1.
Brazilian aircraft carrier Minas Gerais
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NAeL Minas Gerais was a Colossus-class aircraft carrier operated by the Marinha do Brasil from 1960 until 2001. The ship was laid down for the Royal Navy during World War II as HMS Vengeance, but was completed shortly before the wars end. After stints as a vessel and Arctic research ship, the carrier was loaned to the Royal Australian Navy from 1952 to 1955. She was returned to the British, who sold her in 1956 to Brazil, the ship underwent a four-year conversion in the Netherlands to make her capable of operating heavier naval aircraft. She was commissioned into the MB as Minas Gerais in 1960, the first purchased by a Latin American nation, between 1987 and 1996, the carrier was unable to operate fixed-wing aircraft because of a defective catapult, and was retasked as a helicopter carrier and amphibious assault ship. Minas Gerais remained in service until 2001, when she was replaced by NAe São Paulo, at the time of her decommissioning, she was the oldest operational aircraft carrier in the world, and the last operational unit of the World War II Light Fleet design. Despite attempts to preserve the carrier as a ship, and after several failed attempts to auction the ship off, Minas Gerais was sold for scrap in 2004. The carrier was constructed by Swan Hunter for the Royal Navy as HMS Vengeance and she was laid down on 16 November 1942, and launched on 23 February 1944. Construction was completed on 15 January 1945, and Vengeance was commissioned into the RN, the Colossus-class carriers were intended to be disposable warships, they were to be operated during World War II and scrapped at the end of hostilities or within three years of entering service. Despite this plan, the ship had a life of over 55 years across three navies. After commissioning, Vengeance was assigned to the 11th Aircraft Carrier Squadron, the carrier arrived in Sydney, Australia in July 1945, but remained in the harbour for refits until the end of World War II. Vengeance operated in the waters of Asia until mid-1946, when she returned to England and was reassigned as a training vessel, from late 1952 until mid-1955, Vengeance was loaned to the Royal Australian Navy, to serve in place of the under-construction HMAS Melbourne. From mid-1957 until December 1960, the carrier underwent a massive refit, the work was carried out by Verolme Dock in Rotterdam, and cost US$27 million. The most visible change was the installation of an 8. 5-degree angled flight deck, the size of the angle required that an accessway be built around the starboard side of the island superstructure, the weight acting as a counterbalance for the flight decks portside overhang. The carriers island superstructure was replaced, and a lattice mast was fitted to support the new control system. The ships boiler capacity was increased, and internal electricity was converted to AC through the installation of four turbo generators, the carrier was commissioned into the Marinha do Brasil as NAeL Minas Gerais on 6 December 1960. She departed Rotterdam for Rio de Janeiro on 13 January 1961, during the ships modernisation refit to become Minas Gerais, her armament was altered to consist of ten Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns, and two 47 mm saluting guns. In 1994, the Bofors were removed and replaced with two twin launchers for Mistral missiles
2.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching
3.
Armstrong Whitworth
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Sir W G Armstrong Whitworth & Co Ltd was a major British manufacturing company of the early years of the 20th century. With headquarters in Elswick, Newcastle upon Tyne, Armstrong Whitworth engaged in the construction of armaments, ships, locomotives, automobiles and aircraft. In 1882, it merged with the firm of Charles Mitchell to form Armstrong Mitchell & Company. Armstrong Mitchell merged again with the firm of Joseph Whitworth in 1897. The company expanded into the manufacture of cars and trucks in 1902, and created a department in 1913. In 1927, it merged with Vickers Limited to form Vickers-Armstrongs. the Wilson-Pilcher was an advanced car, originally with a 2. 4-litre engine, that had been made in London from 1901 until 1904 when production moved to Newcastle. When Armstrong-Whitworth took over production two models were made, a 2. 7-litre flat four and a 4. 1-litre flat six, the engines had the flywheel at the front of the engine, and the crankshaft had intermediate bearings between each pair of cylinders. Drive was to the wheels via a preselector gearbox and helical bevel axle. The cars were listed at £735 for the four and £900 for the six and they were still theoretically available until 1907. The first Armstrong-Whitworth car was the 28/36 of 1906 with a water-cooled, drive was via a four-speed gearbox and shaft to the rear wheels. A larger car was listed for 1908 with a choice of either 5-litre 30 or 7. 6-litre 40 models sharing a 127 mm bore, the 40 was listed at £798 in bare chassis form for supplying to coachbuilders. These large cars were joined in 1909 by the 4. 3-litre 18/22 and in 1910 by the 3. 7-litre 25, which seems to have shared the same chassis as the 30 and 40. In 1911, a new car appeared in the shape of the 2. 4-litre 12/14, called the 15.9 in 1911. This model had an 88-inch wheelbase compared with the 120 inches of the 40 range and this was joined by four larger cars ranging from the 2. 7-litre 15/20 to the 3. 7-litre 25.5. The first six-cylinder model, the 30/50 with 5. 1-litre 90 mm bore by 135 mm stroke engine came in 1912 with the option of electric lighting and this grew to 5.7 litres in 1913. At the outbreak of war, as well as the 30/50, the range consisted of the 3-litre 17/25, the cars were usually if not always bodied by external coach builders and had a reputation for reliability and solid workmanship. The company maintained a London sales outlet at New Bond Street, when Armstrong Whitworth and Vickers merged, Armstrong Whitworths automotive interests were purchased by J. D. Siddeley as Armstrong Siddeley. An Armstrong Whitworth car is displayed in the Discovery Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne, in the bibliography heading links are given to the museums information sheet as available through Wiki Commons
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
Minas Geraes-class battleship
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The Minas Geraes class, spelled Minas Gerais in some sources, consisted of two battleships built for the Brazilian Navy in the early twentieth century. Named Minas Geraes and São Paulo, the ships were intended to be Brazils first step becoming an international power. In 1904, Brazil began a naval building program that included three small battleships. As such, the ships created much uncertainty among the countries in the world. Similarly, they caused much consternation in Argentina and consequently Chile. The mutineers surrendered after four days, when a bill was passed granting amnesty to all those involved, in 1922, the two battleships were used to help put down a revolt at Fort Copacabana. Two years later, lieutenants on São Paulo mutinied but found support from other military units, so they sailed to Montevideo, Uruguay. Minas Geraes was modernized in the 1930s, but both battleships were too old to participate actively in the Second World War, and instead were employed as harbor defense ships in Salvador and Recife. São Paulo was sold in 1951 to a British shipbreaker, but was lost in a north of the Azores while being towed to its final destination. Minas Geraes was sold to an Italian scrapper in 1953 and towed to Genoa the following year, Brazils navy fell into obsolescence after an 1889 revolution, which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II, and an 1893 civil war. Meanwhile, an Argentine–Chilean dispute over the boundary of Patagonia and control of the Beagle Channel kindled a naval race between the two beginning in the late 1880s and lasting until 1902. Soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought Brazil an influx of revenue in the early 1900s, simultaneously, there was a drive on the part of prominent Brazilians, most notably the Baron of Rio Branco, to have the country recognized as an international power. Two factions argued over the types of ships to be ordered, one favored a navy centered on a small number of large warships, while the other preferred a larger navy of smaller warships. They would displace 11,800 long tons, have a speed of 19 knots, each ship would be armed with twelve 10-inch guns mounted in six twin turrets. These turrets would be mounted in a configuration, similar to the later German Nassau-class battleships. Design 439 was modified before these ships were laid down, increasing the displacement to 14,334 long tons, two of these ships were laid down by Armstrong at Elswick in Newcastle upon Tyne, while the other was subcontracted out to Vickers in Barrow. However, the new concept, which was showcased upon the completion of the namesake ship in December 1906. A transition to a few large warships was finalized with the selection of Rear Admiral Alexandrino Faria de Alencar for the powerful post of minister of the navy, the three battleships on which construction had just begun were demolished beginning on 7 January 1907
6.
Battleship
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A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, the word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design, subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as dreadnoughts. Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, the launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, the Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday, there were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U. S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns, from 1794, the alternative term line of battle ship was contracted to battle ship or battleship. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards. The first major change to the ship of the concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850—the first true steam battleship, Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots, regardless of the wind condition. This was a decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships, the adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad, powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. In the Crimean War, six ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853
7.
Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
8.
