brooklyn in 1948-49, and had his psychiatric training at the Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn. From 1951 to 1953 he served as an Air Force psychiatrist in Japan and Korea, to which he attributed his interest in war. He married the childrens writer Betty Jean Kirschner in 1952 and has two children and she died in Boston on November 19,2010, from complications of pneumonia. Lifton calls cartooning his avocation, he has published two books of cartoons about birds. During the 1960s, Robert Jay Lifton, together with his mentor Erik Erikson and MIT historian Bruce Mazlish, formed a group to apply psychology, meetings were held at Liftons home in Wellfleet, Massachusetts. The Wellfleet Psychohistory Group, as it known, focused mainly on psychological motivations for war, terrorism. In 1965, they received sponsorship from the American Academy of Arts, a collection of research papers by the group was published in 1975, Explorations in Psychohistory, The Wellfleet Papers. In addition to interviews with 25 Americans and Europeans, Lifton interviewed 15 Chinese who had fled after having been subjected to indoctrination in Chinese universities, the term thought-terminating cliché was popularized in this book. Lifton found that when the POWs returned to the United States their thinking soon returned to normal, a 1989 reprint edition was published by University of North Carolina Press. His book on Hiroshima survivors won the 1969 National Book Award in Science, totalism, a word first used in Thought Reform, is Liftons term for the characteristics of ideological movements and organizations that desire total control over human behavior and thought. Liftons usage differs from theories of totalitarianism in that it can be applied to the ideology of groups that do not wield governmental power, in Liftons opinion, though such attempts always fail, they follow a common pattern and cause predictable types of psychological damage in individuals and societies. In his later work, Lifton has focused on defining the type of change to which totalism is opposed, following his work with Hiroshima survivors, Lifton became a vocal opponent of nuclear weapons, arguing that nuclear strategy and warfighting doctrine made even mass genocide banal and conceivable. In 1993 he said, Whats happening there merits the use of the word genocide, there is an effort to systematically destroy an entire group. Its even been conceptualized by Serbian nationalists as so-called ethnic cleansing and that term signifies mass killing, mass relocation, and that does constitute genocide. Lifton regards terrorism as a serious threat due to the proliferation of nuclear and chemical weapons
18.
Joost Meerloo
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Joost Abraham Maurits Meerloo was a Dutch Doctor of Medicine and psychoanalyst. Born as Abraham Maurits Bram Meerloo in The Hague, Netherlands, Meerloo came to United States in 1946, was naturalized in 1950, Dr. Meerloo was a practicing psychiatrist for over forty years. He was chief of the Psychological Department of the Dutch Army-in-Exile in England, after the war he served as High Commissioner for Welfare in the Netherlands, and was an adviser to UNRRA and SHAEF. An American citizen since 1950, Dr. Meerloo was a member of the faculty at Columbia University and he was the author of many books, including Rape of the Mind, the classic work on brainwashing, Conversation and Communication, and Hidden Communion. He was the son of Bernard and Anna Frederika Meerloo and he married Elisabeth Johanna Kalf, Den Haag, May 16,1928, divorce February 19,1946. He married Louisa Betty Loekie Duits in New York on May 7,1948, Meerloo specialized in the area of thought control techniques used by totalitarian regimes. We have to learn that sacrifice of life, though it may be a necessary means to an end, is not an end in itself. As a free people, we must choose the affirmative courage of life, – Total War and the Human Mind,1944. And yet one day men will have to grow up, compared with the long ages of human existence on earth, our civilization is in its infancy. Sooner or later we must be ready to leave the dreamland of childhood, where imagination finds unlimited scope and that world however, can in the long run give us something better than any vision conjured up in childhood. – Total War and the Human Mind,1944, Rape of the Mind Delusion and Mass-Delusion Rape of the Mind Delusion and Mass-Delusion
19.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
20.
Political
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
21.
