1.
Cognac
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Cognac, named after the town of Cognac, France, is a variety of brandy. It is produced in the region surrounding the town from which it takes its name, in the French Departements of Charente. For a brandy to bear the name Cognac, an Appellation dorigine contrôlée, in particular, it must be made from specified grapes, of which Ugni blanc, known locally as Saint-Emilion, is the one most widely used. The brandy must be distilled in copper pot stills and aged at least two years in French oak barrels from Limousin or Tronçais. Cognac matures in the way as whiskies and wine when aged in barrels. The six zones are, Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies, Fins Bois, Bon Bois, a blend of Grande and Petite Champagne Cognacs, with at least half coming from Grande Champagne, is known as Fine Champagne. Cognac is a type of brandy and, after the distillation and it is produced by doubly distilling white wines produced in any of the designated growing regions. The white wine used in making cognac is very dry, acidic, though it has been characterized as virtually undrinkable, it is excellent for distillation and aging. It may be only from a strict list of grape varieties. After the grapes are pressed, the juice is left to ferment for two or three weeks, with the native, wild yeasts converting the sugar into alcohol, neither sugar nor sulfur may be added. At this point, the wine is about 7% to 8% alcohol. Distillation takes place in traditionally shaped Charentais copper stills, also known as an alembic, two distillations must be carried out, the resulting eau-de-vie is a colourless spirit of about 70% alcohol. Once distillation is complete, it must be aged in Limousin oak casks for at least two years before it can be sold to the public and it is typically put into casks at an alcohol by volume strength of about 70%. As the cognac interacts with the oak barrel and the air, because the alcohol dissipates faster than the water, the alcohol concentration drops to about 40% over time. The cognac is then transferred to large glass carboys called bonbonnes, since oak barrels stop contributing to flavor after four or five decades, longer aging periods may not be beneficial. The age of the cognac is calculated as that of the youngest component used in the blend, the blend is usually of different ages and from different local areas. This blending, or marriage, of different eaux-de-vie is important to obtain a complexity of flavours absent from an eau-de-vie from a distillery or vineyard. Each cognac house has a master taster, who is responsible for blending the spirits, so that cognac produced by a company will have a consistent house style, in this respect it is similar to the process of blending whisky or non-vintage Champagne to achieve a consistent brand flavor
2.
Snifter
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A snifter is a type of stemware, a short-stemmed glass whose vessel has a wide bottom and a relatively narrow top. It is mostly used to serve aged brown spirits such as bourbon, brandy, most snifters will hold 180–240 mL, but are almost always filled to only a small part of their capacity. Most snifters are designed so that when placed sideways on a level surface, a variant is called a pipe glass or pipe snifter, used for port and brandy
3.
Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
4.
Distillation
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Distillation is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation and condensation. Distillation may result in complete separation, or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture. In either case the process exploits differences in the volatility of the mixtures components, in industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. For example, In the fossil fuel industry distillation is a class of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil for fuels. Distillation permits separation of air into its components — notably oxygen, nitrogen, Distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates out other fermentation products of commercial value. An installation for distillation, especially of alcohol, is a distillery, the distillation equipment is a still. Distillation is an old method of artificial desalination. Aristotle wrote about the process in his Meteorologica and even that ordinary wine possesses a kind of exhalation, later evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Distilled water has been known since at least c,200, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process. Work on distilling other liquids continued in early Byzantine Egypt under the Greek-Egyptian Zosimus of Panopolis, Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han Dynasty, but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the Jin and Southern Song dynasties. A still was found in a site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were more common during the Yuan dynasty, arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments. Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century, fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi the first book dedicated to the subject of distillation. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice and this includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations, riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour. These alembics often featured a system around the beak, using cold water for instance. Today, the retorts and pot stills have largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes
5.
Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
6.
Alcohol by volume
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Alcohol by volume is a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in a given volume of an alcoholic beverage. It is defined as the number of millilitres of pure ethanol present in 100 millilitres of solution at 20 °C, the number of millilitres of pure ethanol is the mass of the ethanol divided by its density at 20 °C, which is 0.78924 g/ml. The ABV standard is used worldwide, the International Organization of Legal Metrology has tables of density of water–ethanol mixtures at different concentrations and temperatures. In some countries, such as the U. K and France, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac and this results in the slight difference in marked % noted later in this article. Mixing two solutions of alcohol of different strengths usually causes a change in volume, mixing pure water with a solution less than 24% by mass causes a slight increase in total volume, whereas the mixing of two solutions above 24% causes a decrease in volume. The phenomenon of volume due to mixing dissimilar solutions is called partial molar volume. Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them. Another way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol proof, for example, 40% abv is 80 proof in the US and 70 proof in the UK. However, since 1980, alcohol proof in the UK has been replaced by abv as a measure of alcohol content, in the United States, a few states regulate and tax alcoholic beverages according to alcohol by weight, expressed as a percentage of total mass. Some brewers print the ABW on beer containers, particularly on low-point versions of domestic beer brands. However, because of the miscibility of alcohol and water, the factor is not constant. 100% ABW, of course, is equivalent to 100% ABV, during the production of wine and beer, yeast is added to a sugary solution. During fermentation, the yeasts consume the sugars and produce alcohol, the density of sugar in water is greater than the density of alcohol in water. A hydrometer is used to measure the change in gravity of the solution before. The volume of alcohol in the solution can then be estimated, there are a number of empirical formulae which brewers and winemakers use to estimate the alcohol content of the liquor made. The simplest method for wine has been described by English author C. J. J, the number 0.7936 is the specific gravity of a 100% ethanol solution. The difference between the starting SG and the final SG measures the specific gravity lost to CO2 release
7.
Alcohol proof
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Alcohol proof is a measure of the content of ethanol in an alcoholic beverage. The term was used in the United Kingdom and was equal to about 1.75 times the alcohol by volume. The UK now uses the ABV standard instead of alcohol proof, in the United States, alcohol proof is defined as twice the percentage of ABV. The measurement of alcohol content and the statement of content on bottles of alcoholic beverages is regulated by law in many countries, the term proof dates back to 16th century England, when spirits were taxed at different rates depending on their alcohol content. Spirits were tested by soaking a pellet of gunpowder in them, if the gunpowder could still burn, the spirits were rated above proof and taxed at a higher rate. As gunpowder would not burn if soaked in rum that contained less than 57. 15% ABV, the gunpowder test was officially replaced by a specific-gravity test in 1816. From the 18th century until 1 January 1980, the UK measured alcohol content by proof spirit, defined as spirit with a gravity of 12⁄13 that of water, or 923 kg/m3, the value 57. 15% is very close to the fraction 4⁄7 =0.5714. Thus, the amounts to declaring that 100° proof spirit has an ABV of 4⁄7. From this, it follows that to convert the ABV to degrees proof, thus pure, 100% alcohol will have 100× = 175° proof, and a spirit containing 40% ABV will have 40× = 70° proof. The proof system in the United States was established around 1848 and was based on percent alcohol rather than specific gravity, 50% alcohol was defined as 100 proof. The use of proof as a measure of alcohol content is now mostly historical, today, liquor is sold in most locations with labels that state its alcohol content as its percentage of alcohol by volume. The European Union follows recommendations of the International Organization of Legal Metrology, oIMLs International Recommendation No.22 provides standards for measuring alcohol strength by volume and by mass. The document does not address alcohol proof or the labeling of bottles, since 1 January 1980, the United Kingdom has used the ABV standard to measure alcohol content, as prescribed by the European Union. The OIML system measures alcohol strength as a percentage of alcohol by volume at a temperature of 20 °C and it replaced the Sikes system of measuring the proof strength of spirits, which had been used in Britain for over 160 years. Britain, which used to use the Sikes scale to display proof and this scale, for all intents and purposes the same as the Gay-Lussac scale previously used by much of mainland Europe, was adopted by all the countries in the European Community in 1980. Using the OIML scale or the Gay-Lussac scale is essentially the same as measuring alcohol by volume except that the figures are expressed in degrees, in the United States, alcohol content is measured in terms of the percentage of alcohol by volume. The Code of Federal Regulations requires that liquor labels must state the percentage of ABV, the regulation permits, but does not require, a statement of the proof provided that it is printed close to the ABV number. For bottled spirits over 100 mL containing no solids, actual alcohol content is allowed to vary within 0. 15% of ABV stated on the label, alcohol proof in the United States is defined as twice the percentage of alcohol by volume
8.
