1.
Areola
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In anatomy, the areola is a small circular area on the body with a different histology from the surrounding tissue. The term is most commonly used to denote the area on the human breast around the nipple. The plural of areola is areolas or areolae, which is pronounced /əˈriːəliː/ or /əˈriːəlaɪ/, areola is the diminutive of Latin area, open place. Careful inspection of a human female nipple will reveal several small openings arranged radially around the tip of the nipple from which milk is released during lactation. Other small openings in the areola are sebaceous glands, known as Montgomerys glands and these can be quite obvious and raised above the surface of the areola, giving the appearance of goose-flesh. The areolae can range from pink to red to brown or nearly black. A reason for the colour may be to make the nipple area more visible to the infant. The size and shape of areolae are also variable, with those of sexually mature women usually being larger than those of men. Human areolae are mostly circular in shape, but many women, the average diameter of male areolae is around 28.0 mm. Sexually mature women have an average of 38.1 mm, but sizes range up to 100 mm or greater. Lactating women, and women with large breasts, may have even larger areolae. Another function of an areola is to house slowly-adapting mechanoreceptors that trigger oxytocin excretion during nursing, the size of the areola implies a need to protect a larger area than the nipple due to many factors which are not fully known. Rated according to the Tanner scale of development, in stage four. In stage five, they are no longer raised, suckling by the baby innervates slowly-adapting and rapidly-adapting mechanoreceptors that are densely packed around the areolar region. Pagets disease of the breast is a malignant condition that outwardly may have the appearance of eczema, with skin changes involving the areola, list of specialized glands within the human integumentary system
2.
Nipple
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In its most general form, a nipple is a structure from which a fluid emanates. More specifically, it is the projection on the breasts or udder of a mammal by which, in females, in this sense, it is often called a teat, especially when referring to non-humans, and the medical term used to refer to it is papilla. A breast or nipple is called a pap. The rubber mouthpiece of a bottle or pacifier may also be referred to as a nipple or a teat. In humans, nipples of both males and females are one of the erogenous zones. In many cultures, human female nipples are sexualized and it is considered a taboo or a public indecency to uncover them in public. The word nipple most likely originates as a diminutive of neb, an Old English word meaning beak, nose, or face, the words teat and tit share a Germanic ancestor. The second of the two, tit, was inherited directly from Proto-Germanic, while the first entered English via Old French. In the anatomy of mammals, a nipple, mammary papilla or teat is a projection of skin containing the outlets for 15–20 lactiferous ducts arranged cylindrically around the tip. The skin of the nipple is rich in a supply of special nerves that are sensitive to certain stimuli, the dominant innervation to the nipple is derived from the lateral cutaneous branches of fourth intercostal nerve. The physiological purpose of nipples is to deliver milk to the infant, marsupials and eutherian mammals typically have an even number of nipples arranged bilaterally, from as few as two to as many as 19. The average projection and size of female nipples is slightly more than 3/8 of an inch. This is equal to about 5 stacked American quarters, pregnancy and nursing tend to increase nipple size, sometimes permanently. Nipples of both males and females are one of the zones, which, when stimulated, leads to sexual arousal. The male and female breast have a nerve supply but the nerves lie closer together in men. After puberty, female breasts turn more sensitive, likely due to hormonal influences, during arousal they generally become stiff, erect and protrude. Nipple stimulation is sometimes enough to elicit an orgasm in some women. Research has suggested the sensations are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, in women, one study indicated that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix
3.
Artery
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Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. While most arteries carry oxygenated blood, there are two exceptions to this, the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, the effective arterial blood volume is that extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system. The anatomy of arteries can be separated into gross anatomy, at the level, and microscopic anatomy. The outermost layer is known as the tunica externa, also known as tunica adventitia, inside this layer is the tunica media, or media, which is made up of smooth muscle cells and elastic tissue. The innermost layer, which is in contact with the flow of blood, is the tunica intima. This layer is made up of endothelial cells. The hollow internal cavity in which the flows is called the lumen. Arterial formation begins when endothelial cells begin to express specific genes. Arteries form part of the circulatory system and they carry blood that is oxygenated after it has been pumped from the heart. Arteries also aid the heart in pumping blood, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues, except for pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Veins and pulmonary veins carry deoxygenated blood. )The pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart to the lungs and it is unique because the blood in it is not oxygenated, as it has not yet passed through the lungs. The other unique artery is the artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from a fetus to its mother. Arteries have a blood pressure than other parts of the circulatory system. The pressure in arteries varies during the cardiac cycle and it is highest when the heart contracts and lowest when heart relaxes. The variation in pressure produces a pulse, which can be felt in different areas of the body, arterioles have the greatest collective influence on both local blood flow and on overall blood pressure. They are the primary adjustable nozzles in the system, across which the greatest pressure drop occurs. The larger arteries are generally elastic and the smaller ones tend to be muscular, systemic arteries deliver blood to the arterioles, and then to the capillaries, where nutrients and gases are exchanged. After travelling from the aorta, blood travels through peripheral arteries into smaller arteries called arterioles, arterioles help in regulating blood pressure by the variable contraction of the smooth muscle of their walls, and deliver blood to the capillaries
4.
