1.
Brig
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A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
2.
House of Braganza
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The house came to rule the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves following the successful deposition of the Philippine Dynasty by John IV of Portugal, in 1640. The Braganzas were deposed from their thrones at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, when Emperor Pedro II was deposed in Brazil, in 1889, and when King Manuel II was deposed in Portugal, in 1910. The Constitutional branch died out with the death of King Manuel II in 1932, passing its claim to the Portuguese throne to the Miguelist Branch, by way of Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza. The House of Braganza originated with Afonso I, an son of King John I of Portugal, founder of the House of Aviz. With his newly consolidated place in the nobility of Portugal, Afonso commenced what would be a successful political and social career. In 1415 he took part in the Conquest of Ceuta, alongside his father, his brothers, by the time of his fathers death in 1433, Afonso had won favour with his brother, King Duarte I and the rest of high Portuguese society. The Duke of Coimbras regency, however, soon proved unpopular, afonsos elevation to the dukedom, the highest level of nobility, marked the foundation of the House of Braganza, which was to become a key family in Portuguese history. As a result of the work and success of Afonso I, his children all secured successful positions. He was a diplomat, and served as the kings representative at the Council of Basel in 1436. In 1451, the Count of Ourém was made Marquis of Valença and escorted Infanta Leonor of Portugal to her husband Frederick III, later, in 1458, he participated in the capture and conquest of Alcácer-Ceguer. The Marquis of Valença, however, died in 1460, one year before his father, Afonso Is first daughter, Isabel of Braganza, married Infante João, Lord of Reguengos de Monsaraz, thus relinking the House of Braganza to the Royal House of Portugal. Isabels strategic marriage proved successful, and produced four children, whose descendants would be some of the most important in Iberian history, Afonso Is last child and successor, Fernando I, Duke of Braganza, continued his legacy of prominence in the military and society. When Fernando I was born, in 1403, his grandfather, Nuno Álvares Pereira, Fernando became an accomplished military man, participating in various Portuguese imperial campaigns. Fernando Is children, by his wife, Joana de Castro, Lady of Cadaval, of his nine children, all six who survived to adulthood established themselves either through positions or marriages, though the actions of King João II would seek to weaken their influence. Fernando Is first son and successor, Fernando II, was initially a bright and popular nobleman, but his conflict with King João II would see his and the Houses downfall. His second son, João of Braganza, 1st Marquis of Montemor-o-Novo, was a military man and was made Constable of Portugal. Fernandos third son, Afonso of Braganza, became a nobleman of society and was made 1st Count of Faro. The Dukes fourth son, Álvaro of Braganza, inherited the fiefs of his mother, becoming the 5th Lord of Ferreira, 4th Lord of Cadaval, fernandos eldest surviving daughter, Beatriz of Braganza, married Pedro de Meneses, 1st Marquis of Vila Real
3.
Brigantine, New Jersey
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Brigantine is an island city in Atlantic County, New Jersey, United States. What is now the City of Brigantine has passed through a series of names, on April 23,1897, the area was reincorporated as the City of Brigantine City. This name lasted until April 9,1914, when it was renamed the City of East Atlantic City, on March 16,1924, Brigantine was incorporated as a city, replacing East Atlantic City and incorporating further portions of Galloway Township. The borough was named for the many shipwrecks in the area, New Jersey Monthly magazine ranked Brigantine as its 36th best place to live in its 2008 rankings of the Best Places To Live in New Jersey. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 10.364 square miles. Brigantine is located on Brigantine Island, the only road to and from Brigantine is New Jersey Route 87, locally known as Brigantine Boulevard. The Justice Vincent S. Haneman Memorial Bridge is the way on. The original bridge to the island that was constructed in 1924 was destroyed in the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944, the current bridge was constructed in 1972. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Brigantine has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2010, there were 9,450 people,4,294 households, the population density was 1,479.5 per square mile. There were 9,222 housing units at a density of 1,443.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 87. 33% White,2. 91% Black or African American,0. 17% Native American,4. 72% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,2. 51% from other races, and 2. 33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 88% of the population,33. 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the family size was 2.79. In the city, the population was out with 16. 4% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,21. 0% from 25 to 44,33. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 48.4 years, for every 100 females there were 95.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 92.1 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $62,212 and the median family income was $79,318. Males had an income of $55,595 versus $42,622 for females
4.
Brigandine
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A brigandine is a form of body armour from the Middle Ages. It is a garment, generally canvas or leather, lined with small oblong steel plates riveted to the fabric. Medieval brigandines were essentially a refinement of the coat of plates. The Asian-originated armour reached Europe after the Mongol invasion in 1240 that destroyed the Kievan Rus, the brigandine has been confused with the haubergeon, while the name is often confused with the brigantine, a swift small sea vessel. The form of the brigandine is essentially the same as the civilian doublet, however, depictions of brigandine armour with sleeves are known. The small armour plates were riveted between two layers of stout cloth, or just to an outer layer. Unlike armour for the torso made from large plates, the brigandine was flexible, many brigandines appear to have had larger, somewhat L-shaped plates over the central chest area. The rivets, or nails, attaching the plates to the fabric were often decorated, being gilt, or of latten, the rivets were also often grouped to produce a repeating decorative pattern. In more expensive brigandines the outer layer of cloth was usually of velvet, the contrast between a richly dyed velvet cloth and gilded rivet heads must have been impressive and, unsurprisingly, such armour was popular with high status individuals. Modern flak jackets and ballistic vests are based on the same principle and it was commonly worn over a gambeson and mail shirt and it was not long before this form of protection was commonly used by soldiers ranging in rank from archers to knights. It was most commonly used by Men-at-arms and these wore brigandine, along with plate arm and leg protection, as well as a helmet. Even with the gambeson and the shirt, a wearer was not as well protected as when wearing plate armour. However, the brigandine was probably favored by soldiers who preferred the greater degree of mobility this armour afforded, Brigandines were simple enough in design for a soldier to make and repair his own armour without needing the high skill of an armourer. A common myth is that brigandines were so-named because they were a choice of protection for bandits. Originally the term referred to a foot soldier. A brigandine was simply a type of armour worn by a foot soldier and it had nothing to do with its alleged ability to be concealed by bandits. In fact, brigandines were highly fashionable and were displayed by wealthy aristocrats both in European and in Asian courts. A similar type of armour was the jack of plates or coat of plates and this type of armour was used by common Medieval European soldiers and the rebel peasants known as Jacquerie
5.
Square rig
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These spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically the most efficient running rig, and stayed popular on ocean-going sailing ships until the end of the Age of Sail. The last commercial sailing ships, windjammers, were usually square-rigged four-masted barques, square-rigged masts may also have triangular staysails that are deployed fore-and-aft between masts. Square-rigged is also used for the uniform of a rating in the Royal Navy since 1857 and it is slang and refers to anyone wearing the famous blue square collar on the shoulders and bell-bottomed trousers. The name perhaps reflects the fact that it was men who managed the square-rigged sails. The peaked cap worn by Senior Ratings and Officers is known colloquially as fore-and-aft rig. A mast is considered square-rigged if its lowest sail or course is square-rigged, if the course is fore-and-aft, square topsails can still be carried in front of the mast. In their heyday, square-rigged vessels ranged in size from small boats to full rigged ships, but this rig fell from favour to fore-and-aft gaff rigs and bermuda rigs after the development of steam power and new materials. Ocean-going sailing ships stayed mostly square-rigged, Square rigs allowed the fitting of many small sails to create a large total sail area to drive large ships. 18th century warships would often achieve speeds of 12–13 knots. Some clipper ships that had square rigs and for speed was critical could be much faster. The late windjammers were as fast as the clippers, being much bigger, not only could a smaller sail be managed by a smaller crew but also these smaller sails constrained the impact of weapons on them. A hole from a cannonball affected only one area, whilst a hole in a large sail would eventually tear the whole larger area. This reduced running costs and also enlarged the space available in the ship for profitable cargoes, new materials also changed sail designs, particularly on hybrid vessels carrying some square-rigged sails. The low aspect ratio of square-rigged sails produces much drag for the lift produced, so they have poor performance to windward compared to modern yachts, the Bermuda rig is the undisputed champion of windward performance in soft sails, due to its very low drag and high lift-to-drag ratio. One advantage of square rigs is that they are efficient when running, where the high lift to drag is irrelevant. Square-rigged sails are also prone to broaching when running than Bermuda rigs. Ocean-going vessels take advantage of e. g. the trade winds, on a square-rigged mast the sails had names which indicated their vertical position on the mast
6.