Barrel
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A barrel, cask, or tun is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wooden staves bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons, wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres. Modern barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum, stainless steel, someone who makes barrels is called a barrel maker or cooper. Barrels are only one type of cooperage, other types include, but are not limited to, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, kegs, kilderkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins, and breakers. An aging barrel is used to age wine, distilled spirits such as whiskey, brandy, or rum, beer, tabasco sauce, when a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in. Oxygen enters a barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation, in an environment with 100% relative humidity, very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune, beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of the compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins. The presence of these depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried. After roughly three years, most of a barrels flavor compounds have been leached out and it is well on its way to becoming neutral, barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak, but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages use Japanese cedar, which imparts an unusual, in Peru and Chile, a grape distillate named pisco is either aged in oak or in earthenware. Some wines are fermented on barrel, as opposed to in a container like steel or wine-grade HDPE tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called open-tops. Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, the tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain the desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, some winemakers use 200% new oak, where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are more cheaply flavored by soaking oak chips in them instead of being aged in a barrel. Sherry is stored in 600-litre casks made of North American oak, the casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving the space of two fists empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. NOTE, This section uses both the U. S. –Irish typical spelling whiskey and the British–Canadian typical spelling whisky, laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels
9.
Caramel color
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Caramel color or caramel coloring is a water-soluble food coloring. It is made by heat treatment of carbohydrates, in general in the presence of acids, alkalis, or salts and it is more fully oxidized than caramel candy, and has an odor of burnt sugar and a somewhat bitter taste. Its color ranges from yellow to amber to dark brown. Caramel color is widely approved for use in food globally but application, caramel color is manufactured by heating carbohydrates, either alone or in the presence of acids, alkalis, and/or salts. Caramel color is produced from commercially available nutritive sweeteners consisting of fructose, dextrose, invert sugar, sucrose, malt syrup, molasses, starch hydrolysates, antifoaming agents, such as polyglycerol esters of fatty acids, may be used as processing aids during manufacture. Its color ranges from pale-yellow to amber to dark-brown, caramel color molecules carry either a positive or a negative charge depending upon the reactants used in their manufacture. Problems such as precipitation, flocculation, or migration can be eliminated with the use of a properly charged caramel color for the intended application. Color Intensity is defined as the absorbance of a 1 mg/mL solution in water, in this case, A stands for absorbance and TS stands for total solids. Color Intensity = A ∗100 T S The color tone of the color is also important. This is defined by the Linner Hue Index, which is the measure of the color hue or red characteristics of the caramel color and it is a function of the absorbance of light of wavelengths 510 and 610 nm. In general, the higher the Tinctorial Power, K0.56, the lower the Hue Index, various other indices are in use around the world and there are conversion factors between them. Though the primary function of caramel color is for coloration, it also serves additional functions, the United States Food and Drug Administration classifies and regulates caramel color in Title 21 CFR §73.85 as a generally recognized as safe color additive exempt from certification. Unless a food has a standard of identity, caramel color may be used in foods generally at levels consistent with good manufacturing practice. The IPCS has concluded that caramel color does not exhibit carcinogenicity or mutagenicity, caramel color has excellent microbiological stability. When reacted with sulfites, caramel color may retain traces of sulfite after processing, however, in finished food products, labeling is usually required only for sulfite levels above 10 ppm. Caramel coloring may be derived from a variety of products that are themselves common allergens, starch hydrolysates, malt syrup. North American and European manufacturers mostly use glucose derived from corn or wheat to produce caramel color, which is highly processed and is generally considered gluten-free
10.
Armagnac (brandy)
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Armagnac is a distinctive kind of brandy produced in the Armagnac region in Gascony, southwest France. The resulting spirit is aged in oak barrels before release. Production is overseen by the Institut national de lorigine et de la qualité, Armagnac was one of the first areas in France to begin distilling spirits, but the overall volume of production is far smaller than Cognac production and therefore is less known outside Europe. In addition, it is for the most part made and sold by small producers, Armagnac is the oldest brandy distilled in France, and, in the past, it was consumed for its therapeutic benefits. It cures gout, cankers, and fistula by ingestion, restores the paralysed member by massage and it enlivens the spirit, partaken in moderation, recalls the past to memory, renders men joyous, preserves youth and retards senility. And when retained in the mouth, it loosens the tongue and emboldens the wit, between the 15th and 17th centuries, Armagnac was traded on the markets of Saint-Sever, Mont-de-Marsan, and Aire-sur-lAdour. Subsequently, Dutch merchants began promoting the more widely. The traditional French gourmet dish ortolan has traditionally prepared by force-feeding an ortolan bunting before drowning it in Armagnac. The dish is now prohibited due to laws protecting the bird. The Armagnac region lies between the Adour and Garonne rivers in the foothills of the Pyrenees, the region was granted AOC status in 1936. The official production area is divided into three districts that lie in the departements of Gers, Landes, and Lot-et-Garonne, the region contains 15,000 hectares of grape-producing vines. The Fallières Decree of 25 May 1909 describes the three districts, Bas-Armagnac Armagnac-Ténarèze Haut-Armagnac Each of these areas is controlled by separate appellation regulations, more recently, a new appellation—Blanche dArmagnac—was established to allow the production and export of clear, white brandies that are unaged. Armagnac is traditionally distilled once, resulting in 52% of alcohol and this results in a more fragrant and flavorful spirit than Cognac, where double distillation takes place. Long aging in oak barrels softens the taste and causes the development of more complex flavours, aging in the barrel removes a part of the alcohol and water by evaporation and allows more complex aromatic compounds to appear by oxidation, which further modifies the flavour. Since alcohol evaporates faster than water, the degree is naturally reduced by an average of 0. 4% per year depending on the characteristics of the cellars. When the Armagnac is considered as matured, it is transferred to large glass bottles for storage, the main difference between Armagnac and other spirits is, that due to its relatively low proof, it is generally not diluted with water. Armagnac is sold under several classifications, mostly referring to the age of the constituent brandies, Armagnac is allowed to be sold under vintages. When Armagnacs of different ages have been blended, the age on the bottle refers to the youngest component, a three-star, or VS, Armagnac is a mix of several Armagnacs that have seen at least two years of aging in wood
11.
South West France (wine region)
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South West France, or in French Sud-Ouest, is a wine region in France covering several wine-producing areas situated respectively inland from, and south of, the wine region of Bordeaux. South West France is a heterogeneous region in terms of its wines. It is rare to see wines being sold as Vins du Sud-Ouest, rather, the smaller areas and individual appellations market their wines under their own umbrella, in contrast with common practice in e. g. the Bordeaux region. The areas closest to Bordeaux produce wines in a similar to those of Bordeaux. Further south, wines are still similar to those of Bordeaux. Finally, in the areas closest to the Pyrenees, wines are made from local varieties, such as Gros Manseng, the south-west region was first cultivated by the Romans and had a flourishing wine trade long before the Bordeaux area was planted. As the port city of Bordeaux became established, wines from the High Country would descend via the tributaries of the Dordogne and Garonne to be sent to markets along the Atlantic coast. The climate of the region was generally warmer and more favorable than in Bordeaux, allowing the grapes to be harvested earlier. The police des vins stated that no wine could be traded out of Bordeaux until the majority of Bordelais wine had already been sold, in many years another vintage would actually take place before the High Country wines were sold. South West France includes the following Appellation dOrigine Contrôlée and Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure designations
12.
Pomace
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Pomace, or marc, is the solid remains of grapes, olives, or other fruit after pressing for juice or oil. It contains the skins, pulp, seeds, and stems of the fruit, Grape pomace has traditionally been used to produce pomace brandy and grape seed oil. Today, it is used as fodder, as fertilizer. Pomace is derived from the Latin pomum, the English were the first to use the term pomace to refer to the byproduct of cider production. In the Middle Ages, pomace wine with a low content of three or four percent was widely available. This wine was made by adding water to pomace and then fermenting it, generally, medieval wines were not fermented to dryness, consequently the pomace would retain some residual sugar after fermenting. The Ancient Greeks and Romans used pomace to create a wine that later known as piquette. This was an inferior wine normally given to slaves and common workers, after the wine grapes had been pressed twice, the pomace was soaked in water for a day and pressed for a third time. The resulting liquid was mixed with water to produce a thin. Apple pomace is used to produce pectin and can be used to make ciderkin. Grape pomace is used to produce pomace brandy and piquette, most wine-producing cultures began making some type of pomace brandy after the principles of distillation were understood. Pomace in winemaking differs, depending upon whether white wine or red wine is being produced, in red wine production, pomace is produced after the free run juice is poured off, leaving behind dark blackish-red debris consisting of grape skins and stems. The color of red wine is derived from skin contact during the maceration period, the resulting pomace is more alcoholic and tannic than pomace produced from white wine production. Pomace from the Italian wine Amarone is macerated in Valpolicella wine to produce Ripasso, in white wine production, grapes are quickly pressed after crushing to avoid skin contact with pomace as a byproduct of the pressing. The resulting debris is a pale, greenish-brown color and contains more sugars than it contains tannins. This is the normally used in brandy production. Pomace is produced in quantities in wine production, with disposal an important environmental consideration. Some wineries use the material as fertilizer, while others are selling it to companies for renewable energy
13.