Vein
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Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the back to the heart, exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins. In contrast to veins, arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins are less muscular than arteries and are often closer to the skin. There are valves in most veins to prevent backflow, veins are present throughout the body as tubes that carry blood back to the heart. Veins are classified in a number of ways, including superficial vs. deep, pulmonary vs. systemic, superficial veins are those closer to the surface of the body, and have no corresponding arteries. Deep veins are deeper in the body and have corresponding arteries, perforator veins drain from the superficial to the deep veins. These are usually referred to in the limbs and feet. Communicating veins are veins that directly connect superficial veins to deep veins, pulmonary veins are a set of veins that deliver oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Systemic veins drain the tissues of the body and deliver deoxygenated blood to the heart, most veins are equipped with valves to prevent blood flowing in the reverse direction. Veins appear blue because the subcutaneous fat absorbs low-frequency light, permitting only the highly energetic blue wavelengths to penetrate through to the dark vein and reflect back to the viewer. The colour of a vein can be affected by the characteristics of a skin, how much oxygen is being carried in the blood. When a vein is drained of blood and removed from an organism, the largest veins in the human body are the venae cavae. These are two large veins which enter the right atrium of the heart from above and below. The superior vena cava carries blood from the arms and head to the atrium of the heart, while the inferior vena cava carries blood from the legs. The inferior vena cava is retroperitoneal and runs to the right, large veins feed into these two veins, and smaller veins into these. Together this forms the venous system, whilst the main veins hold a relatively constant position, the position of veins person to person can display quite a lot of variation. The pulmonary veins carry relatively oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, the superior and inferior venae cavae carry relatively deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower systemic circulations, respectively. The portal venous system is a series of veins or venules that directly connect two capillary beds, examples of such systems include the hepatic portal vein and hypophyseal portal system
5.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
6.
Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
7.
Anatomical terms of location
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Standard anatomical terms of location deal unambiguously with the anatomy of animals, including humans. All vertebrates have the basic body plan – they are strictly bilaterally symmetrical in early embryonic stages. That is, they have left and right halves if divided down the centre. For these reasons, the directional terms can be considered to be those used in vertebrates. By extension, the terms are used for many other organisms as well. While these terms are standardized within specific fields of biology, there are unavoidable, sometimes dramatic, for example, differences in terminology remain a problem that, to some extent, still separates the terminology of human anatomy from that used in the study of various other zoological categories. The vertebrates and Craniata share a heritage and common structure. To avoid ambiguities this terminology is based on the anatomy of each animal in a standard way, for humans, one type of vertebrate, anatomical terms may differ from other forms of vertebrates. Thus what is on top of a human is the head, whereas the top of a dog may be its back, for example, many species are not even bilaterally symmetrical. In these species, terminology depends on their type of symmetry, all descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the organism in different postures. In humans, this refers to the body in a position with arms at the side. While the universal vertebrate terminology used in medicine would work in human medicine. Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body, for example, anterolateral indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis. There is no limit to the contexts in which terms may be modified to qualify each other in such combinations. Generally the modifier term is truncated and an o or an i is added in prefixing it to the qualified term, where desirable three or more terms may be agglutinated or concatenated, as in anteriodorsolateral. Such terms sometimes used to be hyphenated, but the tendency is to omit the hyphen. There is however little basis for any rule to interfere with choice of convenience in such usage
8.
Primate
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A primate is a mammal of the order Primates. In taxonomy, primates include two distinct lineages, strepsirrhines and haplorhines, Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests, many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three-dimensional environment. Most primate species remain at least partly arboreal, with the exception of humans, who inhabit every continent except for Antarctica, most primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas, Africa and Asia. Based on fossil evidence, the earliest known true primates, represented by the genus Teilhardina, an early close primate relative known from abundant remains is the Late Paleocene Plesiadapis, c. Molecular clock studies suggest that the branch may be even older. The order Primates was traditionally divided into two groupings, prosimians and anthropoids. Prosimians have characteristics more like those of the earliest primates, and include the lemurs of Madagascar, lorisoids, simians include monkeys, apes and hominins. Simians are divided into two groups, catarrhine monkeys and apes of Africa and Southeast Asia and platyrrhine or New World monkeys of South, catarrhines consist of Old World monkeys, gibbons and great apes, New World monkeys include the capuchin, howler and squirrel monkeys. Humans are the only extant catarrhines to have spread successfully outside of Africa, South Asia, New primate species are still being discovered. More than 25 species were described in the decade of the 2000s. Considered generalist mammals, primates exhibit a range of characteristics. Some primates are primarily terrestrial rather than arboreal, but all species possess adaptations for climbing trees, locomotion techniques used include leaping from tree to tree, walking on two or four limbs, knuckle-walking, and swinging between branches of trees. Primates are characterized by large brains relative to other mammals, as well as a reliance on stereoscopic vision at the expense of smell. These features are developed in monkeys and apes and noticeably less so in lorises. Three-color vision has developed in some primates, most also have opposable thumbs and some have prehensile tails. Many species are dimorphic, differences include body mass, canine tooth size. Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals and reach maturity later, depending on the species, adults may live in solitude, in mated pairs, or in groups of up to hundreds of members. The relationships among the different groups of primates were not clearly understood until relatively recently, for example, ape has been used either as an alternative for monkey or for any tailless, relatively human-like primate
9.
Infant
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An infant is the more formal or specialised synonym for baby, the very young offspring of a human or other animal. A newborn is, in use, an infant who is only hours, days. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth, the term applies to premature, full term, and postmature infants, before birth, the term fetus is used. The term infant is typically applied to children under one year of age, however, definitions may vary. When a human child learns to walk, the toddler may be used instead. In British English, infant is a term that can be applied to children aged between four and seven. As a legal term, infancy continues from birth until age 18, a newborns shoulders and hips are wide, the abdomen protrudes slightly, and the arms and legs are relatively long with respect to the rest of their body. In first world nations, the total body length of newborns are 35. 6–50.8 cm. The Apgar score is a measure of a transition from the uterus during the first minutes after birth. In developed countries, the birth weight of a full-term newborn is approximately 3.4 kg. After the first week, healthy term neonates should gain 10–20 grams/day, a newborns head is very large in proportion to the body, and the cranium is enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is one seventh of the total body length. Normal head circumference for an infant is 33–36 cm at birth. At birth, many regions of the skull have not yet been converted to bone. The two largest are the anterior fontanel, located at the top front portion of the head, and the smaller triangular-shaped posterior fontanel. Later in the life, these bones will fuse together in a natural process. A protein called noggin is responsible for the delay in an infants skull fusion, during labour and birth, the infants skull changes shape to fit through the birth canal, sometimes causing the child to be born with a misshapen or elongated head. It will usually return to normal on its own within a few days or weeks, special exercises sometimes advised by physicians may assist the process
10.