Corporate culture
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Organizational culture encompasses values and behaviours that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization. In Three Bell Curves, Business Culture Decoded Rosauer outlines the three manageable ingredients he says guides the culture of any business, ingredient #1 – Employee #2 The Work waste #3 The Customer. Ravasi and Schultz wrote that organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions that guide what happens in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new members as a way of perceiving and, even. Thus, organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with other, with clients. In addition, organizational culture may affect how much employees identify with an organization, Schein, Deal and Kennedy, and Kotter advanced the idea that organizations often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures. Organizational culture refers to culture in any type of organization including that of schools, universities, not-for-profit groups, government agencies, in business, terms such as corporate culture and company culture are often used to refer to a similar concept. The term corporate culture became known in the business world in the late 1980s. Corporate culture was used by managers, sociologists, and organizational theorists by the beginning of the 80s. The related idea of organizational climate emerged in the 1960s and 70s, if organizational culture is seen as something that characterizes an organization, it can be manipulated and altered depending on leadership and members. Culture as root metaphor sees the organization as its culture, created through communication and symbols, Culture is basic, with personal experience producing a variety of perspectives. In such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well-oiled machines, conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values, and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy. Research shows that organizations that foster strong cultures have clear values that give employees a reason to embrace the culture, groupthink was described by Irving Janis. This is a state in which if they have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking. In fact, groupthink is very common and happens all the time, members that are defiant are often turned down or seen as a negative influence by the rest of the group because they bring conflict. Such cultures possess high employee involvement, strong internal communications and an acceptance, additionally, organizational cultures that explicitly emphasize factors related to the demands placed on them by industry technology and growth will be better performers in their industries. According to Kotter and Heskett, organizations with adaptive cultures perform much better than organizations with unadaptive cultures, an unadaptive culture can significantly reduce a firms effectiveness, disabling the firm from pursuing all its competitive/operational options. Healthy companies are able to deal with concerns about the well-being of the organization internally
22.
Persuasion
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Persuasion is an umbrella term of influence. Persuasion can attempt to influence a persons beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, Persuasion is also an often used tool in the pursuit of personal gain, such as election campaigning, giving a sales pitch, or in trial advocacy. Persuasion can also be interpreted as using ones personal or positional resources to change behaviors or attitudes. Systematic persuasion is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to logic, heuristic persuasion on the other hand is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to habit or emotion. Persuasion began with the Greeks, who emphasized rhetoric and elocution as the highest standard for a successful politician, all trials were held in front of the Assembly, and both the prosecution and the defense rested, as they often do today, on the persuasiveness of the speaker. Rhetoric was the ability to find the means of persuasion in any instance. Aristotles rhetorical proofs, ethos logos pathos Humans attempt to explain the actions of others through either dispositional attribution or situational attribution. Dispositional attribution, also referred to as attribution, attempts to point to a person’s traits, abilities, motives. A citizen claiming that a lack of progress is not a fault of the president. Fundamental attribution error occurs when people wrongly attribute either a shortcoming or accomplishment to internal factors, in general, people tend to make dispositional attributions more often than situational attributions when trying to explain or understand a person’s behavior. This happens when we are more focused on the individual because we do not know much about their situation or context. Conditioning plays a part in the concept of persuasion. It is more often about leading someone into taking certain actions of their own, in advertisements for example, this is done by attempting to connect a positive emotion to a brand/product logo. This is often done by creating commercials that make people laugh, using a sexual undertone, inserting uplifting images and/or music etc. great examples of this are professional athletes. The important thing for the advertiser is to establish a connection to the consumer and this conditioning is thought to affect how people view certain products, knowing that most purchases are made on the basis of emotion. Just like you sometimes recall a memory from a certain smell or sound, stefano DellaVigna and Matthew Gentzkow did a comprehensive study on the effects of persuasion in different domains. They discovered that persuasion has little or no effect on advertisement, however, leon Festinger originally proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. He theorized that human beings strive for mental consistency
23.