Pomace brandy
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Pomace brandy, also called marc in both English and French, is a liquor distilled from pomace that is left over from winemaking after the grapes are pressed. Alcohol derived from pomace is used as the traditional base spirit of other liquors. Unlike wine brandy, most pomace brandies are neither aged nor coloured, pomace may be either fermented, semi-fermented, or unfermented. During red wine vinification, the pomace is left to soak in the must for the fermentation period and is thus fermented. Fermented pomace is particularly suitable for the production of brandy, as it is soft, dry. Semi-fermented pomace is produced during rosé wine vinification, where the pomace is removed before fermentation is complete, virgin pomace, which is produced during white wine vinification, is not fermented at all. Both semi-fermented and unfermented pomace must be kept in a silo until fermentation is complete, after fermentation is complete, the pomace is distilled
14.
Fruit brandy
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Fruit brandy is a distilled beverage produced from mash, juice, wine or residues of culinary fruits. The term covers a class of spirits produced across the world, and typically excludes beverages made from grapes. Apples, pears, apricots, plums and cherrys are the most commonly used fruits, in British usage, fruit brandy may also refer to liqueurs obtained by maceration of whole fruits, juice or flavoring in a distilled beverage, for example cherry brandy. Such beverages are used similar to cordials, and as an ingredient in cocktails, fruit brandies obtained by distillation are referred by the French term eau de vie. Fruit brandy usually contains 40% to 45% ABV, fruit brandy is customarily drunk chilled or over ice, but is occasionally mixed. Applejack is an American apple brandy made from the distillation of hard cider and it was once made by fractional freezing which would disqualify it as a proper brandy. Brinjevec is a Slovenian brandy distilled from ground and fermented juniper berries, buchu is a South African brandy flavoured with extracts from Agathosma species. Calvados is an apple brandy from the French region of Lower Normandy, coconut brandy is actually made from the sap of borassus flowers. Damassine brandy is made with the fruit of the Damassinier tree in the Jura Mountains of Switzerland Eau de vie is a French term for colorless fruit brandy. This term is applied to grape-based brandy other than Armagnac and Cognac. Kirschwasser is a brandy made from cherries. Kukumakranka brandy is South African and flavoured with the fruit of the Kukumakranka. Obstler is a German word for brandy and often referred to as Schnapps in English. Pálenka or Pálené is a common description for Slovak brandy. It must be distilled from Slovakian wild or domestic fruits, pálinka is a traditional Hungarian fruit brandy. It can only be made with fruits from Hungary, such as plums, apricots, peaches, elderberries, pears, poire Williams is made from the Williams pear, also known as the Bartlett pear. Slivovitz is a straw to yellow-colored plum brandy produced in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Macedonia, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Țuică, also known as horincă or turţ, is a clear Romanian plum brandy. Other Romanian fruit brandies, often distilled from apples, pears, apricots, mulberries, peaches, quinces, somerset cider brandy which dates back to 1678 obtained European protected status in 2011
15.
Eau de vie
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An eau de vie is a clear, colorless fruit brandy that is produced by means of fermentation and double distillation. The fruit flavor is very light. In English-speaking countries, eau de vie refers to a beverage made from fruit other than grapes. Similar terms may be local translations or may specify the fruit used to produce it, although eau de vie is a French term, similar beverages are produced in other countries. In French, however, eau de vie is a term for distilled spirits. Many eaux de vie made from fruits, wine, pomace or rye have a designation of origin within the European Union. Ripe fruit is fermented, distilled, and quickly bottled to preserve the freshness, eaux de vie are typically not aged in wooden casks, hence they are clear. Although this is the practice, some distillers age their products before bottling. When made from pomace, it is called pomace brandy or marc, while most eaux de vie from the Alpine regions of Europe only rest very briefly in glass containers, others are aged in wooden casks before bottling. Thus, calvados, a spirit from northwestern France, is required by law to spend at least two years in wood, and most producers also offer much older products to the market. Some slivovitz are also aged in casks, giving them their golden or amber color. In the Caribbean, eaux-de-vie is made from fruits such as banana, ambarella, guava, mango, pineapple. The term can refer to maple eau de vie, made from maple syrup. Here are some guidelines, Serving size, An eau de vie is usually served as a digestif. Glassware, Some connoisseurs recommend a tulip-shaped glass, others recommend a snifter, buying guide from Food & Wine
16.
Food preservation
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Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage
17.
Alembic
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An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube, used for distilling chemicals. Retorts have the cap and the cucurbit made into one, the anbik is also called the raʾs of the cucurbit. The liquid in the cucurbit is heated or boiled, the vapour rises into the anbik, a modern descendant of the alembic is the pot still, used to produce distilled beverages. Dioscorides ambix is a lid for gathering condensed mercury. For Athenaeus it is a bottle or flask, for later chemists it denotes various parts of crude distillation devices. Alembic drawings appear in works of Cleopatra the Alchemist, Synesius, there were alembics with two and three receivers. According to Zosimos of Panopolis, the alembic was invented by Mary the Jewess, the anbik is described by Ibn al-Awwam in his Kitab al-Filaha, where he explains how rose-water is distilled. Amongst others, it is mentioned in the Mafatih al-Ulum of Khwarizmi, some illustrations occur in the Latin translations of works which are attributed to Geber
18.
Balneo mariae
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A bain-marie is also used to melt ingredients for cooking. Under the outer container of the bain-marie is a heat source, typically the inner container is immersed about halfway into the working fluid. The insulating action of the water helps to keep contents of the pot from boiling or scorching. Using different working fluids in the container will result in different maximum temperatures. A contemporary alternative to the traditional, liquid-filled bain-marie is the electric dry-heat bain-marie, the dry-heat form of electric bains-marie often consumes less energy, requires little cleaning, and can be heated more quickly than traditional versions. They can also operate at higher temperatures, and are much less expensive than their traditional counterparts. Electric bains-marie can also be wet, using hot water or vapor, or steam. The open, bath-type bain-marie heats via a small, hot-water tub, chocolate can be melted in a bain-marie to avoid splitting and caking onto the pot. Special dessert bains-marie have an insulated container and are used as a chocolate fondue. Cheesecake is often baked in a bain-marie to prevent the top from cracking in the centre, custard may be cooked in a bain-marie to keep a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is fully cooked. The humidity from the steam that rises as the water helps keep the top of the custard from becoming too dry. Classic warm sauces, such as Hollandaise and beurre blanc, requiring heat to emulsify the mixture, some charcuterie such as terrines and pâtés are cooked in an oven-type bain-marie. Thickening of condensed milk, such as in confection-making, is easily in a bain-marie. Controlled-temperature bains-marie can be used to heat frozen breast milk before feedings, bains-marie can be used in place of chafing dishes for keeping foods warm for long periods of time, where stovetops or hot plates are inconvenient or too powerful. A bain-marie can be used to re-liquefy hardened honey by placing a glass jar on top of any improvised platform sitting at the bottom of a pot of boiling water. In small scale soap-making, a bain-maries inherent control over maximum temperature makes it optimal for liquefying melt-and-pour soap bases prior to molding them into bars and it offers the advantage of maintaining the base in a liquid state, or reliquefying a solidified base, with minimal deterioration. Similarly, using a bath, traditional wood glue can be melted. The name comes from the medieval-Latin term balneum Mariae—literally, Marys bath—from which the French bain de Marie, the devices invention has been popularly attributed to Mary the Jewess, an ancient alchemist
19.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations
20.
Black Sea Region
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The Black Sea Region is a geographical region of Turkey. 4,137,166 people live in cities and 4,301,747 people in villages and this makes it the only one of the seven regions of Turkey in which more people live in rural rather than urban areas. The Black Sea region has a steep, rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges, a few larger rivers, those cutting back through the Pontic Mountains, have tributaries that flow in broad, elevated basins. The higher slopes facing northwest tend to be densely forested, because of these natural conditions, the Black Sea coast historically has been isolated from Anatolia. The mild, damp climate of the Black Sea coast makes commercial farming profitable. Running from Zonguldak in the west to Rize in the east, the Samsun area, close to the midpoint, is a major tobacco-growing region, east of it are numerous citrus groves. East of Samsun, the area around Trabzon is world-renowned for the production of hazelnuts, all cultivable areas, including mountain slopes wherever they are not too steep, are sown or used as pasture. The western part of the Black Sea region, especially the Zonguldak area, is a center of coal mining, the North Anatolian Mountains in the north are an interrupted chain of folded highlands that generally parallel the Black Sea coast. In the west, the mountains tend to be low, with elevations rarely exceeding 1,500 meters, lengthy, trough-like valleys and basins characterize the mountains. Rivers flow from the mountains toward the Black Sea, the southern slopes—facing the Anatolian Plateau—are mostly unwooded, but the northern slopes contain dense growths of both deciduous and evergreen trees. Black Sea region has a climate, with high and evenly distributed rainfall the year round. At the coast, summers are warm and humid, and winters are cool, the Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of that coast averages 2,500 millimeters annually which is the highest precipitation in the country, snowfall is quite common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two, and it can be heavy once it snows. The water temperature in the whole Turkish Black Sea coast is always cool and fluctuates between 8° and 20 °C throughout the year
21.