Topsail
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A topsail is a sail set above another sail, on square-rigged vessels further sails may be set above topsails. On a square rigged vessel, a topsail is a sail rigged above the course sail. A full rigged ship has either single or double topsails on all masts, the single or lower topsail being the second sail above the deck, the bottom edge of the topsail, like that of other square sails, is slightly concave. Although topsails of a kind were used at least as early as Roman times, they first came into use in Europe some time in the 15th century. It was quite common for a ship to sail with topsails and jibs alone, the larger topsails were difficult and dangerous to handle in strong winds. Sometime in the 1680s, reef-bands were introduced to tie up part of the sail, with topsails eventually getting four of these, and reefing the sails became a regular occupation of sailors. In the mid 19th century, topsails of merchant vessels were split into upper and lower topsails that could be managed separately. Competing versions of the double topsail were invented by Robert Bennet Forbes, although Forbes strove to defend his rig, the Howe rig dominated. In the Forbes rig, both topsail yards are fixed vertically, in the Howe rig, the upper topsail yard slides on the topmast so it can be lowered in a few seconds to close reef the upper topsail. Howe had the foot of the upper topsail closely attached to the lower topsail yard, in 1865 the British clipper Ariel introduced a gap there. Forbes first tried his rig in the topsail schooner Midas in 1844. The clipper Climax built in 1853 under the supervision of Howes was the first ship with Howe rig, gaff topsails, like gaff rigs in general, may still be seen at Tall Ships gatherings. The gaff rig has been superseded by the Bermuda rig. On a gaff-rigged sailing boat, topsails may take a few different forms, a gaff-rigged vessel might have a gaff topsail above any or all of its gaff sails. A yard topsail is similar, but set on a yard, early 19th-century topsail yards were set almost horizontally, but gradually increased in angle until they became almost vertical extension of the topmast. A jack-yard topsail instead has its lower edge extended out beyond the end of the gaff with a short yard, a jack-yard topsail may also have the aforementioned vertical yard, although this makes for a very large topsail. A cornish topsail is a triangular sail having its luff extended well above the masthead by being laced to a yard hoisted by a halyard rove through a sheave fitted diagonally in the mast. The heel of the yard fits immediately about the gaff and is kept in place by a called a timminoggy. A square topsail is a sail, carried above the foresail only
7.
Gaff rig
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Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
8.
Mediterranean Basin
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As a rule of thumb, the Mediterranean Basin is the Old World region where olive trees grow. The Mediterranean basin covers portions of three continents Africa, Asia, and Europe and it has a varied and contrasting topography. Contrary to the sandy beach images portrayed in most tourist brochures. Mountains can be seen from almost anywhere, the Mediterranean Basin extends into Western Asia, covering the western and southern portions of the peninsula of Turkey, excluding the temperate-climate mountains of central Turkey. It includes the Mediterranean climate Levant at the end of the Mediterranean, bounded on the east and south by the Syrian. The northern portion of the Maghreb region of northwestern Africa has a Mediterranean climate, separated from the Sahara Desert, Europe lies to the north, and three large Southern European peninsulas, the Iberian Peninsula, Italian Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula, extend into the Mediterranean-climate zone. The Mediterranean Basin was shaped by the ancient collision of the northward-moving African-Arabian continent with the stable Eurasian continent, as Africa-Arabia moved north, it closed the former Tethys Sea, which formerly separated Eurasia from the ancient super continent of Gondwana, of which Africa was part. At about the time,170 mya in the Jurassic period. The collision pushed up a vast system of mountains, extending from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran and this episode of mountain building, known as the Alpine orogeny, occurred mostly during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs. The Neotethys became larger during these collisions and associated folding and subduction, about 6 mya during the late Miocene, the Mediterranean was closed at its western end by drifting Africa, which caused the entire sea to evaporate. There followed several episodes of sea drawdown and re-flooding known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis, recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view. The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the Mediterranean Basins climate, fossil evidence shows that the Mediterranean Basin had a relatively humid subtropical climate with summer rainfall during the Miocene, which supported laurel forests. The shift to a Mediterranean climate occurred within the last 3. 2–2.8 million years, during the Pliocene epoch, much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a wooded region. The Mediterranean Region was first proposed by German botanist August Grisebach in the late 19th century, drosophyllaceae, recently segregated from Droseraceae, is the only plant family endemic to the region. Among the endemic plant genera are, The genera Aubrieta, Sesamoides, Cynara, Dracunculus, moreover, many plant taxa are shared with one of the four neighboring floristic regions only. The Mediterranean Basin is the largest of the worlds five Mediterranean forests, woodlands and it is home to a number of plant communities, which vary with rainfall, elevation, latitude, and soils. Scrublands occur in the driest areas, especially areas near the seacoast where wind, low, soft-leaved scrublands around the Mediterranean are known as garrigar in Catalan, garrigue in French, phrygana in Greek, tomillares in Spanish, and batha in Hebrew
9.
Lateen
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A lateen or latin-rig is a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. Dating back to Roman navigation, the lateen became the sail of the Age of Discovery. It is common in the Mediterranean, the upper Nile River, and the parts of the Indian Ocean. The lateen is used today in a different form on small recreational boats like the Sailfish and Sunfish. The earliest fore-and-aft rig was the spritsail, appearing in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft, one theory is that the lateen sail originated during the early Roman empire in the Mediterranean Sea. It evolved out of the dominant square rig by setting the sails more fore-and-aft – along the line of the keel – rather than athwartship, while tailoring the luff and leech. The theory of Roman origin for lateen was begun with Lynn White, John M. H. Brindley.25 The original passage cited from Caesarus is, according to Brindley, no more than an allusion, ‘tres naves, quas Latenas vocant, majores, plenas tritico direxerunt’. The assumption is that labelling these three wheat ships ‘latines’ means that they had lateen sails, there is also reason to doubt Sottas’s interpretation of Procopius’ claim – that three ships of Justinian’s fleet in 533 deployed lateen sails. That the triangular sails refer to triangular top sails, which were standard gear on Roman square-rigged ships after 50 ad’, second, White’s claim that the lateen sail was deployed on a European ship in 880 is problematic. We know that the Persians were sailing to India and beyond via the Persian Gulf from the third, and by the mid-seventh century the Muslims were sailing the length of the Indian Ocean. But even if the Romans had invented the lateen sail, it is important to note that after 50 ce there is no evidence of refinement or further development of sails and rigging. Based on this theory, the lateen sail originated in the Near East, most likely in Persia or Arabia and these sailors were likely responsible for introducing the lateen sails and large three-masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. According to the Belgian maritime historian Basch, the earliest true lateen rig appears as early as the 1st century BC, in a Hellenistic wall painting found in a Hypogeum in Alexandria. The earliest archaeologically excavated lateen-rigged ship, the Yassi Ada II, dates to ca.400 AD, the Kelenderis ship mosaic and the Kellia ship graffito from the early 7th century complement the picture. By the 6th century, the lateen sail had largely replaced the square throughout the Mediterranean. It became the standard rig of the Byzantine dromon war galley and was also employed by Belisarius flagship in the 532 AD invasion of the Vandal kingdom. This is also indicated by the terminology of the lateen among Mediterranean Arabs and it has been suggested that the lateen sail was brought to the Indian Ocean by the Alexandrian merchants who sailed the Red Sea in Roman and later Byzantine and Arab times. Such theories have been superseded by unequivocal depictions of lateen-rigged Mediterranean sailing vessels which pre-date the Arab invasion, searches for lateen sails in India were inconclusive
10.