Embryology
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Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth. After cleavage, the cells, or morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula. In bilateral animals, the blastula develops in one of two ways that divides the whole animal kingdom into two halves. If in the blastula the first pore becomes the mouth of the animal, it is a protostome, the protostomes include most invertebrate animals, such as insects, worms and molluscs, while the deuterostomes include the vertebrates. In due course, the changes into a more differentiated structure called the gastrula. The middle layer, or mesoderm, gives rise to the muscles, skeleton if any, the outer layer of cells, or ectoderm, gives rise to the nervous system, including the brain, and skin or carapace and hair, bristles, or scales. Embryos in many species appear similar to one another in early developmental stages. The reason for this similarity is because species have an evolutionary history. These similarities among species are called homologous structures, which are structures that have the same or similar function and mechanism, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, is a model organism in biology on which much research into embryology has been done. Before fertilization, the female produces an abundance of mRNA - transcribed from the genes that encode bicoid protein. These mRNA molecules are stored to be used later in what become the developing embryo. The male and female Drosophila gametes exhibit anisogamy, the female gamete is larger than the male gamete because it harbors more cytoplasm and, within the cytoplasm, the female gamete contains an abundance of the mRNA previously mentioned. At fertilization, the male and female gametes fuse and then the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete, note that before the gametes nuclei fuse, they are known as pronuclei. A series of nuclear divisions will occur without cytokinesis in the zygote to form a cell known as a syncytium. All the nuclei in the syncytium are identical, just as all the nuclei in every cell of any multicellular organism are identical in terms of the DNA sequence of the genome. Before the nuclei can differentiate in transcriptional activity, the embryo must be divided into segments, in each segment, a unique set of regulatory proteins will cause specific genes in the nuclei to be transcribed. The resulting combination of proteins will transform clusters of cells into early embryo tissues that will develop into multiple fetal
11.
Puberty
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Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a childs body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by signals from the brain to the gonads, the ovaries in a girl. In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sex organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when a body has been developed. Until the maturation of their capabilities, the pre-pubertal physical differences between boys and girls are the external sex organs. On average, girls begin puberty around ages 10–11, boys around ages 11–12, girls usually complete puberty around ages 15–17, while boys usually complete puberty around ages 16–17. In the 21st century, the age at which children, especially girls, reach puberty is lower compared to the 19th century. Puberty which starts earlier than usual is known as precocious puberty, Puberty which starts later than usual is known as delayed puberty. Two of the most significant differences between puberty in girls and puberty in boys are the age at which it begins, and the sex steroids involved, the testosterones. Although there is a range of normal ages, girls typically begin the process of puberty at age 10 or 11. Girls usually complete puberty by ages 15–17, while boys usually complete puberty by ages 16–17, girls attain reproductive maturity about four years after the first physical changes of puberty appear. In contrast, boys accelerate more slowly but continue to grow for about six years after the first visible pubertal changes, any increase in height beyond the post-pubertal age is uncommon. For boys, an androgen called testosterone is the sex hormone. While testosterone is produced, all changes are characterized as virilization. The conversion of testosterone to estradiol depends on the amount of body fat, the male growth spurt also begins later, accelerates more slowly, and lasts longer before the epiphyses fuse. Although boys are on average 2 centimetres shorter than girls before puberty begins, the hormone that dominates female development is an estrogen called estradiol. While estradiol promotes growth of the breasts and uterus, it is also the principal hormone driving the growth spurt and epiphyseal maturation. Estradiol levels rise earlier and reach higher levels in women than in men, the hormonal maturation of females is considerably more complicated than in boys
12.
Estrogen
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Estrogen or oestrogen is the primary female sex hormone as well as a medication. It is responsible for the development and regulation of the reproductive system. Estrogen may also refer to any substance, natural or synthetic, the estrane steroid estradiol is the most potent and prevalent endogenous estrogen, although several metabolites of estradiol also have estrogenic hormonal activity. They are one of three types of sex hormones, the others being androgens/anabolic steroids like testosterone and progestogens like progesterone, estrogens are synthesized in all vertebrates as well as some insects. Their presence in both vertebrates and insects suggests that sex hormones have an ancient evolutionary history. The three major naturally occurring forms of estrogen in women are estrone, estradiol, and estriol, another type of estrogen called estetrol is produced only during pregnancy. Quantitatively, estrogens circulate at lower levels than androgens in both men and women, while estrogen levels are significantly lower in males compared to females, estrogens nevertheless also have important physiological roles in males. Like all steroid hormones, estrogens readily diffuse across the cell membrane, once inside the cell, they bind to and activate estrogen receptors which in turn modulate the expression of many genes. Additionally, estrogens bind to and activate rapid-signaling membrane estrogen receptors, the three major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone, estradiol, and estriol. Estradiol is the predominant estrogen during reproductive years both in terms of serum levels as well as in terms of estrogenic activity. During menopause, estrone is the predominant circulating estrogen and during pregnancy estriol is the predominant circulating estrogen in terms of serum levels. Though estriol is the most plentiful of the three estrogens it is also the weakest, whereas estradiol is the strongest with a potency of approximately 80 times that of estriol. Thus, estradiol is the most important estrogen in non-pregnant females who are between the menarche and menopause stages of life, however, during pregnancy this role shifts to estriol, and in postmenopausal women estrone becomes the primary form of estrogen in the body. Another type of estrogen called estetrol is produced only during pregnancy, all of the different forms of estrogen are synthesized from androgens, specifically testosterone and androstenedione, by the enzyme aromatase. Estradiol, estrone, and estriol have all been approved as drugs and are used medically. Estetrol is currently under development for medical indications, but has not yet approved in any country. A variety of synthetic estrogen esters, such as estradiol valerate, estradiol cypionate, estradiol acetate, estradiol undecylate, polyestradiol phosphate, the aforementioned compounds behave as prodrugs to estradiol, and are longer-lasting in comparison. Esters of estrone and estriol also exist and are employed in clinical medicine, ethinylestradiol is a more potent synthetic analogue of estradiol that is used widely in hormonal contraceptives
13.