Bulgaria
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Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, with a territory of 110,994 square kilometres, Bulgaria is Europes 16th-largest country. Organised prehistoric cultures began developing on current Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period and its ancient history saw the presence of the Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Celts, Romans, Goths, Alans and Huns. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for five centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 led to the formation of the Third Bulgarian State, the following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both world wars. In 1946 it became a one-party socialist state as part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc, in December 1989 the ruling Communist Party allowed multi-party elections, which subsequently led to Bulgarias transition into a democracy and a market-based economy. Bulgarias population of 7.2 million people is predominantly urbanised, most commercial and cultural activities are centred on the capital and largest city, Sofia. The strongest sectors of the economy are industry, power engineering. The countrys current political structure dates to the adoption of a constitution in 1991. Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic with a high degree of political, administrative. Human activity in the lands of modern Bulgaria can be traced back to the Paleolithic, animal bones incised with man-made markings from Kozarnika cave are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans. Organised prehistoric societies in Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture, Vinča culture, the latter is credited with inventing gold working and exploitation. Some of these first gold smelters produced the coins, weapons and jewellery of the Varna Necropolis treasure and this site also offers insights for understanding the social hierarchy of the earliest European societies. Thracians, one of the three primary groups of modern Bulgarians, began appearing in the region during the Iron Age. In the late 6th century BC, the Persians conquered most of present-day Bulgaria, and kept it until 479 BC. After the division of the Roman Empire in the 5th century the area fell under Byzantine control, by this time, Christianity had already spread in the region. A small Gothic community in Nicopolis ad Istrum produced the first Germanic language book in the 4th century, the first Christian monastery in Europe was established around the same time by Saint Athanasius in central Bulgaria. From the 6th century the easternmost South Slavs gradually settled in the region, in 680 Bulgar tribes under the leadership of Asparukh moved south across the Danube and settled in the area between the lower Danube and the Balkan, establishing their capital at Pliska
22.
Crimea
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The peninsula is located south of the Ukrainian region of Kherson and west of the Russian region of Kuban. It is connected to Kherson Oblast by the Isthmus of Perekop and is separated from Kuban by the Strait of Kerch, the Arabat Spit is located to the northeast, a narrow strip of land that separates a system of lagoons named Sivash from the Sea of Azov. Crimea has historically been at the boundary between the world and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Crimea and adjacent territories were united in the Crimean Khanate during the 15th to 18th century, in 1783, Crimea was annexed by the Russian Empire. It became the Autonomous Republic of Crimea within newly independent Ukraine in 1991, with Sevastopol having its own administration, within Ukraine, the ex-Soviet Black Sea Fleet and its facilities were divided between Russias Black Sea Fleet and the Ukrainian Naval Forces. The two navies shared some of the harbours and piers, while others were demilitarised or used by either country. Sevastopol remained the location of the Russian Black Sea Fleet headquarters with the Ukrainian Naval Forces Headquarters also based in the city, most of the international community does not recognize the annexation and considers Crimea to be Ukrainian territory. Russia currently administers the peninsula as two federal subjects, the Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol. Ukraine continues to assert its right over the peninsula, the classical name Tauris or Taurica is from the Greek Ταυρική, after the peninsulas Scytho-Cimmerian inhabitants, the Tauri. In English usage since the modern period the Crimean Khanate is referred to as Crim Tartary. The Italian form Crimea also becomes current during the 18th century, the omission of the definite article in English became common during the later 20th century. The name Crimea follows the Italian form from the Crimean Tatar name for the city Qırım which served as a capital of the Crimean province of the Golden Horde, the name of the capital was extended to the entire peninsula at some point during Ottoman suzerainty. The origin of the word Qırım is uncertain, suggestions argued in various sources include, a corruption of Cimmerium. A derivation from the Turkic term qirum, from qori-, other suggestions that have not been supported by sources but are apparently based on similarity in sound include, a derivation from the Greek Cremnoi. However, he identifies the port, not in Crimea, no evidence has been identified that this name was ever in use for the peninsula. The classical name was revived in 1802 in the name of the Russian Taurida Governorate, in the 8th century BCE the Cimmerians migrated to the region and subsequently the Scythians as well it being the site of Greek colonies. The most important city was Chersonesos at the edge of todays Sevastopol, the Persian Achaemenid Empire expanded to Crimea. Later occupiers included the Romans, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, the Byzantine Empire, Khazars, the Kipchaks, the Golden Horde, consideration of the succeeding residents of the peninsula by their linguistic grouping is also of relevance
23.
Georgia (country)
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Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi, Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres, and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy, during the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century, a unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various treaties with Iran. Since the establishment of the modern Georgian republic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil, the countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and it contains two de facto independent regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgias sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Georgia probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān, starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi, the medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the name Sakartvelo consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i, specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, ancient Greeks and Romans referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. Today the full, official name of the country is Georgia, before the 1995 constitution came into force the countrys name was the Republic of Georgia. The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era, the proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC. The earliest evidence of wine to date has found in Georgia. In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, the classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east
24.
Sulphur
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Sulfur or sulphur is a chemical element with symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent, and nonmetallic, under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid at room temperature. Chemically, sulfur reacts with all elements except for gold, platinum, iridium, tellurium, though sometimes found in pure, native form, sulfur usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in ancient India, ancient Greece, China, in the Bible, sulfur is called brimstone. Today, almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas, the greatest commercial use of the element is the production of sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers, and other chemical processes. The element sulfur is used in matches, insecticides, and fungicides, many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smells of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, grapefruit, and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes, sulfur is an essential element for all life, but almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides. Three amino acids and two vitamins are organosulfur compounds, many cofactors also contain sulfur including glutathione and thioredoxin and iron–sulfur proteins. Disulfides, S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength and insolubility of the keratin, found in outer skin, hair. Sulfur is one of the chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all organisms. Sulfur is derived from the Latin word sulpur, which was Hellenized to sulphur, the spelling sulfur appears toward the end of the Classical period. In 12th-century Anglo-French, it was sulfre, in the 14th century the Latin ph was restored, for sulphre, the parallel f~ph spellings continued in Britain until the 19th century, when the word was standardized as sulphur. Sulfur was the form chosen in the United States, whereas Canada uses both, the IUPAC adopted the spelling sulfur in 1990, as did the Nomenclature Committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1992, restoring the spelling sulfur to Britain. Sulfur forms polyatomic molecules with different chemical formulas, the best-known allotrope being octasulfur, cyclo-S8. The point group of cyclo-S8 is D4d and its dipole moment is 0 D. Octasulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid that is odorless and it melts at 115.21 °C, boils at 444.6 °C and sublimes easily. At 95.2 °C, below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur changes from α-octasulfur to the β-polymorph, the structure of the S8 ring is virtually unchanged by this phase change, which affects the intermolecular interactions. At higher temperatures, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs, molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above 200 °C
25.
Copper(II) sulfate
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Copper sulfate, also known as cupric sulfate, or copper sulphate, is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula CuSO4x, where x can range from 0 to 5. The pentahydrate is the most common form, older names for this compound include blue vitriol, bluestone, vitriol of copper, and Roman vitriol. The pentahydrate, the most commonly encountered salt, is bright blue and it exothermically dissolves in water to give the aquo complex 2+, which has octahedral molecular geometry. The structure of the solid pentahydrate reveals a structure wherein copper is again octahedral. The Cu4 centers are interconnected by sulfate anions to form chains, anhydrous copper sulfate is a white powder. Copper sulfate is produced industrially by treating copper metal with hot concentrated sulfuric acid or its oxides with dilute sulfuric acid, for laboratory use, copper sulfate is usually purchased. Copper sulfate can also be produced by slowly leaching low grade ore in air. Commercial copper sulfate is usually about 98% pure copper sulfate, and may contain traces of water. Anhydrous Copper sulfate is 39.81 percent copper and 60.19 percent sulfate by mass, four types of crystal size are provided based on its usage, large crystals, small crystals, snow crystals, and windswept powder. Copper sulfate pentahydrate decomposes before melting and it loses two water molecules upon heating at 63 °C, followed by two more at 109 °C and the final water molecule at 200 °C. Dehydration proceeds by decomposition of the moiety, two opposing aqua groups are lost to give a diaquacopper moiety. The second dehydration step occurs with the final two groups are lost. Complete dehydration occurs when the only unbound water molecule is lost, at 650 °C, copper sulfate decomposes into copper oxide and sulfur trioxide. Copper sulfate reacts with concentrated acid to give tetrachlorocuprate, Cu2+ +4 Cl− → CuCl2−4 Copper sulfate is commonly included in childrens chemistry sets. It is often used to grow crystals in schools and in copper plating experiments, Copper sulfate is often used to demonstrate an exothermic reaction, in which steel wool or magnesium ribbon is placed in an aqueous solution of CuSO4. It is used to demonstrate the principle of mineral hydration, the pentahydrate form, which is blue, is heated, turning the copper sulfate into the anhydrous form which is white, while the water that was present in the pentahydrate form evaporates. When water is added to the anhydrous compound, it turns back into the pentahydrate form, regaining its blue color. Copper sulfate pentahydrate can easily be produced by crystallization from solution as copper sulfate is quite hygroscopic, in an illustration of a single metal replacement reaction, iron is submerged in a solution of copper sulfate
26.