Maoist
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Mao Zedong Thought, or Maoism, is a political theory derived from the teachings of the Chinese political leader Mao Zedong. Its followers are known as Maoists, the modern Chinese intellectual tradition of the turn of the twentieth century is defined by two central concepts, iconoclasm and nationalism. It was this association of conservatism and Confucianism which lent to the nature of Chinese intellectual thought during the first decades of the twentieth century. Chinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and vociferously by Chen Duxiu during the New Culture Movement which occurred between 1915 and 1919, vital to understanding Chinese nationalist sentiments of the time is the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed in 1919. The negative reaction culminated in the May 4th Incident which occurred on day in 1919. The May 4th Incident and Movement which followed, catalyzed the political awakening of a society which had long seemed inert, yet another international event would have a large impact on not only Mao but also the Chinese intelligentsia, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Although the revolution did elicit interest among Chinese intellectuals, socialist revolution in China was not considered an option until after the May 4th Incident. Afterwards, To become a Marxist was one way for a Chinese intellectual to both the traditions of the Chinese past and Western domination of the Chinese present. During the period following the Long March, Mao and the Communist Party of China were headquartered in Yanan. During this period Mao clearly established himself as a Marxist theoretician, the rudimentary philosophical base of Chinese Communist ideology is laid down in Maos numerous dialectical treatises and was conveyed to newly recruited party members. This period truly established ideological independence from Moscow for Mao and the CPC, the Initial Marxist Period from 1920–1926, Marxist thinking employs imminent socioeconomic explanations, Maos reasons were declarations of his enthusiasm. Mao did not believe education alone would bring about the transition from capitalism to communism because of three main reasons and these reasons do not provide socioeconomic explanations, which usually form the core of Marxist ideology. The Formative Maoist Period from 1927–1935, In this period, Mao avoided all theoretical implications in his literature and his writings in this period failed to elaborate what he meant by the Marxist method of political and class analysis. Prior to this period, Mao was concerned with the dichotomy between knowledge and action, now, he was more concerned with the dichotomy between revolutionary ideology and counter-revolutionary objective conditions. There was more correlation drawn between China and the Soviet model, the Mature Maoist Period from 1935–1940, Intellectually, this was Maos most fruitful time. The shift of orientation was apparent in his pamphlet Strategic Problems of Chinas Revolutionary War and this pamphlet tried to provide a theoretical veneer for his concern with revolutionary practice. Mao started to separate from the Soviet model since it was not automatically applicable to China, Chinas unique set of historical circumstances demanded a correspondingly unique application of Marxist theory, an application that would have to diverge from the Soviet approach. The Civil-War Period from 1940-1949, Unlike the Mature period, this period was intellectually barren, Mao focused more on revolutionary practice and paid less attention to Marxist theory
24.
Pun
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The pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism is a variation on a correct expression. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, as their usage and meaning are specific to a particular language, Puns have a long history in human writing. Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs were originally based on punning systems, punning has been credited as the fundamental concept behind alphabets, writing, and even human civilization. Puns can be classified in various ways, including, The homophonic pun, walter Redfern exemplified this type with his statement, To pun is to treat homonyms as synonyms. For example, in George Carlins phrase Atheism is a non-prophet institution, similarly, the joke Question, Why do we still have troops in Germany. A homographic pun exploits words which are spelled the same but possess different meanings, because of their nature, they rely on sight more than hearing, contrary to homophonic puns. They are also known as heteronymic puns, an example that combines homophonic and homographic punning is Douglas Adamss line You can tune a guitar, but you cant tuna fish. Unless of course, you play bass, the phrase uses the homophonic qualities of tune a and tuna, as well as the homographic pun on bass, in which ambiguity is reached through the identical spellings of /ˈbeɪs/, and /ˈbæs/. Homonymic puns, another type, arise from the exploitation of words which are both homographs and homophones. An adaptation of a joke repeated by Isaac Asimov gives us Did you hear about the little moron who strained himself while running into the screen door, playing on strained as to give much effort and to filter. A homonymic pun may also be polysemic, in which the words must be homonymic and also possess related meanings, however, lexicographers define polysemes as listed under a single dictionary lemma while homonyms are treated in separate lemmata. A compound pun is a statement that two or more puns. For example, a statement by Richard Whately includes four puns. Because he can eat the sand which is there, but what brought the sandwiches there. Why, Noah sent Ham, and his descendants mustered and bred and this pun uses sand which is there/sandwiches there, Ham/ham, mustered/mustard, and bred/bread. Similarly, the piano is not my forte links two meanings of the words forte and piano, one for the dynamic markings in music
25.
Taoist
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Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is an idea in most Chinese philosophical schools, in Taoism, however. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, the Tao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi, is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi. By the Han dynasty, the sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations. In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions. Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches, Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor, throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor, Chinese alchemy, Chinese astrology, Chan Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia, Taoism also has a presence in Hong Kong, Macau, and in Southeast Asia. English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words Daoism and Taoism, the root Chinese word 道 way, path is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 way, route, principle and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism, an investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciations widespread familiarity. In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/, lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. Taoist philosophy or Taology, or the mystical aspect — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and these texts were linked together as Taoist philosophy during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing, however, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars
26.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
27.