Growth hormone
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Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. It is thus important in human development and it is a type of mitogen which is specific only to certain kinds of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is synthesized, stored, GH is a stress hormone that raises the concentration of glucose and free fatty acids. It also stimulates production of IGF-1, a recombinant form of hGH called somatropin is used as a prescription drug to treat childrens growth disorders and adult growth hormone deficiency. In the United States, it is available legally from pharmacies. In recent years in the United States, some doctors have started to prescribe growth hormone in GH-deficient older patients to increase vitality, while legal, the efficacy and safety of this use for HGH has not been tested in a clinical trial. At this time, HGH is still considered a very complex hormone, in its role as an anabolic agent, HGH has been used by competitors in sports since at least 1982, and has been banned by the IOC and NCAA. Blood tests conducted by WADA at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, use of the drug for performance enhancement is not currently approved by the FDA. GH has been studied for use in raising livestock more efficiently in industrial agriculture, in the United States, the only FDA-approved use of GH for livestock is the use of a cow-specific form of GH called bovine somatotropin for increasing milk production in dairy cows. Retailers are permitted to label containers of milk as produced with or without bovine somatotropin, the names somatotropin or somatotropic hormone refer to the growth hormone produced naturally in animals and extracted from carcasses. Hormone extracted from human cadavers is abbreviated hGH, the main growth hormone produced by recombinant DNA technology has the approved generic name somatropin and the brand name Humatrope, and is properly abbreviated rhGH in the scientific literature. Since its introduction in 1992 Humatrope has been a banned sports doping agent, genes for human growth hormone, known as growth hormone 1 and growth hormone 2, are localized in the q22-24 region of chromosome 17 and are closely related to human chorionic somatomammotropin genes. GH, human chorionic somatomammotropin, and prolactin belong to a group of hormones with growth-promoting. The major isoform of the growth hormone is a protein of 191 amino acids. The structure includes four helices necessary for interaction with the GH receptor. It appears that, in structure, GH is evolutionarily homologous to prolactin, despite marked structural similarities between growth hormone from different species, only human and Old World monkey growth hormones have significant effects on the human growth hormone receptor. Several molecular isoforms of GH exist in the gland and are released to blood. This variant has not been identified, but it has suggested to coincide with a 22 kDa glycosylated variant of 23 kDa identified in the pituitary gland
14.
Breast development
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Breast development, also known as mammogenesis, is a complex biological process in primates that takes place throughout a females life. It occurs across several phases, including development, puberty. At menopause, breast development ceases and the breasts atrophy, Breast development results in prominent and developed structures on the chest known as breasts in primates, which serve as both a sexual characteristic and as mammary glands. The process is mediated by an assortment of hormones, the most important of which include estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, and growth hormone. The master regulators of breast development are the steroid hormones, estrogen and progesterone, growth hormone, mostly via its secretory product, insulin-like growth factor 1, at puberty, gonadotropin-releasing hormone begins to be secreted, in a pulsatile manner, from the hypothalamus. GnRH, in turn, induces the secretion of the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone and these hormones travel to the ovaries through the bloodstream and cause estrogen and progesterone to be produced by them and released into the body in fluctuating amounts with each menstrual cycle. Growth hormone, which is secreted from the gland, and insulin-like growth factor 1. In late adolescence and early adulthood, GH and IGF-1 levels significantly decrease and it has been found that both estrogen and GH are essential for breast development at puberty – in the absence of either, no development will take place. In addition to estrogen and GH/IGF-1 both being essential for pubertal breast development, they are synergistic in bringing it about, development of the breasts during the prenatal stage of life is independent of biological sex and sex hormones. During embryonic development, the breast buds, in which networks of tubules are formed, are generated from the ectoderm and these rudimentary tubules will eventually become the matured lactiferous ducts, which connect the lobules of the breast, grape-like clusters of alveoli, to the nipples. Until puberty, the networks of the breast buds remain rudimentary and quiescent. Under the influence of estrogen, the ducts sprout and elongate and this continues until a tree-like network of branched ducts that is embedded into and fills the entire fat pad of the breast is formed. In addition to its role in mediating ductal development, estrogen causes stromal tissue to grow and adipose tissue to accumulate, progesterone, in conjunction with GH/IGF-1 similarly to estrogen, affects the development of the breasts during puberty and thereafter as well. During pregnancy, pronounced breast growth and maturation occurs in preparation of lactation, estrogen and progesterone levels increase dramatically, reaching levels by late pregnancy that are several hundred-fold higher than usual menstrual cycle levels. Estrogen and progesterone cause the secretion of high levels of prolactin from the anterior pituitary, IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels also increase dramatically during pregnancy, due to secretion of placental growth hormone. Further ductal development, by estrogen, again in conjunction with GH/IGF-1, Growth hormone receptor knockout mice also show greatly impaired lobuloalveolar development. In addition to their role in growth, prolactin and hPL act to increase the size of the nipple-areolar complex during pregnancy. By the end of the month of pregnancy, at which time lobuloalveolar maturation is complete
15.