Brigandage
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Brigandage refers to the life and practice of brigands, highway robbery and plunder. A brigand is a person who lives in a gang and lives by pillage. The brigand is supposed to derive his name from the Old French brigand, which is a form of the Italian brigante, there can be no doubt as to the origin of the word bandit, which has the same meaning. Towards the end of wars, irreconcilables may refuse to accept the loss of their cause, in certain conditions the brigand has not been a mere malefactor. It is you who are the thieves, was the defence of the Calabrian who was tried as a brigand by a French court-martial during the reign of Joachim Murat in Naples. Brigandage may be, and not infrequently has been, the last resource of a subject to invasion. In the Balkan peninsula, under Ottoman rule, the brigands had some claim to believe themselves the representatives of their people against oppressors. The only approach to an attempt to order was the permission given to part of the population to carry arms in order to repress the klephts. In fact the armatole tended to act more as allies than enemies of the klephts, the conditions which favour the development of brigandage may be summed up as bad administration and to a lesser degree, terrain that permits easy escape from the incumbents. The Scottish Marches supplied a theatre for the gentlemen reivers, after the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, policing the Scottish moss-troopers tied up many English soldiers of the occupying New Model Army. Their contemporaries in Ireland became known as tories, rapparees, Irish guerrillas of a later generation, fought for King James II after the Revolution of 1688 and on his defeat degenerated into brigands. The forests of England gave cover to the outlaws, who were portrayed in the ballads of Robin Hood. The dense Maquis shrubland and hills of Corsica gave the Corsican brigand many advantages, the Apennines, the mountains of Calabria, the Sierras of Spain, were the homes of the Italian banditos, and the Spanish bandoleros and salteadores. The great haunts of brigands in Europe have been central and southern Italy, the Gubbings infested Devonshire for a generation from their headquarters near Brent Tor, on the edge of Dartmoor. In France there were there Écorcheurs, or Skinners, in the 15th century, the first were large bands of discharged mercenary soldiers who pillaged the country. The second were ruffians who forced their victims to pay ransom by holding their feet in fires, the salt monopoly and the excessive preservation of the game were so oppressive that the peasantry were provoked to violent resistance and to brigandage. The offenders enjoyed a measure of public sympathy, and were warned or concealed by the population. The brigand is always a hero to at least one faction of Corsicans
11.
Northern Europe
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Northern Europe is the northern part or region of Europe. However, narrower definitions may also be used based on geographical factors, such as climate. Greenland, geographically a part of North America, is politically a part of the Kingdom of Denmark, while Northern Europe overlaps with most of Northwestern Europe, north-Central Europe, and Northeastern Europe, it does not border Southern Europe. Countries which are central-western, central-central, or central-eastern are generally considered part of neither Northern Europe or Southern Europe. Historically, when Europe was dominated by the Mediterranean region, everything not near this sea was termed Northern Europe, including southern Germany, all of the Low Countries and this meaning is still used today in some contexts, such as in discussions of the Northern Renaissance. In medieval times, the term Thule was used to mean a place in the extreme northern reaches of the continent. The region has a south west extreme of around 50 degrees north, the entire regions climate is mildly affected by the Gulf Stream. From the west climates vary from maritime and maritime subarctic climates, in the north and central climates are generally subarctic or Arctic and to the east climates are mostly subarctic and temperate/continental. With the exception of the United Kingdom and Ireland, Northern European countries are known for harsh winters with temperatures reaching as low as minus 50 degrees Celsius in some parts. Countries in Northern Europe have large, developed economies and some of the highest standards of living in the world and they often score highly on surveys measuring quality of life, such as the Human Development Index
12.
Sail plan
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A sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship. Alternatively, as a term of art, it refers to the way such vessels are rigged as discussed below, the combinations shown in a sail plan almost always include three configurations, A light air sail plan. Over most of the Earth, most of the time, the force is Force 1 or less. Thus a sail plan should include a set of huge, lightweight sails that will keep the ship underway in light breezes and this is the set of sails that are changed rapidly in variable conditions. They are much stronger than the light air sails, but still lightweight, an economical sail in this set will include several sets of reefing ties, so the area of the sail can be reduced in a stronger wind. This is the set of small, very rugged sails flown in a gale, to keep the vessel under way. In all sail plans, the attempts to balance the force of the sails against the drag of the underwater keel in such a way that the vessel naturally points into the wind. In this way, if control is lost, the vessel will avoid broaching, broaching always causes uncomfortable motion, and in a storm, the breaking waves can destroy a lightly built boat. The architect also tries to balance the force on each sail plan against a range of loads. The calculation assures that the sail will not knock the vessel sideways with its mast in the water, capsizing, fore-and-aft rig features flat sails that run fore and aft. These types of sails are the easiest to manage, because they often do not need to be relaid when the ship changes course, Bermuda rig is a type of fore-and-aft rig with a triangular mainsail. Gaff rig features fore-and-aft sails shaped like a triangle minus its point, the top of the sail tends to twist away from the wind reducing its efficiency when close-hauled. However, due to the gaff on the top edge of the sail the centre of effort is typically lower, square rig features sails set square to the mast from a yard, a spar running transversely in relation to the hull. In ships built using designs of the square rig, sailors would have to climb the rigging. In a modern square rigged design the crew can furl and unfurl sails by remote control from the deck, lateen rig features a triangular sail set on a long yard, mounted at an angle on the mast and running in a fore-and-aft direction. This is one of the lowest drag sails, each form of rig requires its own type of sails. Among them are, A staysail is a piece of cloth that has one or two attached to a stay, that is, one of the ropes or wires that helps hold the mast in place. A staysail was classically attached to the stay with wooden or steel hoops, sailors would test the hoops by climbing on them
13.
Fore-and-aft rig
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A fore-and-aft rig is a sailing rig consisting mainly of sails that are set along the line of the keel rather than perpendicular to it. Such sails are described as fore-and-aft rigged, fore-and-aft rigged sails include staysails, Bermuda rigged sails, gaff rigged sails, gaff sails, gunter rig, lateen sails, lug sails, the spanker sail on a square rig and crab claw sails. Northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade, the lateen sail was more maneuverable and speedier, while the square rig was clumsy but seaworthy
14.
Topgallant sail
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On a square rigged sailing vessel, a topgallant sail is the square-rigged sail or sails immediately above the topsail or topsails. It is also known as a gallant or garrant sail, later full rigged ships split the topsail for easier handling. They thus fly two topsails per mast, the lower topgallant sail is immediately above the upper topsail. The upper or only topgallant sail is set from the top of the topgallant mast, a staysail set on a stay running forward and downwards from the top or midpoint of the topgallant mast is called a topgallant staysail
15.
Sloop
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A sloop is a sailing boat with a single mast and a fore-and-aft rig. A sloop has only one head-sail, if a vessel has two or more head-sails, the cutter is used, and its mast may be set further aft than on a sloop. The most common rig of modern sailboats is the Bermuda-rigged sloop, typically, a modern sloop carries a mainsail on a boom aft of the mast, with a single loose-footed head-sail forward of the mast. Sloops are either masthead-rigged or fractional-rigged, on a masthead-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches at the top of the mast. The mainsail may be smaller than the headsail, which is called a genoa jib. On a fractional-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches to the mast at a point below the top, typically 3/4 of the way to top, or perhaps 7/8 or some other fraction. The mast of a fractional-rigged sloop may be placed forward, compared to a masthead-rigged sloop. After the cat rig, which has only a mainsail, the rig is one of the simpler sailing rig configurations. A sloop typically has two sails, a mainsail and a headsail, while the cutter has a mainsail and two or more headsails, next in complexity are the ketch, the yawl and the schooner, each of which has two masts and a minimum of three sails. A sloop has a system of mast rigging — a forestay. By having only two sails, the sails of a sloop are larger than those of an equivalent cutter. Until the advent of lightweight sailcloth and modern sail-handling systems, the sails of a sloop could be a handful. So, until the 1950s, sailboats over 10 metres Length Over All would typically use a rig or a two-mast rig. After the advent of modern winches and light sailcloth, the became the dominant sailing rig type for all. No rig type is perfect for all conditions, sloops, with their paucity of spars and control lines tend to impart less aerodynamic drag. Compared to other rigs, sloops tend to very well when sailing close hauled to windward. Cutters, ketches and yawls are often preferred to sloops when venturing far offshore, because it is easier to reef small sails as the wind increases, while still keeping the boat balanced. To maximize the amount of sail carried, the classic sloop may use a bowsprit, for downwind sailing, the typical foresail may be replaced by larger curved sails known as spinnakers or gennakers
16.
Schooner
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A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
17.
Steamship
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A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically drive propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into usage during the early 1800s, however. Steamships usually use the designations of PS for paddle steamer or SS for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common, SS is assumed by many to stand for steam ship, Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as MV for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use SS for most modern vessels. The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the changed the design of ships for faster. Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels and it was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wrights first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger, she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813. She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an speed of 8 knots. The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833. The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by Francis Pettit Smith, was the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller. It had considerable influence on development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy. The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion and these steamships quickly became more popular, because the propellers efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being submerged, it was also far less prone to damage. The development of screw propulsion relied on the technological innovations. Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, a paddle steamers engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to power from a paddlers engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion. An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required, the stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure
18.