Anti-communism
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Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. It reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States, anti-communism has been an element of movements of many different positions, including capitalist, liberal, socialist, anarchist, and fascist viewpoints. They accuse communists of causing several famines, such as the Russian Famine of 1921, some anti-communists see both communism and fascism as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. Opponents argue that communist parties that have come to power have tended to be intolerant of political opposition. Communist states have also accused of creating a new ruling class, with powers. Examples of left-wing critics of Communist states and parties are Boris Souveraine, Bayard Rustin, Irving Howe, the American Federation of Labor has always been strongly anti-Communist. The more leftist CIO purged its Communists in 1947 and has been staunchly anti-Communist ever since, in Britain, the Labour Party strenuously resisted Communist efforts to infiltrate its ranks and take control of locals in the 1930s. Although some anarchists describe themselves as communists, all anarchists criticize authoritarian Communist parties and states and they argue that Marxist concepts such as dictatorship of the proletariat and state ownership of the means of production are anathema to anarchism. Some anarchists criticize communism from an individualist point of view, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin debated with Karl Marx in the First International, arguing that the Marxist state is another form of oppression. He loathed the idea of a vanguard party ruling the masses from above, anarchists initially participated in, and rejoiced over, the 1917 revolution as an example of workers taking power for themselves. However, after the October revolution, it became evident that the Bolsheviks, what is needed is local construction by local forces … Russia has already become a Soviet Republic only in name. Many anarchists fought against Russian, Spanish and Greek Communists, many were killed by them, such as Lev Chernyi, Camillo Berneri, neither Marxs 10-point plan nor the rest of the manifesto say anything about who has the right to carry out the plan. Milton Friedman argued that the absence of economic activity makes it too easy for repressive political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers. Friedmans view was shared by Friedrich Hayek and John Maynard Keynes. Objectivists who follow Ayn Rand are strongly anti-Communist and this is demonstrated, they believe, by the comparative prosperity of free market and socialist economies. Objectivist Ayn Rand writes that communist leaders typically claim to work for the common good, many ex-communists have turned into anti-communists. Mikhail Gorbachev turned from a Communist into a social democrat, milovan Đilas, was a former Yugoslav Communist official, who became a prominent dissident and critic of Communism. Leszek Kołakowski was a Polish Communist who became a famous anti-communist, the God That Failed is a 1949 book which collects together six essays with the testimonies of a number of famous ex-Communists, who were writers and journalists
28.
CIA
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
29.
Robert W. Ford
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Robert Webster Ford CBE was a radio operator and British diplomat who worked in Tibet in the late 1940s. He was one of the few Westerners to be appointed by the Government of Tibet in the period of de facto independence between 1912 and the year 1950 when the Chinese army marched on Chamdo. In 1994, he declared that during the five years he spent in Tibet, he had the opportunity to witness and experience at first hand the reality of Tibetan independence. Born in March 1923 in Burton-on-Trent, Robert Webster Ford was the son of Robert Ford, a brewery engine-driver, and Beatrice Ford and he attended Rolleston Primary School and Burton-on-Trent Grammar School. In 1943, he was posted to India but soon became disillusioned, in 1945, he joined the British Mission in Lhasa as a radio officer and had an audience with the 14-year-old 14th Dalai Lama in Lhasa. The same year he was transferred to Gangtok, Sikkim, where he worked on British India relations with Tibet, in Sikkim, he befriended Rai Saheb Pemba Tsering, the father of Dr. Pemba, the first Tibetan-born doctor trained in western medicine. When India became independent in 1947, Robert Ford returned to Lhasa and was appointed by the Government of Tibet, as Tibetans had a problem in pronouncing F, Ford became Phodo. After one year in Lhasa, he was requested to go to Chamdo, capital of eastern Tibet, with three wireless operator students, he left for the city in 1949. They helped the Governor General of Kham, Lhalu Tsewang Dorje, improve defence in Chamdo, in addition, a direct link was established for the first time between Lhasa and Chamdo. Early in 1950, Lhalu requested Ford shorten the training of the wireless operator students, by that time, new instructors had arrived to train soldiers in the use of Bren guns. Robert Ford wrote that the Tibetan Army began to look a little less like something out of the Middle Ages and he was arrested in 1950 by the advancing Chinese army, along with the Governor General of Kham, Ngabo Ngawang Jigme, and other Tibetan officials. Ford spent nearly 5 years in jail, in constant fear of being executed, only in 1954 was he allowed to send a letter to his parents. At the end of 1954 his trial was held and he was sentenced to ten years jail and he was eventually released and expelled in 1955. In 1957, he published the book Captured in Tibet about his experience, the book was reissued in 1990 under the title with a preface by the Dalai Lama and an epilogue by the author entitled The Occupation. The same year, he married Monica Tebbett, a childhood friend and they were married for 55 years and had two sons, Martin and Giles. He retired in 1983 and was awarded Commander of the Order of the British Empire, after his retirement, Ford lectured in support of the Tibetan Government in Exile in various countries. In 1992, he undertook a lecture tour in India. Ford had to return to Britain earlier than expected, in 1996, Ford was able to arrange the first meeting between the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso and a member of the British royal family
30.