Lactiferous duct
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Lactiferous ducts form a tree branched system connecting the lobules of the mammary gland to the tip of the nipple. They are also referred to as galactophores, galactophorous ducts, mammary ducts, mamillary ducts and they are the structures which carry milk toward the nipple in a lactating female. Lactiferous ducts are lined by a columnar epithelium supported by myoepithelial cells, when a woman is not lactating, the lactiferous duct is frequently blocked by a keratin plug. This plug prevents bacteria from entering the duct in non-lactating women, prior to 2005, it was thought within the areola the lactiferous duct would dilate to form the lactiferous sinus in which milk supposedly accumulates between breastfeeding sessions. However new research suggests that lactiferous sinus does not exist, the columnar epithelium plays a key role in balancing milk production, milk stasis and resorption. The cells of the columnar epithelium form tight junctions which are regulated by hormones and local factors like pressure, prolactin and/or placental lactogen are required for tight junction closure while progesterone is the main hormone preventing closure before birth. The majority of breast diseases either originate from lactiferous ducts or are closely related
16.
Tissue (biology)
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In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells from the origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the grouping together of multiple tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, the classical tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in microscopy, immunofluorescence. With these tools, the appearances of tissues can be examined in health and disease. Animal tissues are grouped into four types, connective, muscle, nervous. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs, while all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions. This tissue covers all surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina and they are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid, for example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bones matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place, blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying tissues is to divide them into three types, fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue. Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Cells comprising the nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous tissue
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Mammary alveolus
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A mammary alveolus is a small cavity or sac found in the mammary gland. Mammary alveoli are the site of production and storage in the mammary gland. Mammary alveoli cluster into groups called lobules, and each breast may contain 15–20 of these lobules, the lobules drain milk through the lactiferous ducts out of the nipples
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Hormone
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Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes, eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives. The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system, the term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell or nearby cells. Hormones affect distant cells by binding to receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway, Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a range of regulatory systems. Upon secretion, certain hormones, including hormones and catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream typically into fenestrated capillaries, Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue. The reaction of the cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells. This is an example of a negative feedback loop. Hormone cells are typically of a cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as the thyroid gland, ovaries. Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis or another means of membrane transport, the hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal, the rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones, thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an effect of the hormone, for example, thyroid-stimulating hormone causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones. To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and these can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus. Eicosanoids are considered to act as local hormones and they are considered to be local because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation. They also have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distal sites within the body, most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell membrane associated or intracellular receptors
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Prolactin
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Prolactin, also known as luteotropic hormone or luteotropin, is a protein that is best known for its role in enabling mammals, usually females, to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, Prolactin is secreted from the pituitary gland in response to eating, mating, estrogen treatment, ovulation and nursing. Prolactin is secreted in pulses in between these events, Prolactin plays an essential role in metabolism, regulation of the immune system and pancreatic development. Discovered in non-human animals around 1930 by Oscar Riddle and confirmed in humans in 1970 by Henry Friesen prolactin is a peptide hormone and it is associated with human milk production. In fish it is thought to be related to control of water, Prolactin also acts in a cytokine-like manner and as an important regulator of the immune system. It has important cell cycle-related functions as a growth-, differentiating-, as a growth factor, binding to cytokine-like receptors, it influences hematopoiesis, angiogenesis and is involved in the regulation of blood clotting through several pathways. The hormone acts in endocrine, autocrine and paracrine manner through the prolactin receptor, pituitary prolactin secretion is regulated by endocrine neurons in the hypothalamus. Thyrotropin-releasing factor has an effect on prolactin release, however prolactin is the only adenohypophyseal hormone whose principal control is inhibitory. Several variants and forms are known per species, many fish have variants prolactin A and prolactin B. Most vertebrates including humans also have the closely related somatolactin, in humans, three smaller and several larger variants exist. Prolactin has a variety of effects. Sometimes, newborns secrete a substance from their nipples known as witchs milk. This is in part caused by maternal prolactin and other hormones, Prolactin plays an important role in maternal behavior. Prolactin provides the body with sexual gratification after sexual acts, The hormone counteracts the effect of dopamine and this is thought to cause the sexual refractory period. The amount of prolactin can be an indicator for the amount of satisfaction and relaxation. Unusually high amounts are suspected to be responsible for impotence and loss of libido, elevated levels of prolactin decrease the levels of sex hormones — estrogen in women and testosterone in men. The effects of elevated levels of prolactin are much more variable, in women. Prolactin is sometimes classified as a gonadotropin although in humans it has only a weak luteotropic effect while the effect of suppressing classical gonadotropic hormones is more important, Prolactin within the normal reference ranges can act as a weak gonadotropin, but at the same time suppresses GnRH secretion
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Lactation