Babcock & Wilcox
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Babcock & Wilcox Enterprises is an American power generation company headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. The company was founded in 1867 in Providence, Rhode Island by partners Stephen Wilcox and George Babcock as Babcock, Wilcox & Company to manufacture, built nuclear-powered surface ship, NS Savannah. B&Ws boilers supply more than 300,000 megawatts of installed capacity in over 90 countries around the world, a reactor from B&W was destroyed by a nuclear meltdown in the Three Mile Island accident. During World War II, over half of the US Navy fleet was powered by Babcock & Wilcox boilers, the company has its headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. B&W also has joint major joint venture companies in Beijing and the Indian city of Pune, on June 30,2015, Babcock & Wilcox completed a spinoff from BWX Technologies, its former parent which is now headquartered in Lynchburg, Virginia. The two companies began trading separately on July 1, B&W employs approximately 5,700 people, in addition to several thousand joint venture employees. B&W PGG and its subsidiaries have facilities in Ohio, Wisconsin, Arona, Italy, Beijing, China, Esbjerg, Denmark, Babcock & Wilcox MEGTEC LLC B&W SPIG Diamond Power International, Inc. The boilers more safely generated higher pressure steam and was more efficient than existing designs, in 1891, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd is established as a separate United Kingdom company, to be responsible for all sales outside the US and Cuba. In 1902 the New York Citys first subway is powered by B&W boilers, during 1907 and 1909 Theodore Roosevelts Great White Fleet were powered by B&W Boilers. In 1929 B&W installs the worlds first commercial size recovery boiler using the magnesium bisulfite process in Quebec, between 1941 and 1945 B&W designed and delivered 4,100 marine boilers for combat and merchant ships, including 95 percent of the US fleet in Tokyo Bay at Japanese surrender. In 1942, the developed the cyclone furnace. Between 1943 and 1945 B&W provided components, materials and process development for Manhattan Project, between 1949 and 1952 B&W provided the 8 boilers for the SS United States, the fastest ocean liner ever constructed. Between 1953 and 1955 B&W designed and fabricated components for USS Nautilus, in 1961 B&W designed and supplied reactors for world’s first commercial nuclear ship NS Savannah. In 1962 B&W designed and furnished reactor systems for B&Ws first commercial reactor, Indian Point, in 1975 B&W designed and built components for liquid metal fast breeder reactors. In 1975 the long term agreements with the British Babcock & Wilcox Ltd were ended. Subsequently, the British company was renamed Babcock International Group plc, in 1978 B&W designed and built the nuclear reactor that was involved in the Three Mile Island accident. In 1999 B&W was awarded the contract to develop fuel cells, on February 22,2000, B&W filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in part as a result of thousands of claims for personal injury due to prolonged exposure to asbestos and asbestos fibers. Claims included asbestosis, lung cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, as a condition of emerging from bankruptcy, B&W created a trust fund to compensate victims, but for amounts far less than settlements paid in individual personal injury lawsuits
9.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
10.
EOC 12 inch/45 naval gun
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Elswick supplied its 12-inch 45-calibre guns for the Minas Geraes-class battleships completed by itself and Vickers in 1910 for Brazil. When World War I began, Elswick were completing the battleship Sultân Osmân-ı Evvel for the Ottoman Empire and it was armed with 14 of a slightly later version of Elswicks 12-inch 45-calibre guns. The battleship was completed as HMS Agincourt and served in the Royal Navy in World War I, the guns performance was similar to the standard Royal Navy equivalent gun, the BL12 inch Mk X designed by Vickers. Elswick supplied its 12-inch 45-calibre guns to the Imperial Japanese Navy, in Japanese service from 1908 they became 12/45 41st Year Type and later after the navy metricised in 1917,30 cm/45 41st Year Type
11.
QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss
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It was also used ashore as a coast defense gun and later occasionally as an anti-aircraft gun. In 1886 this gun was the first of the modern QF artillery to be adopted by the Royal Navy as the Ordnance QF3 pounder Hotchkiss, built under licence by Elswick Ordnance Company. By the middle of World War I the Hotchkiss gun had become obsolescent, of the 2,950 produced it is estimated that 1,948 were still available in 1939 for RN use. A 3-pounder Hotchkiss was used on a mounting in a battle that resulted in Australias first prisoners of World War 2 being captured in 1940 near Berbera. The guns are now used in a Three Pound Saluting Gun Battery at the Garden Island Naval Base, russia adopted the Hotchkiss 5-barrel Gatling-type 3-pounder revolver cannon in the 1880s, and later adopted the less complicated single-barrel quick-firing weapon. The 5-barrel guns were equipped on the Ekaterina II-class battleships commissioned in 1889,47 mm Hotchkiss guns were used during the Russo-Japanese war and were ineffective against Japanese torpedo boats, so they were removed from first-line warships following that war. New Russian battleships ceased carrying the weapon with the Evstafi class, however, they were subsequently fitted to patrol vessels and river craft during World War I, and at least 62 weapons were converted to anti-aircraft guns by 1917. The US Navy used several types of 3-pounder guns, and it is difficult to determine from references which type a particular ship had, Hotchkiss 5-barrel Gatling-type 3-pounder revolving cannon were used, along with single-barrel quick-firing single-shot Hotchkiss 3-pounders. Both are called rapid-firing in references, other manufacturers included Driggs-Schroeder, Maxim-Nordenfelt, and Vickers-Maxim. By 1910 the US was building the dreadnought-type South Carolina class, although removed from first-line warships by World War I, some 3-pounders were fitted on patrol vessels of that war, with a few weapons serving on those ships through World War II. 47 mm Hotchkiss guns, designated as wz.1885 gun, were used on first ships of the Polish Navy, received after World War I, like ex-German torpedo boats, the Jardines Noonday gun at Causeway Bay, Hong Kong. 3 Guns used for purposes at HMS Drake. QF3 pounder Nordenfelt, Nordenfelt equivalent I. V, hogg & L. F. Thurston, British Artillery Weapons & Ammunition 1914-1918. Naval Weapons of World War Two, Handbook of the 3 pounder Hotchkiss quick-firing gun Land service 1892,1900 at State Library of Victoria Handbook for Hotchkiss 6-pr and 3-pr
12.
Belt armor
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Belt armor is a layer of heavy metal armor plated onto or within the outer hulls of warships, typically on battleships, battlecruisers and cruisers, and aircraft carriers. The belt armor is designed to prevent projectiles from penetrating to the heart of a warship, typically, the main armor belt covers the warship from its main deck down to some distance below the waterline. If, instead of forming the hull, the armor belt is built inside the hull, it is installed at a sloped angle for improved protection. Furthermore, the spaces around the main belt in some designs were filled with storage tanks that could contain fuel oil, seawater. The liquids in these tanks absorb or scatter much of the force of warheads. To deal with the leakage from the tanks and incoming seawater and this multilayer design is featured in the cross-sectional drawings of Tirpitz and King George V. In combat, a warship can be seriously damaged underwater not only by torpedoes, to improve protection against both shells and torpedoes, an air space can be added between the armor belt and the hull to increase the buoyancy of the warship. Some kinds of naval warships have belt armor thinner than actually necessary for protection against projectiles and this is common especially with battlecruisers, battleships, and aircraft carriers to reduce their weight, thus increasing their acceleration and speed. Another possible reason is to meet treaty restrictions on ship displacement, one such method is all-or-nothing armoring, where belt armor is stripped from areas deemed non-vital to the functioning of the ship in battle. Agility gained from such processes are an asset to offensive warships that seek to quickly bring their heavy striking power to the enemy. In carriers, the maneuverability is exploited when deploying and recovering aircraft, since planes take off and land most easily when flying into the wind, the aircraft carrier steams rapidly into the wind in both maneuvers, making take-off and landing safer and easier. S. Comparison of WW2 battleship armor schemes Torpedo belt Protected cruiser Armored cruiser
13.
Dreadnought
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The dreadnought was the predominant type of battleship in the early 20th century. Dreadnoughts design had two features, an all-big-gun armament scheme, with more heavy-calibre guns than previous ships. As dreadnoughts became a symbol of power, the arrival of these new warships was a crucial catalyst in the intensifying naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany. With the launch of a ship, Dreadnought, the scales of naval power were reset overnight. As a result, dreadnought races sprang up around the world, including in South America, successive designs increased rapidly in size and made use of improvements in armament, armour, and propulsion throughout the dreadnought era. Within five years, new battleships had outclassed Dreadnought and these more powerful vessels were known as super-dreadnoughts. The only surviving dreadnought is USS Texas, located near the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, dreadnought-building consumed vast resources in the early 20th century, but there was only one battle between large dreadnought fleets. In the 1916 Battle of Jutland, the British and German navies clashed with no decisive result, some designs had an intermediate battery of 8-inch guns. Serious proposals for an all-big-gun armament were circulated in several countries by 1903, all-big-gun designs commenced almost simultaneously in three navies. In 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy authorized construction of Satsuma, work began on her construction in May 1905. The Royal Navy began the design of HMS Dreadnought in January 1905, finally, the US Navy gained authorization for USS Michigan, carrying eight 12-inch guns, in March 1905, with construction commencing in December 1906. The newest 12-inch guns had longer range and fired heavier shells than a gun of 10-inch or 9. 2-inch calibre, there is still debate as to whether this feature was important. At these ranges, lighter guns had good accuracy, and their rate of fire delivered high volumes of ordnance on the target. Naval gunnery was too inaccurate to hit targets at a longer range, by the early 20th century, British and American admirals expected future battleships would engage at longer distances. Newer models of torpedo had longer ranges, for instance, in 1903, the US Navy ordered a design of torpedo effective to 4,000 yards. Both British and American admirals concluded that they needed to engage the enemy at longer ranges, in 1900, Admiral Sir John Jackie Fisher, commanding the Royal Navy Mediterranean Fleet, ordered gunnery practice with 6-inch guns at 6,000 yards. By 1904 the US Naval War College was considering the effects on battleship tactics of torpedoes with a range of 7,000 yards to 8,000 yards, the range of light and medium-calibre guns was limited, and accuracy declined badly at longer range. At longer ranges the advantage of a rate of fire decreased, accurate shooting depended on spotting the shell-splashes of the previous salvo
14.