Pot still
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A pot still is a type of distillation apparatus or still used to distill alcoholic spirits such as whisky or cognac. Pot stills operate on a batch distillation basis, traditionally constructed from copper, pot stills are made in a range of shapes and sizes depending on the quantity and style of spirit desired. By law, cognac, Irish and Scotch malt whiskies, during first distillation, the pot still is filled about two-thirds full of a fermented liquid with an alcohol content of about 7-12%. In the case of distillation, the liquid used is a beer, while in the case of brandy production. The pot still is then heated so that the liquid boils, the liquid being distilled is a mixture of mainly water and alcohol, along with smaller amounts of other by-products of fermentation, such as aldehydes and esters. Alcohol has a boiling point of 78.4 °C, compared with pure water. As alcohol has a boiling point, it is more volatile. Therefore, the concentration of alcohol in the vapour phase above the liquid, is higher than in the liquid itself and this distillate, called low wines has a concentration of about 25–35% alcohol by volume. These low wines can be distilled a second time in a pot still to yield a distillate with a higher concentration of alcohol. In the case of many Irish whiskeys, the spirit is further distilled a third time, however, Cognac and most single malt scotch whiskys are only distilled twice. During distillation, the initial and final portions of spirit which condense may be captured separately from that in the centre or heart of the distillation and this is because these portions of the distillate may contain high concentrations of methanol, or other congeners. The modern pot still is a descendant of the alembic, a distillation device. The largest pot still ever used was located in the Old Midleton Distillery, County Cork, constructed in 1825, it had a capacity of 31,618 imperial gallons and is no longer in use. The largest pot stills currently in use are located in the neighbouring New Midleton Distillery, County Cork, Ireland
27.
Hydrolysis
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Hydrolysis usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis, generally, hydrolysis or saccharification is a step in the degradation of a substance. Hydrolysis can be the reverse of a reaction in which two molecules join together into a larger one and eject a water molecule. Thus hydrolysis adds water to break down, whereas condensation builds up by removing water, usually hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a substance. Sometimes this addition causes both substance and water molecule to split into two parts, in such reactions, one fragment of the target molecule gains a hydrogen ion. A common kind of hydrolysis occurs when a salt of an acid or weak base is dissolved in water. Water spontaneously ionizes into hydroxide anions and hydronium cations, the salt also dissociates into its constituent anions and cations. For example, sodium acetate dissociates in water into sodium and acetate ions, sodium ions react very little with the hydroxide ions whereas the acetate ions combine with hydronium ions to produce acetic acid. In this case the net result is an excess of hydroxide ions. For example, dissolving sulfuric acid in water is accompanied by hydrolysis to give hydronium and bisulfate, for a more technical discussion of what occurs during such a hydrolysis, see Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory. Acid–base-catalysed hydrolyses are very common, one example is the hydrolysis of amides or esters and their hydrolysis occurs when the nucleophile attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group of the ester or amide. In an aqueous base, hydroxyl ions are better nucleophiles than polar molecules such as water, in acids, the carbonyl group becomes protonated, and this leads to a much easier nucleophilic attack. The products for both hydrolyses are compounds with carboxylic acid groups, perhaps the oldest commercially practiced example of ester hydrolysis is saponification. It is the hydrolysis of a triglyceride with a base such as sodium hydroxide. During the process, glycerol is formed, and the fatty acids react with the base and these salts are called soaps, commonly used in households. In addition, in living systems, most biochemical reactions take place during the catalysis of enzymes, the catalytic action of enzymes allows the hydrolysis of proteins, fats, oils, and carbohydrates. As an example, one may consider proteases and they catalyse the hydrolysis of interior peptide bonds in peptide chains, as opposed to exopeptidases. However, proteases do not catalyse the hydrolysis of all kinds of proteins and their action is stereo-selective, Only proteins with a certain tertiary structure are targeted as some kind of orienting force is needed to place the amide group in the proper position for catalysis
28.
Batch distillation
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This is in contrast with continuous distillation where the feedstock is added and the distillate drawn off without interruption. Batch distillation has always been an important part of the production of seasonal and it is a very frequent separation process in the pharmaceutical industry. The simplest and most frequently used batch distillation configuration is the batch rectifier, including the alembic, the batch rectifier consists of a pot, rectifying column, a condenser, some means of splitting off a portion of the condensed vapour as reflux, and one or more receivers. The pot is filled with liquid mixture and heated, vapour flows upwards in the rectifying column and condenses at the top. Usually, the condensate is initially returned to the column as reflux. This contacting of vapour and liquid considerably improves the separation, generally, this step is named start-up. The first condensate is the head, and it contains undesirable components, the last condensate is the feints and it is also undesirable, although it adds flavor. In between is the heart and this forms the desired product, the head and feints may be thrown out, refluxed, or added to the next batch of mash/juice, according to the practice of the distiller. After some time, a part of the condensate is withdrawn continuously as distillate and it is accumulated in the receivers. As the supply of the material is limited and lighter components are removed, the other simple batch distillation configuration is the batch stripper. The batch stripper consists of the parts as the batch rectifier. However, in case, the charge pot is located above the stripping column. During operation the high boiling constituents are primarily separated from the charge mixture, the liquid in the pot is depleted in the high boiling constituents, and enriched in low boiling ones. The high boiling product is routed into the bottom product receivers, the residual low boiling product is withdrawn from the charge pot. This mode of batch distillation is very seldom applied in industrial processes, a third feasible batch column configuration is the middle vessel column. The middle vessel column consists of both a rectifying and a section and the charge pot is located at the middle of the column. Used the batch distillation regions to determine the sequence of the fractions, according to Ewell and Welch, a batch distillation region gives the same fractions upon rectification of any mixture lying within it. Bernot et al. examined the still and distillate paths for the determination of the boundaries under high number of stages and high reflux ratio
29.
Column still
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A column still, also called a continuous still, patent still or Coffey still, is a variety of still consisting of two columns. Sir Anthony Perrier was operator of the Spring Lane distillery in Cork and this meant small portions of fermented wash received the greatest amount of heat, thereby increasing the amount of potable alcohol that was collected. In 1828, Perriers invention inspired a Scotsman, Robert Stein and he called it a patent still. It was first used at the Cameron Bridge Grain Distillery in Fife, despite numerous presentations in the British Isles and in Europe, he never got the financial support needed to get his project off the ground and into the distilleries. However, a demonstration of Steins still observed by a Dublin excise tax collector yielded the greatest result, the design was to be improved and patented by an Irishman, Aeneas Coffey. Educated at Dublins Trinity College, Coffey had ample opportunities to all manner of still designs because he had worked for a quarter of a century as an excise tax collector. He knew how much could be produced in a period of time. He also knew that the new continuous stills had a flaw, to obtain a higher proof spirit, receiving vessels had to be changed so multiple distillations could take place. Coffey opened the Dock Distillery on Grand Canal Street in Dublin, the main feature of his operation was a customised still of his own design—or rather Stein’s design with a minor modification. Coffey inserted two pipes into Stein’s column still that allowed a portion of the vapours to re-circulate into the still instead of flowing into the receiver with the spirit. This eliminated the need for multi-distillation and produced a spirit with a higher proof, in 1830, he was granted Patent #5974 for his design, a two-column continuous still. Nearly every liquor producer in Europe and the Americas embraced Coffeys new continuous column still and he closed Dock Distillery four years later and devoted all of his time to building and installing stills in distilleries owned by others. At the time, Irish distillers were the dominant force in global whiskey production, unfortunately for Coffey, his invention was shunned by the Irish who considered the whiskey produced from his still as bland and tasteless. They decided to persevere with their famous pot still whiskey and Coffey was forced to look overseas, the first column in a column still has steam rising and wash descending through several levels. The second column carries the alcohol from the wash, where it circulates until it can condense at the required strength, column stills behave like a series of single pot stills, formed in a long vertical tube. The tube is filled with either porous packing or bubble plates, the rising vapor, which is low in alcohol, starts to condense in the cooler, higher level of the column. The temperature of each successively higher stage is lower than the previous stage. Whereas a single pot still charged with wine might yield a vapor enriched to 40–50% alcohol, a column still can achieve a vapor alcohol content of 96%, further enrichment is only possible by absorbing the remaining water using other means, such as hydrophilic chemicals or azeotropic distillation
30.