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Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process can occur with all female mammals, although it predates mammals. In humans the process of feeding milk is also called breastfeeding or nursing, in most species, milk comes out of the mothers nipples, however, the monotremes, egg-laying mammals, lack nipples and release milk through ducts in the abdomen. In only one species of mammal, the Dayak fruit bat, is milk production a normal male function, galactopoiesis is the maintenance of milk production. Oxytocin is critical for the milk let-down reflex in response to suckling, newborn infants often produce some witchs milk. Galactorrhea is milk production unrelated to nursing and it can occur in males and females of many mammal species as result of hormonal imbalances such as hyperprolactinaemia. The chief function of lactation is to provide nutrition and immune protection to the young after birth, in almost all mammals, lactation induces a period of infertility, which serves to provide the optimal birth spacing for survival of the offspring. Progesterone levels drop after birth, this triggers the onset of copious milk production, estrogen stimulates the milk duct system to grow and differentiate. Like progesterone, high levels of estrogen also inhibit lactation, estrogen levels also drop at delivery and remain low for the first several months of breastfeeding. Breastfeeding mothers should avoid estrogen-based birth control methods, as a spike in estrogen levels may reduce a mothers milk supply, prolactin contributes to the increased growth and differentiation of the alveoli, and also influences differentiation of ductal structures. High levels of prolactin during pregnancy and breastfeeding also increase insulin resistance, increase growth factor levels, during lactation, prolactin is the main factor maintaining tight junctions of the ductal epithelium and regulating milk production through osmotic balance. Human placental lactogen – from the month of pregnancy, the placenta releases large amounts of HPL. This hormone is associated with prolactin and appears to be instrumental in breast, nipple. Growth hormone is structurally similar to prolactin and independently contributes to its galactopoiesis. Adrenocorticotropic hormone and glucocorticoids such as cortisol have an important lactation inducing function in animal species. Glucocorticoids play a complex regulating role in the maintenance of tight junctions, thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone are very important galactopoietic hormones whose levels are naturally increased during pregnancy. Oxytocin contracts the muscle of the uterus during and after birth. After birth, oxytocin contracts the muscle layer of band-like cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze the newly produced milk into the duct system
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Breastfeeding
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Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the feeding of babies and young children with milk from a womans breast. Health professionals recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a life and continue as often. During the first few weeks of life babies may nurse roughly every two to three hours, the duration of a feeding is usually ten to fifteen minutes on each breast. Mothers may pump milk so that it can be used later when breastfeeding is not possible, Breastfeeding has a number of benefits to both mother and baby, which infant formula lacks. Deaths of an estimated 820,000 children under the age of five could be prevented every year with increased breastfeeding. Breastfeeding decreases the risk of respiratory infections and diarrhea, both in developing and developed countries. Other benefits include lower risks of asthma, food allergies, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, Breastfeeding may also improve cognitive development and decrease the risk of obesity in adulthood. Mothers may feel pressure to breastfeed, however in the developed world children generally grow up normally when bottle fed, benefits for the mother include less blood loss following delivery, better uterus shrinkage, weight loss, and less postpartum depression. Breastfeeding delays the return of menstruation and fertility, a known as lactational amenorrhea. Long term benefits for the mother include decreased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, Breastfeeding is less expensive than infant formula. Health organizations, including the World Health Organization, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months and this means that no other foods or drinks other than possibly vitamin D are typically given. After the introduction of foods at six months of age, recommendations include continued breastfeeding until at least one to two years of age, globally about 38% of infants are only breastfed during their first six months of life. In the United States, about 75% of women begin breastfeeding, Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are rare. Mothers who take certain drugs and medications should not breastfeed. Smoking, limited intake of alcohol, and coffee are not reasons to avoid breastfeeding, the endocrine system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. From the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy, a body produces hormones that stimulate the growth of the breasts milk duct system. After birth, the hormone oxytocin contracts the muscle layer of cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze milk into the duct system. Oxytocin is also necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down to occur, let-down occurs in response to the babys suckling, though it also may be a conditioned response, e. g. to the cry of the baby
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Western culture
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The term also applies beyond Europe, to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization, or influence. For example, Western Culture includes countries in the Americas and Australasia, whose language, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of Western culture, with the worlds first democratic system of government and major advances in philosophy, science, Greece was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization. European culture developed with a range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism, and mysticism. Rational thinking developed through an age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment. More often an ideology is what will be used to categorize it as a Western society. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today but were Eastern in the past. Since the context is highly biased and context-dependent, there is no agreed definition what the West is and it is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all cultures are, to some extent. Stereotyped views of the West have been labeled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism—the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of the East, as Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly considered the Orient became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Meiji Japan and Qing China for the first time. Thus, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 occurred in the Far East, the Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbors, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom, Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all cultures, it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity. Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves as something between the wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle-Easterners. In the meantime, however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, the Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity
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Erogenous zone
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Erogenous zones are located all over the human body, but the sensitivity of each varies, and depends on concentrations of nerve endings that can provide pleasurable sensations when stimulated. The touching of another persons erogenous zone is regarded as an act of physical intimacy, some people may resent stimulation in this manner while others may find it pleasing, and this may also depend on the relationship between the persons involved. Erogenous zones may be classified by the type of response that they generate. Many people are gently aroused when their eyelids, eyebrows, temples, shoulders, hands, arms, gently touching or stroking of these zones stimulates a partner during foreplay and increases the arousal level. Also, the massage or stroke of the abdominal area along with kissing or simply touching the navel can be a type of stimulation. Erogenous zones are either nonspecific or specific, in these zones, the skin is similar to normal-haired skin and has the normal high density of nerves and hair follicles. These areas include the sides and back of the neck, the inner arms, an exaggerated tickle and anticipatory response are responsible for the heightened sensual response. The neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of erogenous zones is partly unknown and these zones are apparently mucocutaneous skin. The rete ridges of the epithelium are well-formed and more of the nerves are close to the surface of the skin than in normal-haired skin. These zones seem to have a density of innervation, an efficiency of wound healing. Moreover, a connection with the system seems also necessary. The prostate gland may be stimulated from inside the rectum, such as by anal sex, men who report the sensation of prostate and seminal vesicles stimulation often give descriptions similar to females accounts of G-spot stimulation. The foreskin, which carries the ridged band and lower frenular delta, has mucocutaneous end-organs extending from the margin to the point where hairy skin starts. The thin dermis and minimal subcutaneous tissue results in closely set nerve networks, the mucocutaneous end-organs are formed after birth, with few in newborn infants and many well-organized endings in adults. Cold and Taylor state in 1999 that the foreskin is primary erogenous tissue, alanis and Lucidi in 2004 describe this as speculative and unproven. Parts of the vulva, especially the clitoris, are erogenous zones, the lips and tongue are sensitive and can be stimulated by kissing and licking. Biting at the lip can also provide stimulus, many people find a gentle scalp massage, or any stimulation of the hair follicles, to be anywhere from relaxing to extremely stimulating. The neck, clavicle area and the back of the neck are very sensitive in males and females, which can be stimulated by licking, kissing or light caressing