Brazilian Navy
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The Brazilian Navy is the naval service branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces, responsible for conducting naval operations. The Brazilian Navy is the largest navy in South America and in Latin America, the navy was involved in Brazils war of independence from Portugal. Most of Portugals naval forces and bases in South America were transferred to the independent country. By the 1880s the Brazilian Imperial Navy was the most powerful in South America, the Brazilian Navy participated in both World War I and World War II, engaging in anti-submarine patrols in the Atlantic. Other roles include, Conducting national maritime policy Implementing and enforcing laws and regulations with respect to the sea, the origins of the Brazilian Navy date back to the Portuguese naval forces based in Brazil. The transfer of the Portuguese monarchy to Brazil in 1808 during the Napoleonic wars also resulted in the transfer of a part of the structure, personnel. These became the core of the Navy of Brazil, the Brazilian Navy came into being with the independence of the country. The Brazilian-born Captain Luís da Cunha Moreira was chosen as the first minister of the Navy on October 28,1822, british naval officer Lord Thomas Alexander Cochrane was made the commander of the Brazilian Navy and received the rank of First Admiral. At that time, the fleet was composed of one ship of the line, four frigates, the Secretary of Treasury Martim Francisco Ribeiro de Andrada created a national subscription to generate capital in order to increase the size of the fleet. Contributions were sent from all over Brazil, even Emperor Pedro I acquired a merchant brig at his own expense and donated it to the Navy. The navy fought in the north and also south of Brazil where it had a role in the independence of the country. After the suppression of the revolt in Pernambuco in 1824 and prior to the Cisplatine War, starting with 38 ships in 1822, eventually the navy had 96 modern warships of various types with over 690 cannons. Brazil lost the war and in 1828 had to accept the independence of Uruguay, during the 58-year reign of Pedro II the Brazilian Navy achieved its greatest strength in relation to navies around the world. The Arsenal, Navy department, and the Naval Jail were improved, Brazil quickly modernized its fleet acquiring ships from foreign sources while also constructing ships locally. Brazils Navy substituted the old smoothbore cannons for new ones with rifled barrels, improvements were also made in the Arsenals and naval bases, which were equipped with new workshops. Ships were constructed in the Naval Arsenal of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Recife, Santos, Niterói, during the 1850s the State Secretary, the Accounting Department of the Navy, the Headquarters of the Navy and the Naval Academy were reorganized and improved. New ships were purchased and the ports administrations were better equipped, the Imperial Mariner Corps was definitively regularized and the Marine Corps was created, taking the place of the Naval Artillery. The Service of Assistance for Invalids was also established, along with schools for sailors
15.
States of Brazil
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The Federative Republic of Brazil is a union of 27 Federative Units,26 states and one federal district, where the federal capital, Brasília, is located. The states are based on historical, conventional borders which have developed over time. The Federal District is not formally a state, but shares some characteristics of a state as well as some of a municipality, the codes given below are defined in ISO 3166-2, BR. The first administrative divisions of Brazil were the hereditary captaincies, stretches of land granted by the Portuguese Crown to noblemen or merchants with a charter to colonize the land, as the map shows, these divisions generally followed lines of latitude. Each of the holders of these captaincies was referred to as a captain donatary and these captaincies were to be passed from father to son, but the Crown retained the power to revoke them, which the King indeed did in the 16th century. In 1549, the Portuguese Crown appointed Tomé de Sousa as the first governor-general of the vast Portuguese dominion in South America and this dominion overall became known as the State of Brazil. In several periods of history, the half of the dominion was detached from the State of Brazil. Unlike Spanish America, the territory remained united under a single governor-general. This arrangement later helped to keep Brazil as a unified nation-state, in 1759, the heritability of the captaincies was totally abolished by the government of the Marquis of Pombal, with all captains becoming appointed by the Crown. The captaincies were officially renamed provinces on 28 February 1821, with independence, in 1822, the former captaincies became provinces of the Empire of Brazil. Most internal boundaries were unchanged from the colonial period, generally following natural features such as rivers. Minor changes were made to domestic politics, as well as additions resulting from diplomatic settlement of territorial disputes by the end of the 19th century. When Brazil became a republic in 1889, all provinces immediately became states, after the war, the first four territories became states, with Rio Branco and Guaporé being renamed Roraima and Rondônia, respectively, whilst Ponta Porã and Iguaçu remained as territories. In 1960, the square-shaped Distrito Federal was carved out of Goiás in preparation for the new capital, Brasília. The previous federal district became Guanabara State, but in 1975 it was merged with Rio de Janeiro State, retaining its name, in 1977, Mato Grosso was split into two states. The northern area retained the name Mato Grosso while the area became the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The new Mato Grosso do Sul incorporated the territory of Ponta Porã, central Iguaçu went to Paraná, and southern Iguaçu went to Santa Catarina. In 1988, the portion of Goiás became the state of Tocantins
16.
Keel
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On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
17.
Lead ship
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The lead ship, name ship, or class leader is the first of a series or class of ships all constructed according to the same general design. The term is applicable to ships and larger civilian craft. Large ships are complicated internally and may take as much as five to ten years to construct, any changes or advances that are available when building a ship are likely to be included, so it is rare to have two that are identical. Constructing one ship is likely to reveal better ways of doing things. The second and later ships are often started before the first one is completed, launched and tested, the improvements will sometimes be retrofitted to the lead ship. Larger civilian craft, such as Sun Princess, the ship of the Sun-class cruise ships. The same custom is followed in fiction, the Constitution-class cruiser is the basis for the Enterprise of Star Trek. Example of a lead ship announcement from US Navy USS Pennsylvania BB-38
18.
South American dreadnought race
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They believed that building a strong navy would play an essential role in remaking the country into an international power. Instead, the Brazilians ordered three Minas Geraes-class dreadnoughts—a warship type which became a measure of international prestige, similar to nuclear weapons today. Despite these pressures, Armstrong successfully held the Brazilians to their contractual obligations, construction on the new ship, preliminarily named Rio de Janeiro, was halted several times due to repeated design changes. Brazils coffee and rubber booms collapsed soon after, concerned that their ship would be outclassed by larger super-dreadnoughts, they sold the incomplete vessel to the Ottoman Empire in December 1913. The First World War marked the end of the arms race. The Brazilian government ordered a new battleship, Riachuelo, in May 1914, the British purchased the two Chilean battleships before they were completed, one was sold back to Chile in 1920. Argentinas two dreadnoughts, having built in the neutral United States, escaped this fate and were commissioned in 1914–15. Although several South American post-war naval expansion plans called for dreadnoughts, conflicting Argentine and Chilean claims to Patagonia, the southernmost region in South America, had been causing tension between the two countries since the 1840s. This tension was heightened in 1872 and 1878, when Chilean warships seized merchant ships which had licensed to operate in the disputed area by the Argentine government. An Argentine warship did the same to a Chilean-licensed American ship in 1877 and this action nearly led to war in November 1878, when the Argentines dispatched a squadron of warships to the Santa Cruz River. The Chilean Navy responded in kind, and war was avoided by a hastily signed treaty. They ordered the battleship Capitán Prat, two protected cruisers, and two boats, their keels were laid in 1890. The Argentine government quickly responded with an order for two battleships, Independencia and Libertad, beginning a naval race between the two countries. It continued through the 1890s, even after the expensive Chilean Civil War, the two countries alternated cruiser orders between 1890 and 1895, each marking a small increase in capabilities from the ship previous. Argentina escalated the race in July 1895 by buying an armored cruiser, Garibaldi, the Argentine Navy bought two more armored cruisers from Italy, and the Chilean Navy replied with orders for two Constitución-class pre-dreadnought battleships from British shipyards. The Argentines replied by signing letters of intent with Ansaldo in May 1901 to buy two larger battleships, Argentina and Chile both imported British-made goods, while the United Kingdom imported large amounts of Argentine grain, most shipped through the River Plate, and Chilean nitrates. The British government mediated negotiations between the two countries through their envoy in Chile and these were successfully concluded on 28 May 1902 with three pacts. The third limited the naval armaments of both countries, both were barred from acquiring any further warships for five years without giving the other eighteen months advance notice
19.