Continuous distillation
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Continuous distillation, a form of distillation, is an ongoing separation in which a mixture is continuously fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams. Distillation is the separation or partial separation of a liquid feed mixture into components or fractions by selective boiling, the process produces at least two output fractions. Batch distillation is used when smaller quantities are distilled. In a continuous distillation, each of the streams is taken simultaneously throughout operation, therefore. In practice when there are multiple distillate fractions, the exit points are located at different heights on a fractionating column. The bottoms fraction can be taken from the bottom of the column or unit. Each fraction may contain one or more components, when distilling crude oil or a similar feedstock, each fraction contains many components of similar volatility and other properties. Although it is possible to run a small-scale or laboratory continuous distillation, distillation is one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. Continuous distillation is used widely in the process industries where large quantities of liquids have to be distilled. These fractions are the origin of the fractional distillation or fractionation. It is often not worthwhile separating the components in these fractions any further based on product requirements, if this vapor is then separated and condensed into a liquid, it becomes richer in the lower boiling point component of the original mixture. This is what happens in a distillation column. A mixture is heated up, and routed into the distillation column, on entering the column, the feed starts flowing down but part of it, the component with lower boiling point, vaporizes and rises. However, as it rises, it cools and while part of it continues up as vapor, image 3 depicts a simple continuous fractional distillation tower for separating a feed stream into two fractions, an overhead distillate product and a bottoms product. The lightest products exit from the top of the columns and the heaviest products exit from the bottom of the column, the overhead stream may be cooled and condensed using a water-cooled or air-cooled condenser. The bottoms reboiler may be a steam-heated or hot oil-heated heat exchanger, in a continuous distillation, the system is kept in a steady state or approximate steady state. Steady state means that quantities related to the process do not change as time passes during operation, such constant quantities include feed input rate, output stream rates, heating and cooling rates, reflux ratio, and temperatures, pressures, and compositions at every point. Unless the process is disturbed due to changes in feed, heating, ambient temperature, or condensing, even when a variation in conditions occurs, modern process control methods are commonly able to gradually return the continuous process to another steady state again
31.
Fractional distillation
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Generally the component parts have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere. If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, heat source, such as a hot plate with a bath, and ideally with a magnetic stirrer. g. As an example consider the distillation of a mixture of water, ethanol boils at 78.4 °C while water boils at 100 °C. So, by heating the mixture, the most volatile component will concentrate to a degree in the vapor leaving the liquid. Some mixtures form azeotropes, where the mixture boils at a lower temperature than either component, in this example, a mixture of 96% ethanol and 4% water boils at 78.2 °C, the mixture is more volatile than pure ethanol. For this reason, ethanol cannot be purified by direct fractional distillation of ethanol-water mixtures. The apparatus is assembled as in the diagram, the mixture is put into the round bottomed flask along with a few anti-bumping granules, and the fractionating column is fitted into the top. The fractional distillation column is set up with the source at the bottom on the still pot. As the distance from the stillpot increases, a gradient is formed in the column, it is coolest at the top. As the mixed vapor ascends the temperature gradient, some of the vapor condenses and revaporizes along the temperature gradient, each time the vapor condenses and vaporizes, the composition of the more volatile component in the vapor increases. This distills the vapor along the length of the column, the vapor condenses on the glass platforms, known as trays, inside the column, and runs back down into the liquid below, refluxing distillate. The hottest tray is at the bottom and the coolest is at the top, at steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray are at equilibrium. The most volatile component of the exits as a gas at the top of the column. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, the process continues until all the ethanol boils out of the mixture. This point can be recognized by the rise in temperature shown on the thermometer. The above explanation reflects the theoretical way fractionation works, normal laboratory fractionation columns will be simple glass tubes filled with a packing, often small glass helices of 4 to 7 mm diameter. Such a column can be calibrated by the distillation of a known mixture system to quantify the column in terms of number of theoretical trays, in laboratory distillation, several types of condensers are commonly found. The Liebig condenser is simply a tube within a water jacket
32.
Oak (wine)
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Oak is used in winemaking to vary the color, flavor, tannin profile and texture of wine. It can be introduced in the form of a barrel during the fermentation or aging periods, Oak barrels can impart other qualities to wine through evaporation and low level exposure to oxygen. In early wine history, the amphora was the vessel of choice for the storage, due to the perishable nature of wood material it is difficult to trace the usage of barrels in history. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that ancient Mesopotamians used barrels made of wood to transport wine along the Euphrates. Palm is a material to bend and fashion into barrels, however. The use of oak has been prevalent in winemaking for at least two millennia, first coming into use during the time of the Roman Empire. In time, winemakers discovered that beyond just storage convenience, wine kept in oak barrels took on properties that improved it by making it softer and, in some cases, better-tasting. Robert Mondavi is credited with expanding the knowledge of winemakers in the United States about the different types of oak, the porous nature of an oak barrel allows evaporation and oxygenation to occur in wine but typically not at levels that would cause oxidation or spoilage. The typical 59-gallon barrel can lose anywhere from 5 1⁄2 to 6 1⁄2 gallons in a year through evaporation and this allows the wine to concentrate its flavor and aroma compounds. Small amounts of oxygen are allowed to pass through the barrel, the chemical properties of oak can have a profound effect on wine. Phenols within the wood interact to produce vanilla type flavors and can give the impression of tea notes or sweetness, the degree of toast on the barrel can also impart different properties affecting the tannin levels as well as the aggressive wood flavors. The hydrolyzable tannins present in wood, known as ellagitannins, are derived from structures in the wood. They help protect the wine from oxidation and reduction, wines can be barrel fermented in oak or placed in oak after fermentation for a period of aging or maturation. Wine matured in oak receives more oak flavors and properties than wine fermented in oak because yeast cells present in fermentation interact with, when dead yeast cells are removed as lees some oak properties go with them. Characteristics of white wines fermented in oak include a pale color, white wines fermented in steel and matured in oak will have a darker coloring due to heavy phenolic compounds still present. Flavor notes commonly used to describe wines exposed to oak include caramel, cream, smoke, spice, chardonnay is a varietal with very distinct flavor profiles when fermented in oak, which include coconut, cinnamon and cloves notes. The toastiness of the barrel can bring out varying degrees of mocha, the length of time a wine spends in the barrel is dependent on the varietal and finished style the winemaker desires. New World Pinot noir may spend less than a year in oak, premium Cabernet Sauvignon may spend two years
33.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
34.
Solera
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The purpose of this labor-intensive process is the maintenance of a reliable style and quality of the beverage over time. Since the origin of this process is undoubtedly out of the Iberian peninsula, most of the terminology was in Spanish, Portuguese. In the solera process, a succession of containers are filled with the product over a series of equal aging intervals, a group of one or more containers, called scales, criaderas, or clases are filled for each interval. At the end of the interval after the last scale is filled, the oldest scale in the solera is tapped for part of its content, which is bottled. Then that scale is refilled from the next oldest scale, and that one in succession from the second-oldest, down to the youngest scale and this procedure is repeated at the end of each aging interval. The transferred product mixes with the product in the next barrel. No container is ever drained, so some of the earlier product always remains in each container and this remnant diminishes to a tiny level, but there can be significant traces of product much older than the average, depending on the transfer fraction. The upper quality levels implied by the system requires the bottled wine to be greater in age than the regulatory requirements. The age of product from the first bottling is the number of times the aging interval. As the solera matures, the age of product asymptotically approaches one plus the number of scales divided by the fraction of a scale transferred or bottled. For instance, suppose the solera consists of three barrels of wine, and half of each barrel is transferred once a year, at the end of the third year, half the third barrel is bottled. This first bottling is aged three years, the third barrel is then refilled with by transferring half of the wine from the second barrel. The wine transferred from the barrel has an average age of 2.5 years. The second bottling will then be half 3.5 years old and half four years old, the third bottling will be an average age of 4.25 years. After 20 years, the output of the solera would be a mix of wine from 3 to 20 years old, the average age asymptotically converges on five years as the solera continues. The output of the solera is the fraction of the last scale taken off for bottling each cycle, the amount of product tied up in the solera is usually many times larger than the production. This means that a solera is a large capital investment for a winemaker. If done with actual barrels, the producer may have several soleras running in parallel, for a small producer, a solera may be the largest capital investment, and a valuable asset to be passed down to descendants
35.