SS Columbia (1880)
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SS Columbia was a cargo and passenger steamship that was owned by the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company and later the Union Pacific Railroad. Columbia was constructed in 1880 by the John Roach & Sons shipyard in Chester, Pennsylvania for the Oregon Railway, due to this, a detailed article and composite illustration of Columbia was featured in the May 1880 issue of Scientific American magazine. Columbia was lost on 21 July 1907 after a collision with the lumber schooner San Pedro off Shelter Cove, villard subsequently ordered an Edison Lighting System to be installed on his companys new passenger steamer, Columbia. Although met with hesitation by Edison himself, the project moved forward, Columbia would also be the first ship to utilize a dynamo. The success of Columbias experimental dynamo system led to the system being retrofitted on to other vessels and that same year, the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company had bought and merged the Oregon Steamship Company into its own operations. Construction of Columbia began in September 1879, Columbia was launched at 11,40 AM on February 24,1880. Both the Bureau Veritas and American Shipmasters Association oversaw her construction, Roach himself refused to install the incandescent light bulbs on board Columbia in fear of a possible fire breaking out. In May 1880, Columbia sailed to New York City, where Edisons personnel installed the new lighting systems, the light bulbs were carried aboard in a shopping basket by Francis R. Upton, a chief assistant of Edison. The first lighting of the ship took place on May 2,1880, Columbia finished her sea trials and sailed around Cape Horn to San Francisco, California loaded with 13 locomotives,200 railroad cars and other railroad supplies. Columbia made a stop in Rio de Janeiro to replenish her supply and was exhibited to Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. While passing through the Straits of Magellan, the propeller shaft, after arriving in San Francisco without incident, the original carbon paper filament bulbs were replaced by a shipment of newer bamboo filament bulbs, sent by Edison himself. Columbia safely arrived in Portland on August 24,1880, despite this, insurance companies were reluctant at first to underwrite the brand new vessel. Columbia ran a service between Portland and San Francisco. When the paddle steamer Alaskan was sunk by a storm in 1889, Columbia carried its captain, the success of the Edison lighting systems onboard Columbia eventually convinced other shipping companies to install similar systems in their vessels, including the British Cunard Line. The next year, Cunards SS Servia became the first major liner to be lit up by the incandescent light bulb. In service, the Columbia was greatly appreciated for its reliability, in 1895, one observer stated, During a major overhaul in July 1895, the original Edison generators were removed in favor of modern counterparts. The dynamos were donated to the Smithsonian Institution and The Henry Ford in Dearborn, three years later, the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company was taken over by the Union Pacific Railroad. On January 30,1898, the Columbia broke the record between San Francisco and Portland
19.
Snow (ship)
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In sailing, a snow, snaw or snauw is a square rigged vessel with two masts, complemented by a snow- or trysail-mast stepped immediately abaft the main mast. The word snow comes from snauw which is an old Dutch word for beak, as such, in the 17th century the snow used to be sometimes classified as a three-masted vessel. The snow dates back to the late 17th century and originally had a loose footed gaff sail and it was a popular type of vessel in the Baltic Sea and was employed by a large number of nations during its time. The snow was considered a handy and fast sailing vessel, typically the largest two masted vessel around and was employed in both navy and merchant service, when used as a military vessel, snows were, in the early 18th century, typically fitted with 5 to 16 guns. Military snows were mostly used for patrols and privateering, while in the merchant service, snows traded all the way to the Mediterranean. Snow, the largest of all old two-masted vessels, while the snow and the brig might appear closely related, this is in fact not the case. The two rigs developed from different directions, the brig evolving from the generally smaller brigantine, the most visible difference between the brig and the snow is in the latters snow-mast, stepped directly behind the main mast. In contrast to the brig, where the gaff and boom attach directly to the main mast, a snows gaff, the use of this characteristic snow-mast offered several advantages over attaching the gaff directly to the main mast. The yoke of the gaff and the lacing of the sail on a snow could move freely on the snow mast, not hindered by the iron bands that held together the mast. As a result of the latter, the gaff could be raised higher than the main yard, the resulting freedom allowed a snow, in contrast to the brigs, to fly a main course without complications, as they typically did. However, in the late 18th century, brigs started to set main courses as well, the twin brigs Lawrence and Niagara, American warships which participated in the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813, were both snow-brigs. Brigantine Brig Full-rigged ship Hans Haalmeijer, Pinassen, fluiten en galjassen Uitgeverij De Alk B. V. Alkmaar, karl Heinz Marquardt, Bemastung und Takelung von Schiffen des 18. John Robinson, George Francis Dow, The Sailing Ships of New England 1607 -1907, marine Research Society, Salem, Mass 1922. Dik Vuik, Hans Haalmeijer, Aken, tjalken en kraken, Uitgeverij De Alk B. V. Alkmaar, the Netherlands 2006
20.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
22.
Sailing
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Sailing employs the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water, on ice or on land over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation. A course defined with respect to the wind direction is called a point of sail. Conventional sailing craft cannot derive power from sails on a point of sail that is too close into the wind, on a given point of sail, the sailor adjusts the alignment of each sail with respect to the apparent wind direction to mobilize the power of the wind. In the 21st century, most sailing represents a form of recreation or sport, recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising can include extended offshore and ocean-crossing trips, coastal sailing within sight of land, until the end of the 19th century, sailing ships were the primary means for marine commerce. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating between 5000 and 5500 BCE, polynesian oceanfarers traveled vast distances of open ocean in outrigger canoes using navigation methods such as stick charts. Advances in sailing technology from the Middle Ages onward enabled Arab, Chinese, Indian and European explorers to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather and climatic conditions. There were improvements in sails, masts and rigging, improvements in marine navigation including the tree and charts. Sailing has contributed to many great explorations in the world, the air interacting with the sails of a sailing vessel creates various forces, including reaction forces. If the sails are properly oriented with respect to the wind, however, boats propelled by sails cannot sail directly into the wind. They must tack back and forth in order to progress directly upwind, sails are airfoils that work by using an airflow set up by the wind and the motion of the boat. Sails work in two modes to use the wind to force, PUSH, when the boat is going in the same direction as the wind. The force on the sail is mostly aerodynamic drag, and sails acting in this way are aerodynamically stalled. This force manifests itself as pressure differences between the two sides of the sail - there is a region of low pressure on the front side of the sail and a region of high pressure on the back. Another way to say this is that sails generate lift using the air flows around them in the same way as an aircraft wing. The wind that a boat experiences is the combination of the true wind and this combination is the apparent wind, which is the relative velocity of the wind relative to the boat. When sailing upwind the apparent wind is greater than the true wind, iceboats can typically sail at 5 times the speed of the wind. Where there is a difference in motion, then there is energy to be extracted at the interface, the sailboat does this by placing the sail in the air and the hull in the water
23.
Rigging
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According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
24.
Bermuda rig
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A Bermuda rig, Bermudian rig, or Marconi rig is a configuration of mast and rigging for a type of sailboat and is the typical configuration for most modern sailboats. Originally developed for smaller Bermudian vessels, and ultimately adapted to the larger, ocean-going Bermuda sloop, the Bermuda rigging has largely replaced the older gaff rigged fore-and-aft sails, except notably on schooners. The traditional design as developed in Bermuda features very tall, raked masts, a long bowsprit, in some configurations such as the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy vast areas of sail are achieved with this rig. Elsewhere, however, the design has omitted the bowsprit, and has become less extreme. A Bermuda rigged sloop with exactly one jib is known as a Bermuda sloop, a Bermuda sloop may also be a more specific type of vessel such as a small sailing ships traditional in Bermuda which may or may not be Bermuda rigged. The foot of a Bermuda sail may be attached to the boom along its length and this modern variation of a Bermuda mainsail is known as a loose-footed main. In some early Bermudian vessels, the mainsails were attached only to the mast and deck and this is the case on two of the three masts of the newly built Spirit of Bermuda, a replica of an 1830s British Royal Navy sloop-of-war. Additional sails were often mounted on traditional Bermudian craft, when running down wind, which included a spinnaker, with a spinnaker boom. The main controls on a Bermuda sail are, The halyard used to raise the head, the outhaul used to tension the foot by hauling the clew towards the end of the boom. The sheet used to haul the boom down and towards the center of the boat, the vang or kicking strap which runs between a point partway along the boom and the base of the mast, and is used to haul the boom down when on a run. The Bermuda rig developed from leg-of-mutton sails in Bermuda during the course of the 17th and 18th cnturies, the design was very useful on the gusty Bermudian waters for the boats that were the mainstay of transport around the archipelago into the 20th century. As Bermuda turned to an economy, after the dissolution of the Somers Isles Company in 1684, the rig was adapted to larger, ocean-going ships. The development of the rig is thought to have begun with fore-and-aft rigged boats built by a Dutch-born Bermudian in the 17th Century, the Dutch were influenced by Moorish lateen rigs introduced during Spains rule of their country. The Dutch eventually modified the design by omitting the masts, with the arms of the lateens being stepped in thwarts. By this process, the yards became raked masts, lateen sails mounted this way were known as leg-of-mutton sails in English. The Dutch called a vessel rigged in this manner a bezaanjacht, a bezaan jacht is visible in a painting of King Charles II arriving in Rotterdam in 1660. After sailing on such a vessel, Charles was so impressed that his successor, the Prince of Orange presented him with a copy of his own. The rig had been introduced to Bermuda some decades before this, Ships with somewhat similar rigs were in fact recorded in Holland during the 17th century
25.