Scientific American
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Scientific American is an American popular science magazine. Many famous scientists, including Albert Einstein, have contributed articles in the past 170 years and it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States. Scientific American was founded by inventor and publisher Rufus M. Porter in 1845 as a weekly newspaper. Throughout its early years, much emphasis was placed on reports of what was going on at the U. S, current issues include a this date in history section, featuring excerpts from articles originally published 50,100, and 150 years earlier. Topics include humorous incidents, wrong-headed theories, and noteworthy advances in the history of science, Porter sold the publication to Alfred Ely Beach and Orson Desaix Munn a mere ten months after founding it. Until 1948, it remained owned by Munn & Company, under Munns grandson, Orson Desaix Munn III, it had evolved into something of a workbench publication, similar to the twentieth-century incarnation of Popular Science. In the years after World War II, the fell into decline. Thus the partners—publisher Gerard Piel, editor Dennis Flanagan, and general manager Donald H. Miller, Miller retired in 1979, Flanagan and Piel in 1984, when Gerard Piels son Jonathan became president and editor, circulation had grown fifteen-fold since 1948. In 1986, it was sold to the Holtzbrinck group of Germany, in the fall of 2008, Scientific American was put under the control of Nature Publishing Group, a division of Holtzbrinck. Donald Miller died in December 1998, Gerard Piel in September 2004, Mariette DiChristina is the current editor-in-chief, after John Rennie stepped down in June 2009. Scientific American published its first foreign edition in 1890, the Spanish-language La America Cientifica, a Russian edition V Mire Nauki was launched in the Soviet Union in 1983, and continues in the present-day Russian Federation. Kexue, a simplified Chinese edition launched in 1979, was the first Western magazine published in the Peoples Republic of China, founded in Chongqing, the simplified Chinese magazine was transferred to Beijing in 2001. Later in 2005, an edition, Global Science, was published instead of Kexue. A traditional Chinese edition, known as 科學人, was introduced to Taiwan in 2002, the Hungarian edition Tudomány existed between 1984 and 1992. In 1986, an Arabic edition, Oloom magazine, was published, in 2002, a Portuguese edition was launched in Brazil. From 1902 to 1911, Scientific American supervised the publication of the Encyclopedia Americana and it originally styled itself The Advocate of Industry and Enterprise and Journal of Mechanical and other Improvements. On the front page of the first issue was the engraving of Improved Rail-Road Cars, the masthead had a commentary as follows, Scientific American published every Thursday morning at No.11 Spruce Street, New York, No.16 State Street, Boston, and No. 2l Arcade Philadelphia, by Rufus Porter, five copies will be sent to one address six months for four dollars in advance
20.
Revolt of the Lash
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The Revolt of the Lash was a naval mutiny in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in late November 1910. It was the result of the use of whips by white naval officers when punishing Afro-Brazilian. In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery, the move was opposed by Brazilian elites, and they led a successful coup détat in 1889. A key part of this would come from modernizing the Brazilian Navy, while enormously expensive, they garnered much international attention before their delivery with two brand-new cruisers in 1910. Social conditions in the Brazilian Navy, however, were not keeping pace with the new technology, elite white officers were in charge of mostly black and mulatto crews, many of whom had been forced into the navy on long-term contracts. These officers frequently utilized corporal punishment on their crewmen for even minor offenses, something that had been banned in most other countries, in response, sailors used the new warships for a carefully planned and executed mutiny in November 1910. They took control of both new dreadnoughts, one of the cruisers and an older warship—a total that gave the mutineers the kind of firepower that dwarfed the rest of the Brazilian Navy. Led by João Cândido Felisberto, the mutineers sent a letter to the government that demanded an end to what called the slavery being practiced by the navy. At the same time, Congress—led by Rui Barbosa, a senator—pursued a route of amnesty and this latter route was successful, and a bill granting amnesty to all involved and ending the use of corporal punishment passed the lower house by a veto-proof margin. In the years preceding the revolt, the Brazilian populace saw frequent changes in the political, economic. For example, in May 1888, slavery in Brazil was abolished with the enactment into law of the Lei Áurea and this discontent among the upper parts of society directly led to a peaceful coup détat spearheaded by the army and led by Benjamin Constant and Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca. Pedro II and his family were quickly and quietly sent into exile in Europe, also at the dawn of the new century, however, rising demand for coffee and rubber gave the Brazilian government an influx of revenue. Contemporary writers estimated that seventy-five to eighty percent of the worlds supply was grown in Brazil. A strong navy was seen as crucial to this goal, the National Congress of Brazil drew up and passed a large naval acquisition program in late 1904, but it was two years before any ships were ordered. This technological modernization in the Brazilian Navy was not matched by social change, ex-slaves and the sons of slaves make up our ships crews, most of them dark-skinned or dark-skinned mulattos. The navy, along with other branches, served as dumping grounds for thousands of young, poverty-stricken. Such measures served as a marriage of punishment and reform, people who had or were likely to commit crimes would be removed from society. These men were sent to the navy, apprenticed around the age of 14
21.
Sister ship
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A sister ship is a ship of the same class as or of virtually identical design to another ship. Such vessels share an identical hull and superstructure layout, similar displacement. Often, sisters become more differentiated during their service as their equipment are separately altered, for instance, the U. S. warships USS Iowa, USS New Jersey, USS Missouri, and USS Wisconsin are all sister ships, each being an Iowa-class battleship. The most famous ships were the White Star Lines RMS Olympic, RMS Titanic. As with some other liners, the sisters worked as running mates, other sister ships include the Royal Caribbean Internationals Explorer of the Seas and Adventure of the Seas. Half-sister refers to a ship of the class but with some significant differences. Another example is the American Essex-class aircraft carriers of the Second World War that came in long-hull and short-hull versions, for example, the popular TESS-57 standard design built by Tsunishi Shipbuilding are built in Japan, China, and the Philippines. All the ships of this design are classed as sister ships, the International Maritime Organization defined sister ship in IMO resolution MSC/Circ.1158 in 2006. Criteria included these, A sister ship is a built by the same yard from the same plans. The acceptable deviation of lightship displacement should be between 1 and 2% of the displacement of the lead ship, depending on the length of the ship
22.
Coastal defence ship
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Coastal defence ships were warships built for the purpose of coastal defence, mostly during the period from 1860 to 1920. They were small, often cruiser-sized warships that sacrificed speed and range for armour, the Nordic countries and Thailand found them particularly appropriate for their island-dotted coastal waters. Some vessels had limited capabilities, others operated in rivers. The coastal defence ships differed from earlier monitors by having a higher freeboard and they varied in size from around 1,500 tons to 8,000 tons. Their construction and appearance was often that of miniaturized pre-dreadnought battleships, in service they were mainly used as movable coastal artillery rather than instruments of sea control or fleet engagements like the battleships operated by blue-water navies. Few of these saw combat in the First World War. The last were scrapped in the 1970s, apart from specially built coastal defence ships, some navies used various obsolescent ships in this role. The Royal Navy deployed four Majestic-class battleships as guardships in the Humber at the start of the First World War, similarly, the U. S. Navy redesignated the Indiana and Iowa classes as Coast Defense Battleships in 1919. This type of vessel has always been categorized differently by different countries, due to treaties, differences in related to design or intended roles. In the United Kingdom the Scandinavian ships were known as coast defence ships, the Germans called these ships Küstenpanzerschiff. The Danes referred to their ships as Kystforsvarsskib and Panserskib, in Norway they were referred to as Panserskip. The Dutch called their ships Kruiser, Pantserschip or Slagschip, the Swedish term for these ships was initially 1, a klass Pansarbåt and later Pansarskepp. Note however, that the German Panzerschiffen of the Deutschland class were not designed as coastal defense ships, the Swedish Pansarskepp were an outgrowth of the earlier Swedish adoption of the monitor and were used for similar duties. The Pansarskepp or Pansarbåt, with the exception of the Sverige class, were relatively small vessels with limited speed, shallow draft. They were designed for close in-shore work in the zone of Scandinavia. The aim was to outgun any ocean-going warship of the draft by a significant margin, making it a very dangerous opponent for a cruiser. The limitations in speed and seaworthiness were a trade-off for the armament carried. Vessels similar to the Swedish Pansarskepp were also built and operated by Denmark, Norway, the Sverige-class ships differed in several ways from the classical coastal defence ship, having heavier armament as well as better speed and armor
23.