James Carne
–
Carne was born in Falmouth, Cornwall on 11 April 1906 the son of George Newby Carne and Annie Emily Le Poar Carne. His father was a brewer and wine merchant and he was promoted to lieutenant on 3 September 1927 and to captain on 1 October 1935. Seeing service in the Second World War, he was promoted to major on 3 September 1942 and he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 7 February 1949. Throughout this time Colonel Carne moved among the battalion under very heavy mortar and machine-gun fire, inspiring the utmost confidence. On two separate occasions, armed with rifle and grenades, he led assault parties which drove back the enemy. His courage, coolness and leadership was not only in his own battalion. Carne fell into Chinese captivity after his 700-man battalions astonishing resistance against an estimated 11,000 attackers was finally overcome, as the senior British officer among hundreds of prisoners kept in appalling conditions in camps in communist-held Korea, he was singled out for special treatment. While the other ranks were re-educated by the communist commissars at their camps, the thoughts comprised a peace deal not just to end the war in Korea, but to reach a settlement covering the whole Pacific region. Sir Esler opined, The whole thing might be pure fantasy except for the fact that Colonel Carne could hardly have invented it, the Foreign Office was sceptical about the plot, but suggested that perhaps its aim was to split Britain from its American ally. In 1954 it was announced that Warwick Productions wanted to make a film The Glorious Glosters starring Alan Ladd as Carne based on a script by Max Trell, however the film was never made. 13 July 1951 – Lieutenant-Colonel James Power Carne, The Gloucestershire Regiment is awarded the Distinguished Service Order for gallant,27 October 1953 – Lieutenant-Colonel James Power Carne, DSO, The Gloucestershire Regiment, is awarded the Victoria Cross in recognition of gallant and distinguished service in Korea. His Victoria Cross is held by the Soldiers of Gloucestershire Museum, Gloucester, Gloucestershire,30 October 1953 – Lieutenant-Colonel James Power Carne, VC, DSO. Location of grave and VC medal Lieutenant Colonel James Carne James Carne James Carne
31.
1st Marine Aircraft Wing
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The 1st Marine Aircraft Wing is an aviation unit of the United States Marine Corps that serves as the Aviation Combat Element of the III Marine Expeditionary Force. The wing is headquartered at Camp Foster on the island of Okinawa, activated in 1940, the wing has seen heavy combat operations during World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War. As a collateral function, the Wing may participate as a component of Naval Aviation in the execution of such other Navy functions as the Fleet Commander may direct. In late 1940, Congress authorized an air fleet of fifteen thousand aircraft. The Marine Corps was allotted a percentage of these planes to be formed into 2 air wings with 32 operational squadrons, on the advice of Navy and Marine advisors returning from observing the war in Europe these numbers were doubled very soon after. It was under this program that the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing was activated at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. The First Marine Aircraft Group which was the largest east coast aviation unit in the Marines at the time, became its first component, although a new wing, it is considered an unofficial descendant of the Northern Bombing Group of World War I. Following the attacks on Pearl Harbor, the transferred to Naval Air Station San Diego, California, on December 10,1941. Its core consisted of two units — a regimental combat team from the 5th Marine Regiment and Marine Aircraft Group 33 and their job was to provide close air support, resupply, and Medevac for Marine ground forces. In late-June 1952,75 aircraft from 1st MAW participated in the attack on the Sui-ho Dam which were aimed at the hydroelectric plants in North Korea. The Wings Chief of Staff Frank Schwable was shot down in July 1952 and he was eventually cleared of all charges, but his case prompted a review of training and expectations of prisoners-of-war. Two 1st MAW aircraft groups, MAG-33 and MAG-12, and the 1st Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion served during the course of the war, helicopters, supplemented by C-130 transports where there were landing strips, were also used to re-supply Marines in the field at remote outposts. Other Marine pilots, flew UH-1E Hueys, and AH-1 Cobras, many of these choppers provided reconnaissance and armed air cover for combat air operations. HMH463 has deployed to support the Operation Enduring Freedom Mission in Afghanistan in 2009
32.