Bartending terminology
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Various unique terminology is used in bartending. In bartending, the straight up refers to an alcoholic drink that is shaken or stirred with ice. This is contrasted with a drink served neat – a single, unmixed liquor served without being chilled and without any water, ice, neat drinks are typically served in a rocks glass, shot glass, snifter, Glencairn glass, or copita. On the rocks refers to liquor poured over ice cubes, the terms straight and straight up can be ambiguous, as they are sometimes used to mean neat, up is less ambiguous. A pony is slang for one US fluid ounce of spirit, while the shot of alcohol is a 1. 5-US-fluid-ounce jigger. This method breaks down into convenient sub-measures, each count is approximately one-quarter fluid ounce, making a pony 4 counts, there is substantial confusion in the usage of neat, or straight up, straight, and up. In the context of describing ways of serving a drink, all of these mean served without ice, neat and up are relatively unambiguous. The term neat means a single, unmixed liquor at room temperature, straight is often used interchangeably with neat. However, straight is also used to refer to a spirit that is in an unmixed state in general. For example, many bourbons are identified as Kentucky straight bourbon whiskey on their bottling labels, so sometimes straight may be used to mean either straight up or neat, and clarification may be needed to determine the exact manner for serving it. With a twist signals the bartender to add a twist of lemon or lime to the cocktail, often, the bartender will hang the rind of the citrus on the glass as a garnish. Cocktails are generally served chilled, although some may be served either with or without ice, cocktails can be served frozen which is with crushed ice instead of cubes. Unmixed liquors may be served neat, up, or on the rocks. High quality whisky and other aged liquor is most often served neat, a shot of whisky, tequila, or vodka, when served neat in a shot glass, is often accompanied by a chaser or a water back. These terms commingle as well, it is common in locales to hear a beer back ordered as the chaser to a shot. A drink may specifically be ordered no chaser as well, a chaser in the UK however usually refers to a shot taken after a pint of beer or similar
36.
Wine glass
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A wine glass is a type of glass stemware that is used to drink and taste wine. It is generally composed of three parts, the bowl, stem, and foot, selection of a particular wine glass for a wine style is important, as the glass shape can influence its perception. The appropriate way to hold a glass, especially when drinking chilled wine, is to grasp it by the stem. Wine glasses, with the exception of the glass, are generally not coloured or frosted as doing so would diminish appreciation of the wines colour. The effect of glass shape on the taste of wine has not been demonstrated by any scientific study and it is however believed by some that the shape of the glass is important, as it concentrates the flavour and aroma to emphasize the varietals characteristic. One common belief is that the shape of the glass directs the wine itself into the best area of the mouth from the varietal and this is based on false ideas about the nature of taste buds on the tongue, such as the thoroughly discredited tongue map. Generally, the opening of the glass is not wider than the widest part of the bowl, most wine glasses have stems, although stemless wine glasses are now available in a variety of sizes and shapes as well. These glasses are used more casually than their traditional counterparts. Most common wine glasses can be divided into three types, red glasses, white wine glasses and champagne flutes. Wine tumblers are also increasing in popularity, glasses for red wine are characterized by their rounder, wider bowl, which increases the rate of oxidation. As oxygen from the air chemically interacts with the wine, flavor and this process of oxidation is generally considered more compatible with red wines, whose complex flavours are said to be smoothed out after being exposed to air. Burgundy glass, broader than the Bordeaux glass, it has a bowl to accumulate aromas of more delicate red wines such as Pinot noir. This style of glass directs wine to the tip of the tongue, white wine glasses vary enormously in size and shape, from the delicately tapered Champagne flute, to the wide and shallow glasses used to drink Chardonnay. Different shaped glasses are used to accentuate the unique characteristics of different styles of wine, wide mouthed glasses function similarly to red wine glasses discussed above, promoting rapid oxidation which alters the flavor of the wine. White wines which are best served slightly oxidized are generally full flavored wines, for lighter, fresher styles of white wine, oxidation is less desirable as it is seen to mask the delicate nuances of the wine. To preserve a crisp, clean flavor, many white wine glasses will have a mouth, which reduces surface area and in turn. In the case of sparkling wine, such as Champagne or Asti, Champagne flutes are characterised by a long stem with a tall, narrow bowl on top. The shape is designed to keep sparkling wine desirable during its consumption, just as with wine glasses, the flute is designed to be held by the stem to help prevent the heat from the hand from warming the liquid inside
37.
Beer glassware
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Beer glassware comprises the drinking vessels made of glass designed or commonly used for drinking beer. Several kinds of beer glassware have a stem which serves to prevent the heat of the drinkers hand from warming the beer. Beer glasses are made from a variety of materials not limited to glass, including stoneware, earthenware, pewter, a pilsner glass is used for many types of light beers, including pale lager or pilsner. Pilsner glasses are generally smaller than a pint glass, usually in 200 ml,250 ml,300 ml,330 ml or 400 ml sizes and they are tall, slender and tapered. The slender glass reveals the colour, and carbonation of the beer, weizen glasses are sometimes mistakenly called Pilsner glasses because they are somewhat similar in appearance, but true Pilsner glasses have an even taper without any amount of curvature. The definition of a pint differs by country, thus a pint glass will reflect the regular measure of beer in that country, in the UK, law stipulates that a servings of beer be fixed at the imperial pint. Half-pint glasses of 10 imp fl oz are generally smaller versions of pint glasses, quarter-pint glasses of 5 imp fl oz also exist, and are popular in Australia, where they are known as a pony. These may simply be smaller pint glasses, or may be a pony glass. In the US, a pint is 16 US fl oz, glasses of 500ml are usually called pints in American parlance. Pony glasses, once popular, are found in older. The common shapes of pint glass are, Conical glasses are shaped, as the name suggests, as a truncated cone around 6 inches tall. The term nonic derives from no nick, jug glasses, or dimple mugs, are shaped more like a large mug with a handle. They are moulded with a pattern of thickened glass on the outside. The dimples prevent the glass slipping out of the fingers in a bowl. These design features became less important when manual washing was superseded by machine washing from the 1960s onwards, dimpled glasses are now rarer than the other types and are regarded as more traditional. This sort of glass is known as a Handle due to the handle on the glass. They are popular with the generation and people with restricted movement in their hands which can make holding a usual pint glass difficult. They have recently started to make a renaissance, especially in northern Britain, Beer connoisseurs sometimes invest in special, non-traditional glassware to enhance their appreciation
38.
Cocktail
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When used to refer to any generic alcoholic mixed drink, cocktail may mean any beverage that contains two or more ingredients if at least one of those ingredients contains alcohol. When a mixed drink contains only a spirit and a mixer, such as soda or fruit juice, it is a highball. When a cocktail contains only a spirit and a liqueur, it is a duo. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, the origin of the word cocktail is disputed. S. The first definition of cocktail known to be an alcoholic beverage appeared in The Balance and Columbian Repository May 13,1806, editor Harry Croswell answered the question, What is a cocktail. It is said, also to be of use to a democratic candidate, because a person. Anatoly Liberman endorses as highly probable the theory advanced by Låftman and they were called cocktailed horses, later simply cocktails. By extension, the cocktail was applied to a vulgar, ill-bred person raised above his station, assuming the position of a gentleman. The mention of water as an ingredient, Låftman concluded that cocktail was an acceptable alcoholic drink, but diluted, not a purebred, a thing raised above its station. Hence the highly appropriate slang word used earlier about inferior horses, several authors have theorized that cocktail may be a corruption of cock ale. David Wondrich also speculates that cocktail is a reference to a practice for perking up an old horse by means of a ginger suppository so that the animal would cock its tail up, there is a lack of clarity on the origins of cocktails. Traditionally cocktails were a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, but by the 1860s, a cocktail frequently included a liqueur. The first publication of a guide which included cocktail recipes was in 1862 — How to Mix Drinks, or, The Bon Vivants Companion. In addition to recipes for punches, sours, slings, cobblers, shrubs, toddies, flips, a key ingredient differentiating cocktails from other drinks in this compendium was the use of bitters. Mixed drinks popular today that conform to this meaning of cocktail include the Old Fashioned whiskey cocktail, the Sazerac cocktail. The term highball appears during the 1890s to distinguish a drink composed only of a distilled spirit, the first cocktail party ever thrown was allegedly by Mrs. Julius S. Walsh Jr. of St. Louis, Missouri, in May 1917. Mrs. Walsh invited 50 guests to her home at noon on a Sunday, the party lasted an hour, until lunch was served at 1 pm. The site of this first cocktail party still stands, in 1924, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis bought the Walsh mansion at 4510 Lindell Boulevard, and it has served as the local archbishops residence ever since
39.