Crab claw sail
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The crab claw sail or, as it is sometimes known, Oceanic lateen or Oceanic sprit, is a triangular sail with spars along upper and lower edges. The crab claw sail is used in many traditional Pacific Ocean cultures, as can be seen by the traditional proa, the crab claw sail consists of a sail, approximately an isosceles triangle in shape. The equal length sides are longer than the side, with spars along the long sides. The forward intersection of the spars is placed towards the bow, the sail is supported by a short mast attached near the middle of the upper spar, and the forward corner is attached to the hull. The lower spar, or boom, is attached at the forward intersection, the crab claw is a shunting sail. It is used on a boat which has a permanent windward and leeward side, to tack, or switch directions across the wind, the forward corner of the sail is loosened and then transferred to the opposite end of the boat. While remaining attached to the top of the mast, the upper spar tilts to vertical and beyond as the forward corner moves past the mast, meanwhile, the mainsheet is detached and used to rotate the rearward end of the boom through a horizontal half circle. The forward corner is then re-attached at the new end of the boat. The crab claw is often compared with the tacking lateen sail, while it is possible for the sails to be identical, the two rigs are not identical. The crab claw pivots around the leading edge spar, while a lateen sail on a boat such as a Sunfish pivots around a mast. These features give it its distinct, claw-like shape, modern crab claws generally have straighter spars and a less convex leech, which gives more sail area for a given length of spar. The crab-claw sail is something of an enigma and it has been demonstrated to produce very large amounts of lift when reaching, and overall seems superior to any other simple sail plan. One popular but disputed theory is that the crab-claw wing works like a wing, generating vortex lift. Since the crab claw does not lie symmetric to the airflow, like a delta wing, but rather lies with the lower spar nearly parallel to the water. This can clearly be seen in Marchajs wind tunnel photos published in Sail Performance, the vortex on the top spar of the sail is much larger, covering most of the sail area, while the lower vortex is very small and stays close to the spar. Marchaj attributes the large lifting power of the sail to lift generated by the vortices, while others attribute the power to a mix of aspect ratio, camber. Video Hot Buoys Self-Tacking Crab-Claw Trimaran Polynesian Voyaging Society Wind Tunnel results on effects of crabclaw sail orientation - apex position and consistent camber
26.
Junk rig
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The junk rig, also known as the Chinese lugsail or sampan rig, is a type of sail rig in which rigid members, called battens, span the full width of the sail and extend the sail forward of the mast. The junk rig is a simple and effective rig, the rig contrasts starkly with the Bermuda rig which is prevalent on Western sail boats. In its most traditional form the junk rig is carried on an unstayed mast however standing rigging of some kind is not uncommon, performance close-hauled is perhaps the strongpoint of the Bermuda rig - key to winning a race with an upwind leg or outmaneuvering an opponent in battle. The junk rig typically produces more drive than a similarly sized Bermuda rig when running downwind without a spinnaker, a junk rigged boat can let its sails out athwartships On a Bermuda rigged boat the shrouds interfere with sails if the sail was let out until it was athwartship. The junk rig is well suited to travel with its working sails. The junk rig appeals to shorthanded sailing crews for many reasons, to lessen sail all that is required is to let out the halyard. It is typical to run the halyards and sheets to the companionway on a junk rigged boat and this means that typical sailhandling can be performed from the relative safety of the cockpit, or even while the crew is below deck. Junk sails are carried on a mast which rakes forward a few degrees from vertical. The forward rake of the sail encourages the sail to swing out, another way to say this is that the sail is stable when swung out and doesnt return to the middle of the ship when the wind drops. Consequently, the airfoil developed in light wind doesnt have enough camber to develop much lift at low wind speeds, perhaps the chief shortcoming of the junk rig is that it typically produces poor drive to windward in light winds. The sail may remain almost entirely flat in light winds and develop unacceptable drive to windward The fully battened sail is much heavier than a sail made entirely of sailcloth with modern battens. The stiff junk battens disturb laminar wind flow over the sail -especially important when sailing to windward, Junk sails are relatively low aspect ratio, resulting in a lower lift-to-drag ratio, consequently the ship cant tack as close to the wind. A junk sail has more running rigging aloft, adding to weight, providing more wind resistance, a junk mast is normally of solid wood and very heavy for its short length. There were two types of ships with Junk Rig in the Malay Archipelago with local hulls instead of the Chinese Junk hull. A light boat used commonly in the early 19th century to carry goods along rivers, twakow, a type of vessel with one mast and junk rig. They were a common sight in the Singapore river in the mid 19th century, among the ships used on the coast of China, Lorcha, a light Chinese sailing vessel. This ship combined a western-style hull of Portuguese influence, with Chinese-style mast, the lorcha were found in the Gulf of Siam and in Philippine waters as well. The Vũng Tàu shipwreck consists of the remains of a late 17th century lorcha from the South China Sea off the islands of Con Dao, about 160 km from Vũng Tàu, each of the traditional sailing rigs can be achieved using the modern junk sail
27.