Mark W. Clark
–
Mark Wayne Clark was a United States Army officer who saw service during World War I, World War II, and the Korean War. He was the youngest lieutenant general in the United States Army during World War II, during World War I, he was a company commander and served in France in 1918, as a 22-year old captain, where he was seriously wounded by shrapnel. After the war, the future U. S. Army Chief of Staff, General George Marshall, during World War II, he commanded the United States Fifth Army, and later the 15th Army Group, in the Italian campaign. He is known for leading the Fifth Army in its capture of Rome in June 1944, the German 10th Army then joined with the rest of the German army group at the Trasimene Line. In March 1945, Clark, at the age of 48, General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, a close friend of Clarks, considered him a brilliant staff officer and trainer of men. Clark was awarded medals, including the Distinguished Service Cross. A legacy of the Clark task force that he led in 1953–1955 and his mother, Rebecca Beckie Ezekkiels, was the daughter of Romanian Jews, but Mark Clark was baptized Episcopalian while a cadet at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Clark gained an appointment to the USMA in 1913 at the age of 17. Although Eisenhower two years senior to him, having graduated as part of the West Point class of 1915 and he graduated alongside young men such as Matthew Ridgway, J. Lawton Collins, Ernest N. Harmon, William W. Eagles, Norman Cota, Laurence B. Keiser, Frederick Augustus Irving, William C, mcMahon, Bryant Moore and William Kelly Harrison, Jr. Like his father, he decided to join the Infantry Branch, oDaniel serving as a platoon commander in his company. In the rapid expansion of the U. S. Army during World War I, he rose quickly in rank, promoted to first lieutenant on May 15 and captain on August 5,1917. In late April 1918, shortly before Clarks 22nd birthday and over a year since his graduation from the USMA, he arrived on the Western Front, pershing, the Commander-in-Chief of the AEF on the Western Front. They were two of the first casualties in the division, despite his injuries, however, Clark managed to recover within six weeks, although he was graded unfit to return to the infantry. As a result of his convalescence, Captain Clark was transferred to the Supply Section of the First Army. In this position he served with Colonel John L. DeWitt, and supervised the provision of food for the men of the First Army. He stayed in this post until the end of hostilities on November 11,1918 and he then served with the Third Army in its occupation duties in Germany and returned to the United States in June 1919. During the period between the wars, Clark served in a variety of staff and training roles
33.