Brazilian cruiser Bahia
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Bahia was the lead ship of a two-vessel class of cruisers built for Brazil by the British company Armstrong Whitworth. In November 1910, just six months after her commissioning, crewmen aboard Bahia, Marechal Deodoro, Minas Geraes, and São Paulo mutinied, beginning the Revolta da Chibata. During the First World War, Bahia and her sister ship Rio Grande do Sul were assigned to the Divisão Naval em Operações de Guerra, based out of Sierra Leone and Dakar, the squadron escorted convoys through an area believed to be heavily patrolled by U-boats. In the mid-1920s, Bahia was extensively modernized and she received three new Brown–Curtis turbine engines and six new Thornycroft boilers, and, in the process, was converted from coal-burning to oil. The refit resulted in an aesthetic change, with the exhaust being trunked into three funnels instead of two. The armament was modified, three 20 mm Madsen guns, a 7 mm Hotchkiss machine gun, and four 533 mm torpedo tubes were added. In the 1930s, she served with government forces during multiple revolutions, in the Second World War, Bahia was once again used as a convoy escort, sailing over 100,000 nautical miles in the span of about a year. On 4 July 1945 she was acting as a guard for transport aircraft flying from the Atlantic to Pacific theaters of war. Only a small portion of the crew survived the blast, Bahia was part of a large 1904 naval building program by Brazil. Also planned as part of this were the two Minas Geraes-class dreadnoughts, ten Pará-class destroyers, three submarines and a submarine tender. With a design borrowed heavily from the British Adventure-class scout cruisers, Bahias keel was laid on 19 August 1907 in Armstrong Whitworths Elswick. Construction took about a year and a half, and she was launched on 20 January 1909, the process of fitting out pushed her completion date to 2 March 1910, after which she sailed to Brazil, arriving in Recife on 6 May. The new cruiser—the third ship of the Brazilian Navy to honor the state of Bahia—was commissioned into the navy shortly thereafter on 21 May 1910. As a class, Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul were the fastest cruisers in the world when they were commissioned, Brazils economy was suffering from a severe recession at the same time Bahia was commissioned. In mid-November, a sailor was sentenced to be flogged in front of his fellow sailors, the punishment was administered and continued even after the sailor fainted, infuriating the nascent mutineers. Although they were not ready and could not revolt immediately, they quickened their preparations and they killed several officers and the captain of Minas Geraes, while other officers were forced off the ship. The revolt quickly expanded to the battleship São Paulo, the coastal defense ship Marechal Deodoro. While joining the revolt, the crew of the scout cruiser murdered one of their officers, during this time, discipline on the rebelling ships was not relaxed, daily drills were conducted and Felisberto ordered all liquor to be thrown overboard
24.
Rio de Janeiro
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Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960
25.
Torpedo boat
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A torpedo boat is a relatively small and fast naval ship designed to carry torpedoes into battle. The first designs rammed enemy ships with explosive spar torpedoes, and they were created to counter battleships and other slow and heavily armed ships by using speed, agility, and the power of their torpedo weapons. A number of torpedo boats attacking en masse could overwhelm a larger ships ability to fight them off using its large. The introduction of fast torpedo boats in the late 19th century was a concern to the eras naval strategists. In response, navies operating large ships introduced smaller ships to torpedo boats. The destroyer eventually became the predominant type of warship in the guided missile age. In the modern era, the old concept of a small, fast. The American Civil War saw a number of innovations in warfare, including an early type of torpedo boat. In 1861 President Lincoln instituted a blockade of Southern ports. The South also lacked the means to construct a fleet capable of taking on the Union Navy on even terms. One strategy to counter the blockade saw the development of torpedo boats, the David class of torpedo boats were steam powered with a partially enclosed hull. They were not true submarines but were semi-submersible, when ballasted, only the smokestack, the CSS Midge and CSS St. Patrick were David-class torpedo boats. The CSS Squib and CSS Scorpion represented another class of boats that were also low built but had open decks. The Confederate torpedo boats were armed with spar torpedoes and this was a charge of powder in a waterproof case, mounted to the bow of the torpedo boat below the water line on a long spar. The torpedo boat attacked by ramming her intended target, which stuck the torpedo to the ship by means of a barb on the front of the torpedo. The torpedo boat would back away to a distance and detonate the torpedo. In general, the Confederate torpedo boats were not very successful and their low sides made them susceptible to swamping in high seas, and even to having their boiler fires extinguished by spray from their own torpedo explosions. Torpedo misfires and duds were common, in 1864 Union Naval Lieutenant Cushing fitted a steam launch with a spar torpedo to attack the Confederate ironclad Albemarle
26.
National Congress of Brazil
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The National Congress is the legislative body of Brazils federal government. Unlike the state Legislative Assemblies and Municipal Chambers, the Congress is bicameral, composed of the Federal Senate, the Congress meets annually in its Brasília seat from 2 February to 27 July and from 1 August to 22 December. The Senate represents the 26 states and the Federal District, each state and the Federal District has a representation of three Senators, who are elected by popular ballot for a term of eight years. Every four years, renewal of either one third or two-thirds of the Senate takes place, the Chamber of Deputies represents the people of each state, and its members are elected for a four-year term by a proportional representation. Seats are allotted according to each states population, with each state eligible for a minimum of 8 seats. Unlike the Senate, the whole of the Chamber of Deputies is renewed every four years, until recently it was common for politicians to switch parties and the proportion of congressional seats held by each party would often change. Consequently, politicians who abandon the party for which they were elected now face the loss of their Congressional seat, each house of the Brazilian Congress elects its President and the other members of its directing board from among its members. The President of the Senate is ex officio the President of the National Congress, the most recent President of the Chamber was Eduardo Cunha until his suspension by Brazils Supreme Court on 5 May 2016 due to allegations that he attempted to intimidate members of Congress. He was replaced by Waldir Maranhão, the President of the Chamber is second in the presidential line of succession while the President of the Senate is third. The Federal Senate is the house of the National Congress. Currently, the Senate comprises 81 seats, three Senators from each of the 26 states and three Senators from the Federal District are elected on a majority basis to serve eight-year terms. Elections are staggered so that two-thirds of the house is up for election at one time. The candidate in each State and the Federal District who achieve the greatest plurality of votes are elected. The Chamber of Deputies is the house of the National Congress, it is composed of 513 federal deputies. Seats are allotted according to each states population, with each state eligible for a minimum of 8 seats. In 2010,22 out of the countrys 35 political parties were able to elect at least one representative in the Chamber, see the Latest election section for election results table. In early 1900s, the Brazilian National Congress happened to be in separate buildings, the Senate was located near Railway Central Station, beside the Republica Square, at Moncorvo Filho Street, where there is today a Federal University of Rio de Janeiro students center. The Federal Chamber of Deputies was located at Misericórdia Street, which would later be the location of the State of Rio de Janeiros local Chamber of Deputies
27.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
28.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
29.
Grand Fleet
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The Grand Fleet was the main fleet of the British Royal Navy during the First World War. It was formed in August 1914 from the First Fleet and elements of the Second Fleet of the Home Fleets and it was initially commanded by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. He was succeeded by Admiral Sir David Beatty in December 1916, in April 1919 the Grand Fleet was disbanded, with much of its strength forming a new Atlantic Fleet. Not all the Grand Fleet was available to put to sea at any one time, because ships required maintenance and repairs. For a list of the ships that were part of the Grand Fleet at the time of the Battle of Jutland in May 1916, the order of battle of the Grand Fleet at the end of the war appears in Naval order of 24 October 1918. After the United States entered the war, United States Battleship Division Nine was attached to the Grand Fleet as the Sixth Battle Squadron, adding four, British Admirals of the Fleet 1734–1995, A Biographical Dictionary. U. S. Battleship Operations in World War I, the Grand Fleet Royal Navy History
30.