Mast aft rig
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A mast aft rig, alternately referred to as aft-mast rig, is a sailboat sail-plan that uses a single mast set in the aft half of the hull. The mast supports fore-sails that may consist of a single jib multiple staysails, the mainsail is either small or completely absent. Mast aft rigs are uncommon, but are found on a few custom, many mast-aft rigs utilize a small mainsail and multiple staysails that can resemble some cutter rigs. A mast aft rig could, based on headsail count, be considered a variation of the sloop or cutter, or, based on mast position, in the typical Bermuda rig, the sails located in front of the mast generally deliver a higher percentage of the driving force. The stay that supports the leading edge of the sail causes far less turbulence than a mast, to take advantage of this fact, Bermuda rigs are shifting towards larger fore-sails and smaller mainsails. Fore-sails include jibs, genoas and staysails, the cutter, with its use of multiple foresails, achieves the same goal of placing a higher percentage of the sail area in staysails. By moving the mast toward the back of the sailboat, designers can increase the size, the mainsail is reduced in size or eliminated altogether. An advantage of using foresails, also called staysails, is that they may be rigged for roller furling and this allows the sail to quickly and easily be deployed and reefed by pulling lines. The sail rolls up around the stay and this simplicity and easy operation is one of the main attractions of the mast aft rig. By reducing the mainsail in size or eliminating it altogether, the aft mast rig squarely minimizes or completely solves the problems associated with battens, battens enable designers to increase the size of mainsails by pushing the mainsail away from the mast. However, the forces of the battens pushing against the mast make it difficult to raise or lower the mainsail. On larger rigs, batten cars are needed to overcome these forces, by eliminating the battens and associated batten cars, the material cost savings for a typical 60-ft catamaran can be as much as $12,000 AUD. Aft-mast rigs with no mainsail also require fewer winches to raise and lower sails, when Hot Buoys converted from a Bermuda rig to an aft-mast rig 5 winches were no longer required. For rigs with no mainsail, there is also no boom and this saves the cost of the boom, and hardware and lines associated with the boom. More importantly, eliminating the boom is a matter of safety, the second leading cause of death on sailboats is the boom. Booms cause injuries and deaths directly and indirectly by knocking people overboard, even when stationary, booms represent a hazard. According to a German study, boom strikes were the most common cause of sailing injury overall, another aspect of safety is in regards to the elimination of the lines and hardware to control the boom. With fewer lines and less hardware on the deck there are items to trip over or trap fingers
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Barque
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A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen rigged fore-and-aft. The word barque entered English via French, which in came from the Latin barca by way of Occitan. The Latin barca may stem from Celtic barc or Greek baris, the Oxford English Dictionary considers the latter improbable. The word barc appears to have come from Celtic languages, the form adopted by English, perhaps from Irish, was bark, while that adopted by Latin as barca very early, which gave rise to the French barge and barque. In Latin, Spanish and Italian the term refers to a small boat. French influence in England led to the use in English of both words, although their meanings now are not the same, well before the 19th century a barge had become interpreted as a small vessel of coastal or inland waters. Somewhat later, a became a sailing vessel of a distinctive rig as detailed below. In Britain, by the century, the spelling had taken on the French form of barque. Francis Bacon used this form of the word as early as 1592, throughout the period of sail, the word was used also as a shortening of the barca-longa of the Mediterranean Sea. The usual convention is that spelling barque refers to a ship and bark to tree hide, barcarole in music shares the same etymology, being originally a folk song sung by Venetian gondolier and derived from barca - boat in Italian. In the 18th century, the British Royal Navy used the bark for a nondescript vessel that did not fit any of its usual categories. She happened to be a sailing vessel with a plain bluff bow. Our Northern Mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, hon. the Earl of Sussex, Lord Deputy of Ireland. By the end of the 18th century, the term came to refer to any vessel with a particular type of sail-plan. This comprises three masts, fore-and-aft sails on the aftermost mast and square sails on all other masts, barques were the workhorse of the Golden Age of Sail in the mid-19th century as they attained passages that nearly matched full rigged ships but could operate with smaller crews. Conversely, the ship rig tended to be retained for training vessels where the larger the crew, another advantage is that a barque can outperform a schooner or barkentine, and is both easier to handle and better at going to windward than a full-rigged ship. Usually the main mast was the tallest, that of Moshulu extends to 58 m off the deck, the four-masted barque can be handled with a surprisingly small crew—at minimum, ten—and while the usual crew was around thirty, almost half of them could be apprentices. Today many sailing ships are barques
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Barquentine
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A barquentine or schooner barque is a sailing vessel with three or more masts, with a square rigged foremast and fore-and-aft rigged main, mizzen and any other masts. The term barquentine is 17th century in origin, formed from barque in imitation of brigantine, a two-masted vessel square-rigged only on the forward mast, concordia, a sail training ship that capsized and sank on 17 February 2010. Mercator of 1932, Belgian training ship, transit, an experimental design of 1800 that could be worked entirely from the deck. Many smaller ships of the late 19th century Royal Navy were rigged as barquentines, endurance, commanded by Sir Ernest Shackleton and crushed by ice in the Weddell Sea during the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–17. Esmeralda, a training ship of the Chilean Navy. Polish-built Pogoria class sail training ships, Pogoria, Kaliakra and Iskra, thor-Heyerdahl Southern Swan, tall ship from 1922 re-rigged as a Barquentine from its original rigging as a Schooner. Sails on Sydney Harbour for cruises, juan Sebastián Elcano 1927 Photo gallery of barquentine Jadran Training Ship
30.
Catboat
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A catboat, is a sailboat, with a single sail on a single mast set well forward in the bow of the boat. Most have a draft, with centreboards, although some have a keel. Most are gaff rigged but some have a Bermuda rig, the beam of the classic Cape Cod Cats beam measurement is almost half the waterline length, making it very stable. Some cat boats in current use include the Beetle Cat, the Redden Catboat, the Nonsuch, the Inland Cat, the Cape Cod Cat Com-Pac Trailerable, Marshal Menger, and the ABPY cat boat. A catboat is not the same as a catamaran, which is a multi-hull with a trampoline for crew seating and trapezing. Nor is it the same as a Cat, or Norwgian ship used to carry up to 600 tons of coal, one of the most well-known catboats is the 12-foot Beetle Cat daysailer. Fleets of these boats are found in harbors all across New England. In the 1960s, Breck Marshall based his 18-foot fiberglass Sanderling upon an existing, the Sanderling has since become a very popular boat, with more than 700 built, and it has helped to rekindle interest in the catboat. To honor Marshall and his contribution to the type, the Catboat Association funded the construction of the Breck Marshall, leavens, John M. Chapelle, Howard I. Middleboro, MA, Catboat Association with Intl Marine Publishing Co. p.160, the Illustrated Dictionary of Boating Terms,2000 Essential Terms for Sailors and Powerboaters
31.
Cutter (boat)
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A cutter is typically a small, but in some cases a medium-sized, watercraft designed for speed rather than for capacity. Traditionally a cutter sailing vessel is a small single-masted boat, fore-and-aft rigged, the cutters mast may be set farther back than on a sloop. In modern usage, a cutter can be either a small- or medium-sized vessel whose occupants exercise official authority, examples are harbor pilots cutters and cutters of the U. S. Coast Guard or UK Border Force. Cutters can also be a small boat serving a one to ferry passengers or light stores between larger boats and the shore. This type of cutter may be powered by oars, sails or a motor, the cutter is one of several types of sailboats. Traditionally the sloop rig was a rig with a single mast located forward of 70% of the length of the sailplan, in this traditional definition a sloop could have multiple jibs on a fixed bowsprit. Cutters had a rig with a single mast more centrally located, which could vary from 50% to 70% of the length of the sailplan, with multiple headsails, a mast located aft of 50% would be considered a mast aft rig. Somewhere in the 1950s or 1960s there was a shift in these definitions such that a sloop only flew one headsail, in this modern idiom, a cutter is a sailing vessel with more than one head sail and one mast. Cutters carry a staysail directly in front of the mast, set from the forestay, a traditional vessel would also normally have a bowsprit to carry one or more jibs from its end via jibstay on travelers. In modern vessels the jib may be set from a permanent stay fixed to the end of a fixed bowsprit, or directly to the stem fitting of the bow itself. In these cases, that may be referred to as the forestay, and the inner one, a sloop carries only one head sail, called either the foresail or jib. These could be managed without the need for crews, winches, or complex tackles, making the cutter especially suitable for pilot, customs. For example, a pilot cutter may only have two people on board for its outward trip—the pilot to be delivered to a ship and an assistant who had to sail the cutter back to port single-handed. The cutter sailing rig became so ubiquitous for these tasks that the modern-day motorised vessels now engaged in these duties are known as cutters, the open cutter carried aboard naval vessels in the 18th Century was rowed by pairs of men sitting side-by-side on benches. The cutter, with its transom, was broader in proportion compared to the longboat, the Watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th Century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th & 18th Centuries. The modern Waterman’s Cutter is based on drawings of these boats and they are 34 feet long with a beam of 4 ft 6 in They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s, watermen’s Cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals’ Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas, in addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions
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Full-rigged ship
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A full-rigged ship or fully rigged ship is term of art denoting a sailing vessels sail plan with three or more masts, all of them square-rigged. A full-rigged ship is said to have a ship rig or be ship-rigged, the ship-rig sail plan, also differs drastically from the large panoply of one and two masted vessels found as working and recreational sailboats. Alternatively, a ship may be referred to by its function instead, as in collier or frigate. In many languages the word frigate or frigate rig refers to a full-rigged ship, only one five-masted full-rigged ship had ever been built until recent years, when a few modern five-masted cruise sailing ships have been launched. Even a fourth mast is relatively rare for full-rigged ships, ships with five and more masts are not normally fully rigged and their masts may be numbered rather than named in extreme cases. If the masts are of wood, each mast is in three or more pieces and they are, The lowest piece is called the mast or the lower. Topmast Topgallant mast Royal mast, if fitted On steel-masted vessels, note that even a full-rigged ship did not usually have a lateral course on the mizzen mast below the mizzen topmast. Instead, the lowest sail on the mizzen was usually a fore/aft sail—originally a lateen sail, the key distinction between a ship and barque is that a ship carries a square-rigged mizzen topsail whereas the mizzen mast of a barque has only fore-and-aft rigged sails. The cross-jack yard was the lowest yard on a ships mizzen mast, unlike the corresponding yards on the fore and main mast it did not usually have fittings to hang a sail from, its purpose was to control the lower edge of the topsail. In the rare case that the yard did carry a square sail. Above the course sail, in order, are, Topsail, or Lower topsail, Topgallant sail, or Lower topgallant sail, if fitted. The division of a sail into upper and lower sails was a matter of practicality, since undivided sails were larger and, consequently, larger sails necessitated hiring, and paying, a larger crew. Additionally, the size of some late-19th and 20th century vessels meant that their correspondingly large sails would have been impossible to handle had they not been divided. Jibs are carried forward of the foremast, are tacked down on the bowsprit or jib-boom and have varying naming conventions, staysails may be carried between any other mast and the one in front of it or from the foremast to the bowsprit. In light winds studding sails may be carried on either side of any or all of the square rigged sails except royals and skysails and they are named after the adjacent sail and the side of the vessel on which they are set, for example main topgallant starboard stunsail. One or more spritsails may also be set on booms set athwart, one or two spankers are carried aft of the aftmost mast, if two they are called the upper spanker and lower spanker. A fore-and-aft topsail may be carried above the upper or only spanker, to stop a full-rigged ship except when running directly down wind, the sails of the foremast are oriented in the direction perpendicular to those of the mainmast. Thus, the masts cancel out of their push on the ship and this allows the crew to stop and quickly restart the ship without retracting and lowering the sails, and to dynamically compensate for the push of the wind on the masts themselves and the yards
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Jackass-barque
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A jackass-barque, sometimes spelled jackass bark, is a sailing ship with three masts, of which the foremast is square-rigged and the main is partially square-rigged and partially fore-and-aft rigged. The mizzen mast is fore-and-aft rigged, a four-masted jackass barque is square-rigged on the two foremost masts and fore-and-aft rigged on the two after masts. Some 19th-century sailors called such a ship a fore-and-aft schooner chasing a brig, in general a jackass barque is a sailing ship which is half square-rigged and half fore-and-aft rigged. The name appears to be a reference to a mule. A well-known example of a four-masted jackass-barque was the Olympic, a 1,402 GRT Down Easter. Said to be the one in the world, she was launched in 1892 at the shipyard of the New England Ship Building Company, Bath, ME, for Captain W. H. Besse of New Bedford. She carried steel, nitrate, and other cargoes, Captain Gibbs was an experienced square-rigged skipper, and took great care of best stowage of the cargo, having the stevedores put 2/3 of it in the tween decks. For her new owner, Hackfield & Co. of Honolulu, managed by Williams, under her new master Captain T. H. Evans she sailed between New Zealand, Australia and the US west coast in the timber trade. Towards the end of World War I she changed hands to Thomas Crowley & Co, in that time she was re-rigged as a four-masted barquentine with a square-rigged foremast and three fore-and-aft rigged other masts. During the slump years cargo space of a sailing ship wasnt needed anymore, after being laid up for some years the 30-year-old ship was converted into a towing barge. A well-known example of a steel four-masted jackass-barque was the California, the use of steel enabled the addition of another hundred feet to the two hundred foot effective maximum length of a wooden vessel. A fourth mast, called the jigger, provided the power for the increased length. The lower and topmast were built in one steel tubular piece, mechanical improvements were introduced to the rigging. The City of Grand Haven had two masts set far apart to accommodate high piles of lumber on the deck and to make it easier to load and unload the vessel and this rig was called the Grand Haven Rig or. It was said to have been the result of a serendipity, when the master of a three-masted schooner had its mainmast removed due to rot, there were at least a dozen craft with this rig many of them in Lake Michigan. Similar rigs might be called a jackass schooner, the Down Easters, American deep-water sailing ships, 1868-1919. Boston, Charles E. Lauriat Co, Dover Pubns
34.
Ketch
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A ketch is a sailing craft with two masts. The distinguishing characteristic of a ketch is that the forward of the two masts is larger than the after mast, historically the ketch was a square-rigged vessel, most commonly used as a freighter or fishing boat in northern Europe, particularly in the Baltic and North seas. In modern usage, the ketch is a rigged vessel used as a yacht or pleasure craft. To assist going to windward, a ketch may carry one or more jibs or foresails, if a ketch has no jibs, it is called a cat ketch or a periauger. On older, larger ketches the main mast may in addition one or more square rigged topsails. The large fore-and-aft sail on the mainmast is the mainsail, while the sail on the mizzen mast is the mizzen and these sails may be any type of fore-and-aft sail, in any combination. Most modern ketches are Bermuda rigged, but other possible rigs on a ketch include gunter rigs, the Scots Zulu, for example, had a dipping lug main with a standing lug mizzen. In northern Europe and among long distance cruisers, the ketch is often preferred to a sloop, since the additional sail allows a balance. An advantage of the ketch is when sudden increases in wind strength require a rapid reefing, the ketch rig also allows sailing only on the mizzen and jib, without introducing excessive lee helm, and in an emergency can be quite well steered without use of the rudder. When running before the wind or reaching across the wind, a ketch may set extra sails such as a spinnaker on the main mast, and a spinnaker or mizzen staysail on the mizzen mast. Another advantage of a ketch is at anchor, where the sail may be used to hold the boat steady in the wind. The square-rigged ketch was largely supplanted by the brig, which differs from the ketch by having a forward mast smaller than the after mast, and by the hoy, other similar craft include the snow and the pink. But the balance of sail area can be an overriding characteristic, if 20% or more of the sail area is in the mizzen sail the rig would be termed a ketch. This is particularly true on center cockpit yachts, compared to a ketch, a similar size yawls mizzen sail is much smaller than the main, because of the limitations of the mizzen sheet. So on a ketch, the purpose of the mizzen sail is to both propel and balance the vessel, while on a yawl, the smaller mizzen mainly serves the purpose of trim or balance. Yawls tend to have mainsails almost as large as those of comparable sloops, a ketch may be distinguished from a cutter or a sloop by virtue of having two masts rather than one, though a ketch with two foresails is sometimes called a cutter-rigged ketch. Both the ketch and the yawl differ from the two-masted schooner, if a vessel has two masts of approximately the same height, the rig with the larger sail forward is called a ketch, while the rig with the larger sail aft is a schooner. The American two-masted schooner is rare in Europe, where the rig is preferred
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Yawl
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The mizzen sail is hoisted on the mizzen mast. The yawl was originally developed as a rig for fishing boats. In its heyday, the ability to be trimmed to sail without rudder input made it particularly popular with single-handed sailors, such as circumnavigators Harry Pidgeon. Modern self-steering and navigation aids have made less important. A good example of this was Olin Stephens Finisterre, a small ships boat, usually rowed by four or six oars. To add a sailing rig to a rowboat, the masts must not interfere with the rowers, the mainmast is placed well forward and the mizzen as far back as possible. The mizzen has to be small in size to keep the sail area balanced around the centre of lateral resistance to ensure the boat will sail in a straight line without excessive correction. Both the yawl and the ketch have two masts, with the main mast foremost. On classic yacht types with long overhangs and inboard rudders, the distinction is simple, for boats with shorter overhangs or outboard rudders the distinction is more usefully determined by comparing the purposes and relative sizes of the mizzens. Compared to a ketch, a similar size yawls mizzen sail is much smaller than the main, and is usually situated very far aft, behind the helm station. On a ketch, the purpose of the mizzen sail is to help propel the vessel as part of the working sail. On a yawl, the smaller mizzen mainly serves the purposes of trim and balance, Yawls tend to have mainsails almost as large as those of sloops of comparable sized hulls. The common definition of Yawl and Ketch using the rudder post does not reflect the tradition and was created by much more recent developments of a handicap system for racing yachts. The CCA rating rule was developed following World War II to allow different styles of boats to race against each other with a handicap calculated from measurements of each boat. It was later combined with the RORC rule to become the IOR rule in the late 1950s which was used to handicap international racing until the late 1980s, canoe Yawls have a pointed stern similar to a canoe. Rudders were usually placed on the back of the boat which allows the rudder to be raised to allow the boat to be landed on a beach