Project MKUltra
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Experiments on humans were intended to identify and develop drugs and procedures to be used in interrogations and torture, in order to weaken the individual to force confessions through mind control. Organized through the Scientific Intelligence Division of the CIA, the project coordinated with the Special Operations Division of the U. S. Armys Chemical Corps. The operation began in the early 1950s, was sanctioned in 1953, was reduced in scope in 1964, further curtailed in 1967. The program engaged in illegal activities, including the use of unwitting U. S. and Canadian citizens as its test subjects. The scope of Project MKUltra was broad, with research undertaken at 80 institutions, including 44 colleges and universities, as well as hospitals, prisons, the CIA operated through these institutions using front organizations, although sometimes top officials at these institutions were aware of the CIAs involvement. The program consisted of some 149 subprojects which the Agency contracted out to various universities, research foundations, at least 80 institutions and 185 private researchers participated. Because the Agency funded MKUltra indirectly, many of the individuals were unaware that they were dealing with the Agency. The case confirms that the CIA for 14 years did clandestine operations to control human behavior, in 1977, a Freedom of Information Act request uncovered a cache of 20,000 documents relating to project MKUltra, which led to Senate hearings later that same year. In July 2001, some surviving information regarding MKUltra was declassified, in 1945 the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency was established and given direct responsibility for Operation Paperclip. The program recruited former Nazi scientists, some of whom had identified and prosecuted as war criminals during the Nuremberg Trials. Several secret U. S. government projects grew out of Operation Paperclip and these projects included Project CHATTER, and Project BLUEBIRD, which was renamed Project ARTICHOKE in 1951. Their purpose was to study mind control, interrogation, behavior modification, the projects intentionally obscure CIA cryptonym is made up of the digraph MK, meaning that the project was sponsored by the agencys Technical Services Staff, followed by the word Ultra. Other related cryptonyms include Project MKNAOMI and Project MKDELTA, headed by Sidney Gottlieb, the MKUltra project was started on the order of CIA director Allen Welsh Dulles on April 13,1953. The CIA wanted to use similar methods on their own captives, the CIA was also interested in being able to manipulate foreign leaders with such techniques, and would later invent several schemes to drug Fidel Castro. Experiments were often conducted without the knowledge or consent. In some cases, academic researchers being funded through grants from CIA front organizations were unaware that their work was being used for these purposes. The project attempted to produce a truth drug for use in interrogating suspected Soviet spies during the Cold War. Another MKUltra effort, Subproject 54, was the Navys top secret Perfect Concussion program, however, the program was never carried out
34.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
35.
Project MKULTRA
–
Experiments on humans were intended to identify and develop drugs and procedures to be used in interrogations and torture, in order to weaken the individual to force confessions through mind control. Organized through the Scientific Intelligence Division of the CIA, the project coordinated with the Special Operations Division of the U. S. Armys Chemical Corps. The operation began in the early 1950s, was sanctioned in 1953, was reduced in scope in 1964, further curtailed in 1967. The program engaged in illegal activities, including the use of unwitting U. S. and Canadian citizens as its test subjects. The scope of Project MKUltra was broad, with research undertaken at 80 institutions, including 44 colleges and universities, as well as hospitals, prisons, the CIA operated through these institutions using front organizations, although sometimes top officials at these institutions were aware of the CIAs involvement. The program consisted of some 149 subprojects which the Agency contracted out to various universities, research foundations, at least 80 institutions and 185 private researchers participated. Because the Agency funded MKUltra indirectly, many of the individuals were unaware that they were dealing with the Agency. The case confirms that the CIA for 14 years did clandestine operations to control human behavior, in 1977, a Freedom of Information Act request uncovered a cache of 20,000 documents relating to project MKUltra, which led to Senate hearings later that same year. In July 2001, some surviving information regarding MKUltra was declassified, in 1945 the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency was established and given direct responsibility for Operation Paperclip. The program recruited former Nazi scientists, some of whom had identified and prosecuted as war criminals during the Nuremberg Trials. Several secret U. S. government projects grew out of Operation Paperclip and these projects included Project CHATTER, and Project BLUEBIRD, which was renamed Project ARTICHOKE in 1951. Their purpose was to study mind control, interrogation, behavior modification, the projects intentionally obscure CIA cryptonym is made up of the digraph MK, meaning that the project was sponsored by the agencys Technical Services Staff, followed by the word Ultra. Other related cryptonyms include Project MKNAOMI and Project MKDELTA, headed by Sidney Gottlieb, the MKUltra project was started on the order of CIA director Allen Welsh Dulles on April 13,1953. The CIA wanted to use similar methods on their own captives, the CIA was also interested in being able to manipulate foreign leaders with such techniques, and would later invent several schemes to drug Fidel Castro. Experiments were often conducted without the knowledge or consent. In some cases, academic researchers being funded through grants from CIA front organizations were unaware that their work was being used for these purposes. The project attempted to produce a truth drug for use in interrogating suspected Soviet spies during the Cold War. Another MKUltra effort, Subproject 54, was the Navys top secret Perfect Concussion program, however, the program was never carried out
Media related to Brainwashing at Wikimedia Commons