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Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
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Proto-Germanic
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Proto-Germanic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. The end of the Common Germanic period is reached with the beginning of the Migration Period in the fourth century, the Proto-Germanic language is not directly attested by any coherent surviving texts, it has been reconstructed using the comparative method. Fragmentary direct attestation exists of Common Germanic in early runic inscriptions, the Proto-Germanic language developed in southern Scandinavia, the Urheimat of the Germanic tribes. Proto-Germanic developed out of pre-Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe, Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after c. Early Germanic expansion in the Pre-Roman Iron Age placed Proto-Germanic speakers in contact with the Continental Celtic La Tène horizon, a number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic have been identified. By the 1st century AD, Germanic expansion reaches the Danube and the Upper Rhine in the south, at about the same time, extending east of the Vistula, Germanic speakers come into contact with early Slavic cultures, as reflected in early Germanic loans in Proto-Slavic. By the 3rd century, LPGmc speakers had expanded over significant distance, the period marks the breakup of Late Proto-Germanic and the beginning of the Germanic migrations. The earliest coherent text in Proto-Norse become available c.400 in runic inscriptions, the delineation of Late Common Germanic from Proto-Norse about then is largely a matter of convention. Early West Germanic becomes available in the 5th century with the Frankish Bergakker inscription, between the two points, many sound changes occurred. Phylogeny as applied to historical linguistics involves the descent of languages. The Germanic languages form a tree with Proto-Germanic at its root that is a branch of the Indo-European tree, borrowing of lexical items from contact languages makes the relative position of the Germanic branch within Indo-European less clear than the positions of the other branches of Indo-European. In the course of the development of linguistics, various solutions have been proposed, none certain. In the evolutionary history of a family, philologists consider a genetic tree model appropriate only if communities do not remain in effective contact as their languages diverge. The internal diversification of West Germanic developed in an especially non-treelike manner, Proto-Germanic is generally agreed to have begun about 500 BC. Its hypothetical ancestor between the end of Proto-Indo-European and 500 BC is termed Pre-Proto-Germanic, whether it is to be included under a wider meaning of Proto-Germanic is a matter of usage. The fixation of the led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the boundary was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables, for example, post-PIE *wóyd-e > Gothic wait. Antonsen agreed with Lehmann about the boundary but later found runic evidence that the -a was not dropped, ékwakraz … wraita, I, Wakraz
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Thoracic wall
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The thoracic wall or chest wall is the boundary of the thoracic cavity. The bony skeletal part of the wall is the rib cage, and the rest is made up of muscle, skin. The chest wall has 10 layers, namely skin, superficial fascia, deep fascia, serratus anterior, layer for ribs, however, the muscular layers vary according to the region of the chest wall. For example, they may include muscles like pectoralis major or latissimus dorsi, when not breathing for long and dangerous periods of time in cold water, a persons body undergoes great temporary changes to try to prevent death. It achieves this through the activation of the diving reflex. In this stage, the lungs alveoli fill up with blood plasma and this stage of the diving reflex has been observed in humans during extremely deep free dives. In rare cases intentional or accidental trauma may lead to chest wall necrosis, thoracic wall at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings Anatomy photo,18, lo-0000 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center
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Adipose tissue
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In biology, adipose tissue /ˈædᵻˌpoʊs/, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes and its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as an endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin. The two types of tissue are white adipose tissue, which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene, Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin, around internal organs, in bone marrow, intermuscular, Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other types are present. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells, Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, around organs, it provides protective padding. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles, under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity, the mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, the layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a frosting of white adipose tissue, sometimes these two types of fat are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes, minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the depots are the largest. In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus, a panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as an apron of skin if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat. This condition cannot be corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment, visceral fat or abdominal fat is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs
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Skin
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Skin is the soft outer tissue covering vertebrates. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton have different developmental origin, structure, the adjective cutaneous means of the skin. In mammals, the skin is an organ of the system made up of multiple layers of ectodermal tissue. Skin of a different nature exists in amphibians, reptiles, all mammals have some hair on their skin, even marine mammals like whales, dolphins, and porpoises which appear to be hairless. The skin interfaces with the environment and is the first line of defense from external factors, for example, the skin plays a key role in protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, severely damaged skin may heal by forming scar tissue. This is sometimes discoloured and depigmented, the thickness of skin also varies from location to location on an organism. The skin on the palms and the soles of the feet is 4 mm thick, the speed and quality of wound healing in skin is promoted by the reception of estrogen. Primarily, fur augments the insulation the skin provides but can serve as a secondary sexual characteristic or as camouflage. On some animals, the skin is hard and thick. Reptiles and fish have hard scales on their skin for protection. Amphibian skin is not a barrier, especially regarding the passage of chemicals via skin and is often subject to osmosis. For example, a sitting in an anesthetic solution would be sedated quickly. Amphibian skin plays key roles in everyday survival and their ability to exploit a range of habitats. Keratinocytes are the cells, constituting 95% of the epidermis, while Merkel cells, melanocytes. Keratinocytes from the stratum corneum are eventually shed from the surface, the epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished by diffusion from blood capillaries extending to the upper layers of the dermis. The epidermis and dermis are separated by a sheet of fibers called the basement membrane. The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress