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Multihull
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A multihull is a ship, vessel, craft or boat with more than one hull. Multihull ships include multiple types, sizes and applications, hulls range from two to five, of uniform or diverse types and arrangements Catamarans are the most common type, with two symmetric hulls. They are used as racing, sailing, tourist and fishing boats, about 70% of fast passenger and car-passenger ferries are catamarans. About 300 semi-submersible drilling and auxiliary platforms operate at sea, some ships with outriggers are built, including the experimental ship Tritone and the first and second sister-ships of the series of Littoral Combat Ships. About 70 small waterplan area ships whose hulls have a cross section at the waterplane than below the surface exist. Multihull ships can be classified by the number of hulls, by their arrangement, the first multihull vessels were Austronesian canoes. They hollowed out logs to make canoes and stabilized them by attaching outriggers to prevent them from capsizing and this led to the proa, catamaran, and trimaran plus various outriggers throughout the Pacific. Individual hulls are connected by a structure called the platform or above-water bridge. The structure can be partially or fully, or can consist of separate connections. The distance between hulls is called the clearance and can be measured between center planes or between the inner boards. The distance between the design waterplane and the bottom of the platform is called the vertical clearance. The longitudinal distance between a ship is called the longitudinal clearance and can be measured between the middle of the hulls or between their fore perpendiculars. An outrigger is a small side hull attached to the main load-carrying hull by two or more struts, proas have one hull and one outrigger. Engines are commonly placed on the main hull, a ship with one hull of conventional shape and two small side hulls is called an outrigger ship. This type is identified as trimaran in English language publications, three terms from the Malay and Micronesian language group describe hull components. The terms originated as descriptions of the proa, Catamarans and trimarans share the same terminology. Ama − The ama is the outrigger hull, Aka − The aka connects the vaka to the ama. In Hawaiian, this is called the iako, Vaka − The vaka is the main canoe-like hull
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Amatasi
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Amatasi are a type of Samoan double outrigger canoe watercraft. Its sails were woven pandanus leaves tied to 2 spars, the hull was sometimes built of planks. Lashed together, large double canoes 30–60 feet long could carry 25 men on journeys of hundreds of miles. List of multihulls vaa vaa-tele Amatasi Image at Hawaii State Foundation on Culture and the Arts Modern day model by Francis Pimmel Historische Proas - Ancient Outriggers, Plan drawing of an amatasi
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Catamaran
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A catamaran is a multi-hulled watercraft featuring two parallel hulls of equal size. It is a craft, deriving its stability from its wide beam. Being ballast-free and therefore lighter than a monohull, catamarans often have a draft than comparably-sized monohulls. The two hulls combined also often have a smaller hydrodynamic resistance than comparable monohulls, requiring less power from either sails or motors. The catamarans wider stance on the water can reduce both heeling and wave-induced motion, as compared with a monohull, and can give reduced wakes, Catamarans range in size from small to large. The structure connecting a catamarans two hulls ranges from a simple frame strung with webbing to support the crew to a bridging superstructure incorporating extensive cabin and/or cargo space, Catamarans from Polynesia and Maritime Southeast Asia became the inspiration for modern catamarans. Catamaran-type vessels were first developed as early as 1500 BCE by the Polynesian peoples and these early examples were likely related to outrigger canoes and consisted of two canoes bound together with a wooden frame, sometimes accompanied by a sail. Despite their simplicity they were effective, allowing seafaring Polynesians to voyage to distant Pacific islands. Catamarans were seldom constructed in the West before the 19th century, the word catamaran is derived from the Tamil word, kattumaram, which means logs bound together. The 17th-century English adventurer and privateer William Dampier encountered the Tamil people of southeastern India during his first circumnavigation of the globe and he was the first to write in English about the primitive watercraft he observed in use there. In his 1697 account of his trip, A New Voyage Round the World, he wrote and these are but one Log, or two, sometimes of a sort of light Wood. So small, that they carry but one Man, whose legs, however, the unusual design met with skepticism and was not a commercial success. The design remained relatively unused in the West for almost 160 years until the early 19th-century, Crisp described it as a fast sailing fine sea boat, she traded during the monsoon between Rangoon and the Tenasserim Provinces for several years. Later that century, the American Nathanael Herreshoff constructed a sailing boat of his own design. The craft, Amaryllis, raced at her maiden regatta on June 22,1876 and her debut demonstrated the distinct performance advantages afforded to catamarans over the standard monohulls. It was as a result of event, the Centennial Regatta of the New York Yacht Club, that catamarans were barred from regular sailing classes. In 1936 Eric de Bisschop built a Polynesian double canoe in Hawaii, in 1939, he published his experiences in a book, Kaimiloa, which was translated into English in 1940. The Prout Brothers, Roland and Francis, experimented with catamarans in 1949 and converted their 1935 boat factory in Canvey Island, Essex and their Shearwater catamarans won races easily against the monohulls
39.
Drua
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Drua, also known as Na Drua, Ndrua, Ndrua or Vaka Tepu, is a double-hull sailing boat that originated in the south-western Pacific islands. Druas do not tack but rather shunt, both ends of each hull are identical, but the hulls are of different sizes and the smaller one is always sailed to windward. The main differences compared to other Pacific proas, are that the hulls have a symmetric U-form profile, when a float is used in place of the smaller hull, the craft is called a Camakau. The Fijian double canoe was the largest and finest sea-going vessel ever designed, — Canoes of Oceania Volume I, The Canoes of Polynesia, Fiji, and Micronesia Druas were large, up to 30 metres long, and could carry more than 200 people. Despite being called canoes they were not dugouts, but plank-built ships, no written record exists of the diffusion of the drua design, but most anthropologists assume its origin in Micronesia, and it probably came to Fiji through the Kiribati and Tuvalu islands. The only Polynesian shunting type is the Pahi of the Tuamotu archipelago, from Fiji, druas spread to Tonga and Samoa. Captain Cook visited Tonga in his second and third voyages, Tongan chiefs taking part in Fijian wars would bring them back as prizes of war. Drua construction eventually became a monopoly of Tongan constructors living in the Fijian Lau Islands, Druas were sacred canoes in the sense that only aristocrats could own one. Their main role was as war ships, taking part in naval battles and they also had a representative role, and were used to collect taxes. Following Fijian custom, it was an insult to cross her bows, or to sail to her windward and it was also custom to paddle and not to sail in sight of another chiefs territory. Launching a drua required a bloody ritual, including human sacrifices, the speed of druas became a legend for western sailors, who sometimes confused fijian canoes with flying proas. The low freeboard of the hulls outside the central platform predates the wave-piercing bows of modern racing designs, the one course that could not be sailed, was with the wind directly aft, otherwise her bows would be driven underwater. Her performance upwind is unclear, with some claiming it to be fast and close to the wind. The steering oars were massive, and big canoes would carry one at each end because they were too heavy to transport to the side while shunting. The steersman risked being crippled or killed when hitting big waves, the chief used to stand on the platforms top, being responsible for cutting the sheet to avoid capsizing. The disappearance of the canoe of Fiji coincided with the close of the nineteenth century. Only two original druas appear to have survived, both of them small, one, named Sema Makawa, is in the New Zealand Maritime Museum. The second one is Ratu Finau, at the Fiji Museum in Suva, a new Drua has just been completed and launched at Navua in Serua province on Viti Levu Fijis main island
40.
Jukung
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A jukung or canoe also known as cadik is a small wooden Indonesian outrigger canoe. It is a fishing boat, but newer uses include Jukung Dives. Essentially of Balinese origin, the double outrigger jukung is but one of many types of Pacific/Asian outrigger canoes that use the crab claw sail traditional throughout Polynesia. Whilst this sail presents some difficulties in tacking into the wind, actually requiring to jibe around and they are usually highly decorated and bear a marlin-like prow. People in kalimantan also named their boat Jukung, advertised as unsinkable, the main body is made of a closed HDPE pipe that contains sealed air as the source of its buoyancy. In the late 1980s there was a race of over 1000 miles in open outrigger canoes by nine crews, crews were from New Zealand, Australia, USA, England, Japan, France, Germany, The Netherlands and Indonesia. They completed the journey with a five-day sail across the Arafura Sea to Darwin, challenges experienced were storms requiring numerous boat repairs, waterspouts, adverse currents and whirlpools. Hazards included drifting onto war-torn Timor, minor wound infections, night-time freighters, sightings of sperm whales, some were viciously attacked by hornets while preparing to leave a remote beach camp. The crews unanimously decided to sail as a group, as opposed to racing the final leg of the journey, for safety. A Jukung from Madura Island – Traditional Indonesian Trimaran http, //www. aquatec. co. id Leibner, Horst Traditional Indonesian Boats - Department of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