Rangefinder
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A rangefinder is a device that measures distance from the observer to a target, in a process called ranging. Active methods use unilateral transmission and passive reflection, Active rangefinding methods include laser, radar, sonar, lidar and ultrasonic rangefinding. Other devices measure distance using trigonometry, older methodologies that use a set of known information, usually distances or target sizes, to make the measurement, have been in regular use since the 18th century. Special ranging makes use of actively synchronized transmission and travel time measurements and this principle is used with SatNav, the Satellite Navigation class of systems. In conjunction with a model of the Globe surface a certain location on the Globe may be determined with high accuracy. Ranging methods without accurate time synchronization of the receiver are called pseudorange, with other systems ranging is obtained from passive radiation measurements only, hence the noise or radiation signature of the object is generating the signal that is computed for range. Ranging is the term merely applying for distance metering with moving objects, combining several metering results in a time sequence leads to tracking and tracing. Commonly used term for residing terrestrial objects is surveying, applications include surveying, navigation, to assist focusing in photography, choosing a golf club according to distance, and correcting aim of a projectile weapon for distance. Laser rangefinders are used for many today, including golf. People can use this technology not only to measure the yardage of a particular shot, the technology makes it very simple to obtain a yardage. In a typical rangefinder, one aims the reticle at the flagstick, there has been debate over whether they should be allowed in tournaments. While their use is banned on the level, they are becoming widely used on the amateur level. Rangefinders may be used by users of firearms over long distances, the laser rangefinder displays a luminous dot that may alert a target. Rangefinders are used for surveying in forestry, special devices with anti-leaf filters are used. Since the 1990s, rangefinders have been used in virtual reality systems to detect operator movements, fiske Dazzle camouflage Range-finder painting The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. Further considerations of defocus rangefinders Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control 27, pp. 297–316 Ward, A. Jones, A and Hopper, A. A New Location Technique for the Active Office IEEE Personal Communications 4, pp. 42–47 Werb, J. and Lanzi, designing a positioning system for finding things arid people indoors IEEE Spectrum 35, pp. 71–78 Range-Finding in the Army
31.
Fire-control system
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A fire-control system is a number of components working together, usually a gun data computer, a director, and radar, which is designed to assist a weapon system in hitting its target. It performs the task as a human gunner firing a weapon. The best known United States device was the Norden bombsight, simple systems, known as lead computing sights also made their appearance inside aircraft late in the war as gyro gunsights. These devices used a gyroscope to measure turn rates, and moved the gunsights aim-point to take this into account, the only manual input to the sight was the target distance, which was typically handled by dialing in the size of the targets wing span at some known range. Small radar units were added in the period to automate even this input. By the start of the Vietnam War, a new computerized bombing predictor, called the Low Altitude Bombing System, the key advantage is that the weapon can be released accurately even when the plane is maneuvering. Most bombsights until this time required that the plane maintain a constant attitude, the LABS system was originally designed to facilitate a tactic called toss bombing, to allow the aircraft to remain out of range of a weapons blast radius. The principle of calculating the point, however, was eventually integrated into the fire control computers of later bombers and strike aircraft, allowing level, dive. In addition, as the control computer became integrated with ordnance systems. By the start of World War II, aircraft altitude performance had increased so much that anti-aircraft guns had similar predictive problems, the main difference between these systems and the ones on ships was size and speed. The USN Mk 37 system made similar assumptions except that it could predict assuming a constant rate of altitude change. The Kerrison Predictor is an example of a system that was built to solve laying in real time, simply by pointing the director at the target and then aiming the gun at a pointer it directed. It was also designed to be small and light, in order to allow it to be easily moved along with the guns it served. The radar-based M-9/SCR-584 Anti-Aircraft System was used to air defense artillery since 1943. In combination with the VT proximity fuze, this system accomplished the feat of shooting down V-1 cruise missiles with less than 100 shells per plane. This system was instrumental in the defense of London and Antwerp against the V-1, although listed in Land based fire control section anti-aircraft fire control systems can also be found on naval and aircraft systems. In the United States, Coast Artillery fire control systems began to be developed at the end of the 19th Century, early systems made use of multiple observation or base end stations to find and track targets attacking American harbors. Fire control in the Coast Artillery became more and more sophisticated in terms of correcting firing data for such factors as weather conditions, provisions were also made for adjusting firing data for the observed fall of shells
32.
18 of the Copacabana Fort revolt
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The 18 of the Copacabana Fort revolt occurred on July 5,1922, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, then Federal District of Brazil. It was the first revolt of the movement, in the context of the Brazilian Old Republic. Tenentismo is the movement and various rebellions of young officers of the Brazilian army that happened during 1920’s. They asked for reforms in the structure, amongst these reforms were the end of the cabresto vote, the institution of a secret ballot. The army saw itself as the force capable of saving the Republic from the old elite which commanded the country. As a result, the movement was for one only of society, the army. On October 3,1919, a civilian - João Pandiá Calógeras - was designated as War Minister for the first time in the history of the Brazilian Republic and he held this post until November 15,1922. Later, it was found that the signatures in the letters were forged, in 1922, Artur Bernardes won the Presidential elections. The Militar Club, a military college in Rio de Janeiro, and Borges de Medeiros. But the elections were recognized by the Congress, in June 1922, Epitácio Pessoa intervened in the state of Pernambuco’s elections, this act was strongly criticized by Marshal Hermes da Fonseca. As a reaction, Epitácio ordered Marshal Hermes da Fonseca’s arrest and this happened because the government received notice that the revolt would happen and removed the crucial people from the most important military bases. The Fort Copacabana rebels fired their cannons against many important government, throughout the rest of the day, the fort was bombed. In the early morning of the 6th, Captain Euclides da Cunha, meanwhile, a destroyer and two battleships took up positions near the Fort and started to shell it. Captain Euclides Hermes left to negotiate, but he was arrested, the government’s last word was an order to the rebels to either surrender or be destroyed. Then, those inside the Fort cut a Brazilian flag in 29 pieces, one for each rebel, most of them dispersed and only 18 were left. Reduced to 10 men, they fought the loyalist troop - about 3,000 men), only Lieutenants Siqueira Campos and Eduardo Gomes survived. As forças que estão sitiando o forte de Copacabana, sob o comando do general Mena Barreto, tiveram ordem do governo para enviarem um ultimatum à fortaleza, em caso contrário será bombardeada por forças legais de terra e navios de guerra. Na Villa Militar só houve um pequeno movimento subversivo, imediatamente abafado, um pelotão, às ordens de um tenente, atirou contra a sala onde estavam reunidos os oficiais
33.
Tenentism
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Tenentism was a political philosophy of junior army officers who contributed significantly to the Brazilian Revolution of 1930. The first decades of the 20th century saw marked economic and social change in Brazil, in the post-World War I period, Brazil saw its first wave of general strikes and the establishment of the Communist Party in 1922. A new class of junior officer had emerged who were trained to European standards. In addition, various senior officers had identified with the government and political structure. Meanwhile, the divergence of interests between the oligarchs and the burgeoning, dynamic urban sectors was intensifying. As a result, rather disparate and disjointed social reform movements would crop up in the 1920s, however, the remainder of the First Army Division stayed loyal and, with General Setembrino de Carvalho supervising the operations, easily crushed the revolt. The defenders were driven from their positions, in the aftermath, the government imposed a state of emergency,1,000 cadets were expelled from the army school and many officers posted to remote garrisons. Two years later, on 5 July 1924, another group of army officers mounted a rebellion in São Paulo, the date was chosen to honour the 1922 rebels, the uprising was better prepared and was intended to bring down the Bernardes government. The formal leader was retired General Isidoro Dias Lopes, with others including Eduardo Gomes, Newton Estillac Leal, João Cabanas, the rebellion began well, with control of São Paulo being secured after the governor and forces loyal to him abandoned the city early on 9 July. The city was subjected to a several-week artillery and aerial bombardment. On 26 July, army aircraft dropped leaflets over the city warning the remaining civilians to leave so that loyalist forces would have a hand against the rebels. Isidoros various attempts at securing an accord with the government that would at least give the rebels amnesty were rebuffed, the leaders understood that they would be wiped out, along with a good part of the city, if they stayed. On the night of 27 July they staged a withdrawal of 3,000 troops on thirteen trains, via the Northwest Railroad, toward Mato Grosso. This withdrawal was executed so smoothly that it went unnoticed by the government forces until the morning, however, with their route to Mato Grosso blocked, the rebels retired to an area bordering Argentina and Paraguay close to Foz do Iguaçu. Having escaped into the interior, and joined by others from Rio Grande do Sul, they began a campaign as a force led by Luís Carlos Prestes. In that, they succeeded as they moved through state after state from Mato Grosso to Maranhão and back and this, however, was not the case. The tenente revolts heralded the end of the politics of café com leite and coronelismo, the actions and ideas that grew out of the revolts inspired other individuals, such as Getúlio Vargas, to lead the 1930 revolution against the Brazilian Government and bring down the Old Republic. The tenentes became the most visible proponents for revolution and helped convince Vargas that the use of force would be necessary, subsequently, with the help of the tenentes, whom he restored to the army, often with significant promotions, Vargas forged a highly personalised dictatorship
34.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
35.