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Rib cage
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The rib cage is an arrangement of bones in the thorax of all vertebrates except the lamprey and the frog. It is formed by the column, ribs, and sternum and encloses the heart. A typical human rib cage consists of 24 ribs, the sternum, costal cartilages, and the 12 thoracic vertebrae. Together with the skin and associated fascia and muscles, the rib cage makes up the wall and provides attachments for the muscles of the neck, thorax, upper abdomen. Ribs are described based on their location and connection with the sternum, ribs that articulate directly with the sternum are called true ribs, whereas those that connect indirectly via cartilage are termed false ribs. The terms true and false rib describe rib pairs that are directly or indirectly attached to the sternum, the phrase true rib, or fixed rib, refers to the first seven, or vertebrosternal, rib pairs. The phrase false rib, or vertebrochondral ribs refers to the pairs of ribs. The eighth-to-tenth pairs of ribs connect to the sternum indirectly via the costal cartilages of the ribs above them and their elasticity allows ribcage movement for respiratory activity. The phrase floating rib refers to the two lowermost, the eleventh and twelfth, rib pairs, so-called because they are attached only to the not to the sternum or cartilage of the sternum. These ribs are small and delicate, and include a cartilaginous tip. The spaces between the ribs are known as intercostal spaces, they contain the intercostal muscles, nerves, arteries, each rib consists of a head, neck, and a shaft and they are numbered from top to bottom. The head of rib is the end part closest to the spine with which it articulates and it is marked by a kidney-shaped articular surface which is divided by a horizontal crest into two facets. The superior facet is smaller and articulates with the vertebra above, the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra also articulates with the rib of the same number. The crest gives attachment to the intra-articular ligament, all ribs are attached posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae. The neck of the rib is the part that extends laterally from the head. The neck is about 3 cm long, and is placed in front of the process of the lower of the two vertebrae with which the head articulates. Its anterior surface is flat and smooth, whilst its posterior is perforated by numerous foramina and its surface rough and its upper border presents a rough crest for the attachment of the anterior costotransverse ligament, its lower border is rounded. On the posterior surface at the junction of the neck and body, and nearer the lower than the border, is an eminence—the tubercle, it consists of an articular
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Latissimus dorsi muscle
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The latissimus dorsi, meaning broadest of the back, is the larger, flat, dorso-lateral muscle on the trunk, posterior to the arm, and partly covered by the trapezius on its median dorsal region. Latissimi dorsi are commonly known as lats, especially among bodybuilders, the latissimus dorsi is responsible for extension, adduction, transverse extension also known as horizontal abduction, flexion from an extended position, and internal rotation of the shoulder joint. It also has a role in extension and lateral flexion of the lumbar spine. The number of dorsal vertebrae to which it is attached varies from four to eight and this axillary arch crosses the axillary artery, just above the spot usually selected for the application of a ligature, and may mislead a surgeon. It is present in about 7% of the population and may be recognized by the transverse direction of its fibers. Guy et al. extensively described this muscular variant using MRI data, a fibrous slip usually passes from the upper border of the tendon of the Latissimus dorsi, near its insertion, to the long head of the triceps brachii. This is occasionally muscular, and is the representative of the dorsoepitrochlearis brachii of apes and this muscular form is found in ~5% of humans and is sometimes termed the latissimocondyloideus. The latissimus dorsi crosses the inferior angle of the scapula, a study found that, of 100 cadavers dissected, 43% had a substantial amount of muscular fibers in the latissimus dorsi originating from the scapula. 36% had few or no muscular fibers, but a soft fibrous link between the scapula and the latissimus dorsi 21% had little or no connecting tissue between the two structures, another triangle is situated behind the scapula. It is bounded above by the trapezius, below by the latissimus dorsi, and laterally by the border of the scapula. The space is known as the triangle of auscultation. The latissimus dorsi can be remembered best for insertion as The Lady Between Two Majors, as the latissimus dorsi inserts into the floor of the intertubercular groove of the humerus it is surrounded by two major muscles. The teres major inserts medially on the lip of the intertubercular groove. The latissimus dorsi is supplied by the sixth, seventh, electromyography suggests that it consists of six groups of muscle fibres that can be independently coordinated by the central nervous system. The latissimus dorsi is responsible for extension, adduction, transverse extension also known as horizontal abduction, flexion from an extended position, and internal rotation of the shoulder joint. It also has a role in extension and lateral flexion of the lumbar spine. Most latissimus dorsi exercises concurrently recruit the teres major, posterior fibres of the deltoid, long head of the triceps brachii, compound exercises for the lats typically involve elbow flexion and tend to recruit the biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis for this function. Depending on the line of pull, the muscles can be recruited as well
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Histology
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Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues under a microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned, stained. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where human or animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains, histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Trained physicians, frequently licensed pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and their field of study is called histotechnology. In the 17th century, Italian Marcello Malpighi invented one of the first microscopes for studying tiny biological entities, Malpighi analysed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. Malpighi, while studying the structure of the lung, noticed its membranous alveoli and his discovery established how the oxygen we breathe enters the blood stream and serves the body. In the 19th century, histology was a discipline in its own right. The French anatomist Bichat introduced the concept of tissue in anatomy in 1801, the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They had dueling interpretations of the structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images. Cajal won the prize for his theory and Golgi for the staining technique he invented to make it possible. There are four types of animal tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue. All tissue types are subtypes of these four basic tissue types and their structure is very different from animal tissues. The most common fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin, for electron microscopy, the most commonly used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2. 5% solution in phosphate buffered saline. These fixatives preserve tissues or cells mainly by irreversibly cross-linking proteins and this can be detrimental to certain histological techniques. Further fixatives are often used for electron microscopy such as osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate Formalin fixation leads to degradation of mRNA, miRNA and DNA in tissues, however, extraction, amplification and analysis of these nucleic acids from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is possible using appropriate protocols. Frozen section procedure is a way to fix and mount histology sections using a refrigeration device called a cryostat. It is often used after surgical removal of tumors to allow determination of margin
. PMID 19851461.
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