Brandy Alexander
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A Brandy Alexander is a brandy-based cocktail consisting of cognac and crème de cacao that became popular during the early 20th century. It is a variation of an earlier, gin-based cocktail called simply an Alexander, the cocktail is widely known for having been John Lennons favorite drink. There are many rumors about its origins, some sources say it was created at the time of the London wedding of Princess Mary and Viscount Lascelles in 1922. Drama critic and Algonquin Round Table member Alexander Woollcott claimed that it was named after him, other sources say it was named after the Russian tsar Alexander II. In the movie Days of Wine and Roses, alcoholic Joe Clay takes Kirsten Arnesen out on a date, when she explains that she dislikes liquor but likes chocolate, he orders her a Brandy Alexander. This begins Kirstens descent into alcoholism, in No More Orchids, Carole Lombard drinks them. In the James Gray movie Two Lovers, Michelle tells Leonard she drinks Brandy Alexanders with her boyfriend Ronald, Leonard orders one at a restaurant to impress her, but ruins the effect by mistaking the stirrer for a straw. In the 1981 film Tattoo, Bruce Dern takes Maude Adams out for dinner, when she comments that he does not look the Brandy Alexander type, he replies, I like the foam. it reminds me of the ocean. Singer/songwriter Ron Sexsmith and singer/songwriter Feist wrote a song that compares a lover to the drink, the song appeared on Feists 2007 album The Reminder as well as Sexsmiths 2008 album Exit Strategy of the Soul. The drink is mentioned in the song Fraternity Blues by American singer-songwriter Townes Van Zandt, the song Brandy Alexander by American indie-rock band The Walkmen draws its name from the drink. The character Brandy Alexander in the novel Invisible Monsters by Chuck Palahniuk is named after the drink, Anthony Blanche orders four brandies Alexander in Evelyn Waughs novel Brideshead Revisited. The Granada Television adaptation for television helped repopularize the drink in the 1980s, christian Kracht repeats the four brandy Alexanders motif in his 1995 novel Faserland. In Kurt Vonneguts book, Mother Night, the protagonist suspects that an overly flattering article in the Herald Tribune about his neighbor was written by. a pansy full of Brandy Alexanders. The character Raj Koothrappali orders a Brandy Alexander in The Hofstadter Isotope episode of The Big Bang Theory, after being mocked for ordering first a grasshopper and then a chocolate Martini. In season one episode nine of Cheers, while Carla is in charge of the bar, in season one episode eleven of Mad Men, Peggy Olson expresses disappointment with her Brandy Alexander while on a blind date. The drink was included as the Cocktail Moment on the 29 March 2013 episode of The Rachel Maddow Show, in the pilot episode of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Mary Richards asks for a Brandy Alexander at her first job interview. In season four episode twenty-three of Chuck, Big Mike orders a Brandy Alexander at a rehearsal dinner. In episode one of Brideshead Revisited, Anthony Blanche orders four Brandy Alexanders in a bar, two for himself and two for Charles Ryder
40.
Sidecar (cocktail)
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The sidecar is a cocktail traditionally made with cognac, orange liqueur, and lemon juice. In its ingredients, the drink is perhaps most closely related to the older brandy crusta, the exact origin of the sidecar is unclear, but it is thought to have been invented around the end of World War I in either London or Paris. The drink was named for the motorcycle attachment. The Ritz Hotel in Paris claims origin of the drink, the first recipes for the Sidecar appear in 1922, in Harry MacElhones Harrys ABC of Mixing Cocktails and Robert Vermeires Cocktails and How to Mix Them. It is one of six basic drinks listed in David A. Emburys The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks, in early editions of MacElhones book, he cites the inventor as Pat MacGarry, the popular bartender at Bucks Club, London, but in later editions he cites himself. Vermiere states that the drink was popular in France. It was first introduced in London by MacGarry, the bartender of Bucks Club. Embury credits the invention of the drink to an American army captain in Paris during World War I, both MacElhone and Vermiere state the recipe as equal parts cognac, Cointreau, and lemon juice, now known as the French school. Later, an English school of sidecars emerged, as found in the Savoy Cocktail Book, according to Embury, the original sidecar had several ingredients, which were refined away. Embury also states the drink is simply a daiquiri with brandy as its base rather than rum and he recommends the same proportions for both, making a much-less-sweet sidecar. List of cocktails December 2005 Cocktail of the Month at Epicurious Drinkboy recipe Original recipe at CocktailDB Contemporary recipe at CocktailDB
41.
Old Fashioned
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The Old Fashioned is a cocktail made by muddling sugar with bitters, then adding alcohol, such as whiskey or brandy, and a twist of citrus rind. It is traditionally served in a short, round, 8–12 U. S. fl oz tumbler-like glass, the Old Fashioned, developed during the 19th century and given its name in the 1880s, is an IBA Official Cocktail. It is also one of six basic drinks listed in David A. Emburys The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks. In the May 13,1806, issue, the editor wrote that it was a potent concoction of spirits, bitters, water. By the 1860s, it was common for orange curaçao, absinthe, the original concoction, albeit in different proportions, came back into vogue, and was referred to as old-fashioned. The most popular of the in-vogue old-fashioned cocktails were made with whiskey, according to a Chicago barman, quoted in the Chicago Daily Tribune in 1882, the recipe he describes is a similar combination of spirits, bitters, water and sugar of seventy-six years earlier. The first use of the name Old Fashioned for a Bourbon whiskey cocktail was said to have been at the Pendennis Club, with its conception rooted in the citys history, in 2015 the city of Louisville named the Old Fashioned as its official cocktail. George Kappeler provides several of the earliest published recipes for Old Fashioned cocktails in his 1895 book, recipes are given for Whiskey, Brandy, Holland gin, and Old Tom gin. The Whiskey Old Fashioned recipe specifies the following, By the 1860s, as illustrated by Jerry Thomas 1862 book, basic cocktail recipes included Curaçao and these Old Fashioned cocktail recipes are literally for cocktails done the old-fashioned way. Two additional recipes from the 1900s vary in the precise ingredients, orange bitters were a popular ingredient in the late 19th century. The original Old Fashioned recipe would have showcased the whiskey available in America in the 19th century, Irish, but in some regions, especially Wisconsin, brandy is substituted for whiskey. Eventually the use of other spirits became common, such as a gin recipe becoming popularized in the late 1940s. Common garnishes for an Old Fashioned include a slice or a maraschino cherry or both, although these modifications came around 1930, some time after the original recipe was invented. While some recipes began making use of the orange zest for flavor. In John Updikes novel Rabbit, Run, the title character resents the job he works at to earn a living to buy sugar for to put into her rotten old Old-Fashioneds. The drunkard played by Jim Backus in Stanley Kramers film Its a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World steps away from the controls of the airplane he is flying to mix himself an Old Fashioned. The Old Fashioned is the cocktail of choice of Don Draper, the use of the drink in the series coincides with a renewed interest in this and other classic cocktails in the 2000s. In the film Crazy, Stupid, Love, Jacob Palmer portrayed by Ryan Gosling enjoys this drink as his beverage of choice, list of cocktails Cuisine of Kentucky History of Louisville, Kentucky Clarke, Paul
42.
Deglazing (cooking)
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Deglazing is a cooking technique for removing and dissolving browned food residue from a pan to flavor sauces, soups, and gravies. The French culinary term for these deposits is sucs, pronounced, ), the meat is removed and the majority of the fat is poured off, leaving a small amount with the dried and browned meat juices. The pan is returned to the heat, and a such as vegetable or meat stock. Dairy, however, is not recommended for deglazing, as it may curdle when added to high heat. The solvent allows the cook to scrape the dark spots from the bottom of the pan and dissolve them, the culinary term fond, French for base or foundation, refers to this sauce, although it is also sometimes used to describe the browned food bits instead. Burned pieces should not be confused with fond, which is dark brown, the flavour is determined chiefly by the meat, the liquid used for deglazing, and any flavouring or finishing ingredients added, such as aromatics, herbs, or butter. This method is the cornerstone of many well-known sauces and gravies, the resulting liquid can be seasoned and served on its own, or with the addition of aromatic vegetables, such as onions or shallots, carrots, and celery, or used as the base for a soup. Deglazing can also be used while cooking vegetables, especially ones which have left sugars at the bottom of a pan and it is commonly used in caramelizing onions. Because vegetables do not produce as much fat, they do not need to be removed from the pan to pour off excess grease. Instead, the liquid can be added directly to the pan and stirred, allowing the fond to meld with the vegetables, deglazing, It works like magic, Leslie Brenner - Los Angeles Times
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Brandy". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "Brandy". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
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