Salvador, Bahia
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Salvador, also known as São Salvador, Salvador de Bahia, and Salvador da Bahia, is the capital of the Brazilian state of Bahia. With 2.9 million people, it is the largest city proper in the Northeast Region, founded by the Portuguese in 1549 as the first capital of Brazil, Salvador is one of the oldest colonial cities in the Americas. A sharp escarpment divides its Lower Town from its Upper Town by some 85 meters, the Elevador Lacerda, Brazils first elevator, has connected the two since 1873. The Pelourinho district of the town, still home to many examples of Portuguese colonial architecture. The citys cathedral is the see of the primate of Brazil, Salvador was the first slave port in the Americas and the African influence of the slaves descendants makes it a center of Afro-Brazilian culture. The city is noted for its cuisine, music, and architecture, Porto da Barra Beach in Barra has been named one of the best beaches in the world. Itaipava Arena Fonte Nova was the site of the games during the 2014 Brazilian World Cup. Salvador forms the heart of the Recôncavo, Bahias rich agricultural and industrial maritime district and its metropolitan area, housing 3,953,290 people forms the wealthiest one in Brazils Northeast Region. Salvador lies on a small, roughly triangular peninsula that separates the Bay of All Saints from the Atlantic Ocean, the bay is the largest in Brazil and the 2nd-largest in the world. It was first reached by Gaspar de Lemos in 1501, just one year after Cabrals purported discovery of Brazil, the first European to settle nearby was Diogo Álvares Correia, who was shipwrecked off the end of the peninsula in 1509. He lived among the Tupinambá, marrying Guaibimpara and others, mistreatment of the Tupinambá by the settlers caused them to turn hostile and the Portuguese were forced to flee to Porto Seguro c. 1546. An attempted restoration of the colony the next year ended in shipwreck, the present city was established as the fortress of São Salvador da Bahia de Todos os Santos in 1549 by Portuguese settlers under Tomé de Sousa, Brazils first governor-general. It is one of the oldest cities founded by Europeans in the Americas, from a cliff overlooking the Bay of All Saints, it served as Brazils first capital and quickly became a major port for its slave trade and sugarcane industry. Salvador was long divided into an upper and a lower city, the upper city formed the administrative, religious, and primary residential districts while the lower city was the commercial center, with a port and market. In 1572, the Governorate of Brazil was divided into the governorates of Bahia in the north. These were reunited as Brazil six years later, then redivided from 1607 to 1613, by that time, Portugal had become united with Spain and was ruled from Madrid by its kings. As Spain was then prosecuting a war against the independence of the Dutch, Salvador played a strategically vital role against Dutch Brazil, but was captured and sacked by a West India Company fleet under Jacob Willekens and Piet Hein on 10 May 1624. Johan van Dorth administered the colony before his assassination, freeing its slaves, the city was recaptured by a Luso-Spanish fleet under Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo y Mendoza on 1 May 1625
36.
Ship breaking
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It may also be known as ship dismantling, ship cracking, or ship recycling. Modern ships have a lifespan of 25 to 30 years before corrosion, metal fatigue, ship breaking allows the materials from the ship, especially steel, to be recycled and made into new products. This lowers the demand for mined iron ore and reduces energy use in the steelmaking process, equipment on board the vessel can also be reused. While ship breaking is sustainable, there are concerns about the use of poorer countries without stringent environmental legislation and it is also considered one of the worlds most dangerous industries and very labour-intensive. In 2012, roughly 1,250 ocean ships were broken down, in 2013, the world total of demolished ships amounted to 29,052,000 tonnes, 92% of which were demolished in Asia. The largest sources of ships are states of China, Greece and Germany respectively, the ship breaking yards of India, Bangladesh, China and Pakistan employ 100,000 workers as well as providing a large amount of indirect jobs. In India, the steel covers 10% of the countrys needs. As an alternative to breaking, ships may be sunk to create artificial reefs after being cleared of hazardous materials. Storage is a viable option, whether on land or afloat, though all ships will be eventually scrapped, sunk. Wooden-hulled ships were set on fire or conveniently sunk. In Tudor times, ships were dismantled and the timber re-used. This procedure was no longer applicable with the advent of metal-hulled boats, the navy vessel HMS Temeraire had her masts, stores and guns removed and her crew paid off. She was sold by Dutch auction on 16 August 1838 to John Beatson, Beatson was then faced with the task of transporting the ship 55 miles from Sheerness to Rotherhithe, the largest ship to have attempted this voyage. To accomplish this he hired two steam tugs from the Thames Steam Towing Company and employed a Rotherhithe pilot named William Scott and twenty five men to sail her up the Thames, at a cost of £58. The shipbreakers undertook a thorough dismantling, removing all the copper sheathing, rudder pintles and gudgeons, copper bolts, nails, the timber was mostly sold to house builders and shipyard owners, though some was retained for working into specialist commemorative furniture. The ships final voyage was immortalised by William Turners painting The Fighting ‘Temeraire’, in 1880, Denny Brothers of Dumbarton used scrap maritime steel in their shipbuilding. Many other nations began to purchase British ships for scrap by the late 19th century, including Germany, Italy, the Italian industry started in 1892, and the Japanese after an 1896 law had been passed to subsidise native shipbuilding. After being damaged or involved in a disaster, liner operators did not want the name of the ship to tarnish the brand of their passenger services
37.
Decline and fall of Pedro II of Brazil
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The decline and fall of Pedro II of Brazil occurred over the course of the 1880s, with the underlying factors accumulating and coming increasingly into focus after 1881. The roots of the collapse of the monarchy can be traced as far back as 1850, from that point onward, the Emperor ceased to believe in the monarchy as a viable form of government for Brazils future, as his remaining heir was a daughter. Although constitutionally permitted, a ruler was considered unacceptable by both Pedro II and the ruling circles. This issue was deferred for decades, during which the became more powerful. So long as the Emperor enjoyed good health, the matter of succession could be ignored, from 1881 on, Pedro IIs health began failing. He gradually withdrew from public affairs as time passed, weary of being tied to a throne which he doubted would survive his death, he persevered out of duty and because there seemed no immediate alternative. Nor did his daughter and heir, Isabel, exhibit a desire to assume the crown, both, however, were overwhelmingly beloved by the Brazilian people, who still supported the monarchy. The republican revolution which replaced the Empire led to decades of disruption, during the 1880s, Brazil continued to prosper and social diversity increased markedly, including the first organized push for womens rights. The country had changed in the five decades since Pedro IIs accession to the throne. The liberalism adopted by successive Government cabinets favored private initiatives and resulted in decades of economic prosperity and it had an economy that was rapidly developing in 1880s. Brazils international trade reached a value of Rs 79.000, 000$000 between 1834 and 1839. This continued to increase every year until it reached Rs 472.000, 000$000 between 1886 and 1887, Brazilian economic growth, especially after 1850, compared well with that of the United States and European nations. The national revenue, which amounted to Rs 11.795, 000$000 in 1831, rose to Rs 160.840, by 1858, it was the eighth largest in the world. Development on an immense scale occurred during this period, which anticipated similar initiatives in European countries, in 1850, there were 50 factories valued at more than Rs 7.000, 000$000. At the end of the Imperial period in 1889, Brazil had 636 factories valued at approximately Rs 401.630, only eight countries in the entire world laid more track in the decade than Brazil. The first railroad line, with only 15 kilometers, was opened on 30 April 1854 at a time when many European countries had no rail service. By 1868, there were 718 kilometers of lines, and by the end of the Empire in 1889. Factories also sprang throughout the Empire in the 1880s at an unprecedent rate, Brazil was entering the modern world
38.
Politics of the Empire of Brazil
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Executive power was exercised by the government. Legislative power was vested in both the government and the two chambers of the General Assembly, the Judiciary was independent of the Executive and the Legislative. The Empire of Brazil was divided into 20 provinces and the Neutral City, upon gaining independence from Portugal in 1822, the Brazilian nation as a whole was almost entirely in favor of a monarchical form of government. There were a variety of reasons for this political choice, only a neutral entity, completely independent of parties, groups or opposing ideologies, could achieve this end. And there was always a powerful ideological element remaining from independence as the result of a national union over particular interests. The Brazilian monarchy was a form of government that assured a Brazil that would include the whole of the old Portuguese dominion, in a climate of order, peace, there was also another reason for adoption of the monarchy, or more precisely, its maintenance. The Europeans, as much as the Africans and the native Americans, to remain under this form of government was a way of maintaining the traditions and identity of the Brazilian people, a people descended from those three distinct ethnic groups. The choice of a member of the House of Braganza came not just from the historical moment, but also from the fact that Prince Pedro descended from the pure male line of the Portuguese kings. Thus, the popular appeal of the monarchy, and a tradition of more than three hundred years, enabled Prince Pedro to take on the role of a symbol of national unity. The monarchical regime maintained on Brazilian soil was a force of continuity, a third element in the choice of monarchy was the necessity to comply with the powers of the era, all located in Europe. And in fact, after the phase of the regency, turbulent but transitory by its very nature, for the reasons cited above, Brazil chose a representative constitutional monarchical system. The imperial regime was based on the idea that sovereignty resided in the Nation, not the State, while the Nation wished to experience freedom and prosperty, the State, in turn, wanted permanence, duration and existence. In this form, the Constitution expressed in its text that both the Emperor and the General Assembly were representatives of the Brazilian nation, the monarch represented the constant, general interests of the nation as a whole, while the Assembly represented particular, ephemeral, momentary interests. However, the Emperor was not sovereign of the country, the sovereign was the Brazilian Nation, under the Brazilian monarchy, nonetheless, the emperor was head of both the State and the Government. This basic characteristic of presidential republicanism was transplanted by the Brazilian Constitutional Order, the Constitution of 1824 was rather less parliamentary than the draft prepared by the Constituent Assembly. In fact, it was for all purposes a peculiar and unique regime and that did not mean, by any means, that the Brazilian monarch had prerogatives resembling those of a tyrant or dictator. The individual guarantees that guarantee human liberty and dignity were inserted into the articles of the Charter and were respected, the Emperor would not act in areas reserved to the legislative branch and the judiciary, such as to create laws or to judge and sentence. It was unnecessary to modify the letter of the law in order to one system of government into another
39.
Pedro II of Brazil
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Dom Pedro II, nicknamed the Magnanimous, was the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. Born in Rio de Janeiro, he was the child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina. His fathers abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left a five-year-old Pedro II as Emperor and led to a grim and lonely childhood, obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule, he knew only brief moments of happiness and encountered few friends of his age. Inheriting an Empire on the verge of disintegration, Pedro II turned Portuguese-speaking Brazil into a power in the international arena. Brazil was also victorious in three international conflicts under his rule, as well as prevailing in other international disputes. Pedro II steadfastly pushed through the abolition of slavery despite opposition from powerful political, a savant in his own right, the Emperor established a reputation as a vigorous sponsor of learning, culture and the sciences. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the future prospects. He did not allow his ouster to be opposed and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy and he spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic, a few decades after his death, his reputation was restored and his remains were returned to Brazil with celebrations nationwide. Historians have regarded the Emperor in a positive light and several have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian. Pedro was born at 02,30 on 2 December 1825 in the Palace of São Cristóvão, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Named after St. Peter of Alcantara, his name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. Through his father, Emperor Dom Pedro I, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza and was referred to using the honorific Dom from birth and he was the grandson of Portuguese King Dom João VI and nephew of Dom Miguel I. His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, daughter of Franz II, through his mother, Pedro was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France, Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary and Don Maximiliano I of Mexico. The only legitimate child of Pedro I to survive infancy. Empress Maria Leopoldina died on 11 December 1826, a few days after a stillbirth, Two and a half years later, his father married Amélie of Leuchtenberg. Prince Pedro developed a relationship with her, whom he came to regard as his mother. He and Amélie immediately departed for Europe, leaving behind the Prince Imperial, upon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his son and remaining daughters
40.
Revolta da Armada
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The Brazilian government received support from the United States, although military involvement was minor during the conflict. To avoid a war, Marshal Deodoro resigned the presidency in 23 November. With the resignation of Deodoro, after just nine months from the beginning of his administration, the 1891 Constitution, however, provided for a new election if the presidency or vice-presidency became vacant sooner than two years in office. The opposition then accused Floriano of staying as head of the nation illegally, the second revolt started in March 1892, when thirteen generals sent a letter and manifesto to the President Marshal Floriano Peixoto. This document demanded new elections be called to fulfill the constitutional provision, Floriano harshly suppressed the movement, ordering the arrest of their leaders. Thus, not legally solved, the tensions increased. The revolt broke out in September 1893 at Rio de Janeiro, with many of the Brazilian Navys most powerful ships either in the hands of the rebels or under repair, the Brazilian government had to improvise a new fleet to battle the rebel fleet. The cardboard squadron had to face off against a mutiny that had overtaken most of the ships of the original navy. Local bloody conflicts in some regions of Brazil ensued, the navys mutiny off Rio de Janeiro also was a challenge, and became linked to the Federalist Rebellion. The revolt included the powerful battleship Aquidaban and a collection of small ironclads, modern cruisers and this did not leave the government with much left to challenge the mutineers, who could have controlled the seas and influenced the concurrent conflicts on land. In this case, however, the new fleet was dedicated to confronting the original navy of the same country, Brazilian Navy Brazilian battleship Aquidabã Brazilian battleship Riachuelo First Battle of Topolobampo Rebellions and revolutions in Brazil
41.
Amazon rubber boom
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It encouraged the growth of cities such as Manaus, Porto Velho, and Belém, capitals within the respective Brazilian states of Amazonas, Rondônia and Pará, as well as the expansion of Iquitos in Peru. The rubber boom occurred largely between 1879 and 1912, there was heightened rubber production and associated activities from 1942 to 1945 during the Second World War. Natural rubber is an elastomer, also known as gum, India rubber, and caoutchouc. Christopher Columbus was the one of the first Europeans to bring news of this odd substance back to Europe, around 1736, a French astronomer recalled how Amerindians used rubber to waterproof shoes and cloaks. He brought several samples of rubber back to France, Rubber was used as an eraser by scientist Joseph Priestley in England. It was not until the 1800s that practical uses of rubber were developed, a rubber factory that made rubber garters for women opened in Paris, France, in the year 1803. However, the still had disadvantages, at room temperature. At higher temperatures, the rubber became softer and stickier, while at temperatures it became hard. The South Amerindians first discovered rubber, sometime dating back to 1600BC, the Amerindians in the Amazon rainforest developed ways to extract rubber from the rubber tree, a member of the Euphorbiaceae family. A white liquid called latex is extracted from the stem of the rubber tree, the rubber, which constitutes about 35% of the latex, is chemically cis-1, 4-polyisoprene. Latex is practically a neutral substance, with a pH of 7.0 to 7.2, however, when it is exposed to the air for 12 to 24 hours, its pH falls and it spontaneously coagulates to form a solid mass of rubber. Rubber produced in this fashion has disadvantages, for example, exposure to air causes it to mix with various materials, which is perceptible and can cause rot, as well as a temperature-dependent stickiness. Industrial treatment was developed to remove the impurities and vulcanize the rubber and this process gives it superior mechanical properties, and causes it to lose its sticky character, and become stable - resistant to solvents and variations in temperature. The rubber boom and the associated need for a large workforce had a significant negative effect on the population across Brazil, Peru, Ecuador. As rubber plantations grew, labor shortages increased, the owners of the plantations or rubber barons were rich, but those who collected the rubber made very little as a large amount of rubber was needed to be profitable. The rubber barons rounded up all the Indians and forced them to tap out of the trees. One plantation started with 50,000 Indians and when discovered of the killings, slavery and systematic brutality were widespread, and in some areas, 90% of the Indian population was wiped out. These rubber plantations were part of the Brazilian rubber market, which declined as rubber plantations in Southeast Asia became more effective, Rubber had catastrophic effects in parts of Upper Amazonia, but its impact should not be exaggerated nor extrapolated to the whole region
42.
HNoMS Norge
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HNoMS Norge was a coastal defence ship of the Eidsvold-class in the Royal Norwegian Navy. Built by Armstrong Whitworth at Newcastle on Tyne, she was torpedoed, Norge and Eidsvold were the largest vessels in the Royal Norwegian Navy, displacing 4,233 tons and crewed by 270 men. Both vessels were considered to be powerful for their time. They were armoured to withstand battle with ships of a similar size, on the morning of 9 April 1940, German forces entered Ofotfjord under cover of fog and heavy snow. The Germans contacted the captain of Eidsvold, demanding that he surrender, and when this was turned down, aboard Norge, deeper inside the fjord, the explosions were heard, but nothing could be seen until two German destroyers suddenly appeared out of the darkness. Captain Per Askim of Norge gave orders to open fire, four rounds were fired from the 21 cm guns as well as seven or eight rounds from the starboard 15 cm guns, directed against the German destroyer Bernd von Arnim. The range has been estimated as 800 metres, due to the difficult weather conditions, it was hard to use the optical sights for the guns, which resulted in the first salvo falling short of the target and the others going over the target. The German destroyers waited until they were alongside the pier before returning fire, Bernd von Arnim opened fire with her 12.7 cm guns, as well as with machine guns, but the weather gave the Germans problems as well. The destroyer also fired torpedoes—in all three salvoes of two torpedoes each, the first two salvoes missed, but the last struck Norge midships, and she sank in less than one minute, her propellers still turning. Ninety of the crew were rescued from the water, but 101 perished in the battle which had lasted less than 20 minutes. The remains of Norge lie at a depth of about 20 metres, partly salvaged in situ, it is considered a war memorial and diving on the wreck is prohibited. In Gardiner, Robert, Chesneau, Roger, Kolesnik, Eugene M. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships, 1860–1905
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Brazil
. Miramar Ship Index. Retrieved 28 April 2009.
