1.
Food processing
–
Food processing is the transformation of raw ingredients, by physical or chemical means into food, or of food into other forms. Food processing combines raw food ingredients to produce food products that can be easily prepared and served by the consumer. Salt-preservation was especially common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors diets until the introduction of canning methods and these tried and tested processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. Examples of ready-meals also date back to before the preindustrial revolution, both during ancient times and today in modern society these are considered processed foods. Modern food processing technology developed in the 19th and 20th centuries was developed in a part to serve military needs. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the used in cans. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1864, improved the quality of preserved foods and introduced the wine, beer, in the late 20th century, products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed. In western Europe and North America, the half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle-class working wives, frozen foods found their success in sales of juice concentrates and TV dinners. Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the population. Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, modern supermarkets would not exist without modern food processing techniques, and long voyages would not be possible. Processed foods are less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for long distance transportation from the source to the consumer. When they were first introduced, some processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages, processing can also reduce the incidence of food borne disease. Fresh materials, such as produce and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms capable of causing serious illnesses. The extremely varied modern diet is only possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard labour gives the modern eater easy access to a variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors. The act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly, mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a profit potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food products
Food processing
–
Industrial
cheese production
Food processing
–
Michael Foods
egg -processing plant in Wakefield, Nebraska
Food processing
–
Grain silos in
Ardrossan,
Scotland
Food processing
–
A form of pre-made
split-pea soup that has become traditional
2.
Brine
–
Brine is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3. 5% up to about 26%, fahrenheit could reliably reproduce by freezing brine. By reference, seawater usually freezes at −2 °C, at 100 °C, saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C, brine can only hold about 26% salt, the thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The majority of hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine. 2 NaCl +2 H2O →2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2 Brine is a fluid used in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place to place. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is −21.1 °C at 23. 3wt% NaCl and this is called the eutectic point. In lower temperatures, a solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. In cooking, brine is used for food brining and salting, in hydrology, brine is a form of salt water, namely, water with relatively high concentration of salt. Brine mining Saline water Brackish water
Brine
–
A NASA technician measures the concentration level of brine using a
hydrometer at a
salt evaporation pond in San Francisco.
3.
Food preservation
–
Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage
Food preservation
–
Bag of Prague powder #1, also known as "
curing salt " or "pink salt." It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to distinguish it from ordinary salt.
Food preservation
–
Smoked
ham in a
smokehouse in
Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany
Food preservation
–
Preserved food
4.
Seasoning
–
Seasoning is the process of adding salt, herbs, or spices to food to enhance the flavor. Seasonings include herbs and spices, which are frequently referred to as seasonings. However, Larousse Gastronomique states that to season and to flavour are not the thing, insisting that seasoning includes a large or small amount of salt being added to a preparation. Salt may be used to draw out water, or to magnify a natural flavor of a food making it richer or more delicate and this type of procedure is akin to curing. For instance, sea salt is rubbed into chicken, lamb, other seasonings like black pepper and basil transfer some of their flavor to the food. A well designed dish may combine seasonings that complement each other, in addition to the choice of herbs and seasoning, the timing of when flavors are added will affect the food that is being cooked. In some cultures, meat may be seasoned by pouring sauce over the dish at the table, a variety of seasoning techniques exist in various cultures. Infused oils are used for seasoning. There are two methods for doing an infusion—hot and cold, olive oil makes a good infusion base for some herbs, but tends to go rancid more quickly than other oils. Infused oils should be kept refrigerated, in Le Guide culinaire, Auguste Escoffier divides seasoning and condiments into the following groups, Saline seasonings—Salt, spiced salt, saltpeter. Acid seasonings—Plain vinegar, or same aromatized with tarragon, verjuice, lemon, hot seasonings—Peppercorns, ground or coarsely chopped pepper, or mignonette pepper, paprika, curry, cayenne, and mixed pepper spices. The pungents—onions, shallots, garlic, chives, and horseradish, fatty substances—Most animal fats, butter, vegetable greases. Condiment Flavor List of culinary herbs and spices List of spice mixes Popcorn seasoning
Seasoning
–
The ingredients for
achiote paste: ground annatto, oregano, ground cumin and ground cloves
Seasoning
–
Salts
Seasoning
–
Condiments
5.
Vegetable
–
In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
Vegetable
–
Vegetables in a
market in the
Philippines
Vegetable
–
Domestic vegetable garden in the United Kingdom
Vegetable
–
cabbage Brassica oleracea
Vegetable
–
turnip Brassica rapa
6.
Cheese
–
Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
Cheese
–
Coulommiers cheese
Cheese
–
A platter with cheese and garnishes
Cheese
–
A variety of cheeses for sale in Amsterdam
Cheese
–
Cheese on market stand in
Basel,
Switzerland
7.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruit
–
Culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Several
culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Mixed fruit
Fruit
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
8.
Pickling
–
Pickling is the process of preserving or expanding the lifespan of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The resulting food is called a pickle, or, to prevent ambiguity, the pickling procedure will typically affect the foods texture and flavor. In East Asia, vinaigrette is used as a pickling medium. Foods that are pickled include meats, fruits, eggs, another distinguishing characteristic is a pH of 4.6 or lower, which is sufficient to kill most bacteria. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months, antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. If the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt, for example, German sauerkraut and Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, by lactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity, other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar. Unlike the canning process, pickling does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed, the acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product. When both salt concentration and temperature are low, Leuconostoc mesenteroides dominates, producing a mix of acids, alcohol, at higher temperatures Lactobacillus plantarum dominates, which produces primarily lactic acid. Many pickles start with Leuconostoc, and change to Lactobacillus with higher acidity, pickling began 4000 years ago using cucumbers native to India. This was used as a way to food for out-of-season use and for long journeys. Salt pork and salt beef were common staples for sailors before the days of steam engines, although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria. The term pickle is derived from the Dutch word pekel, meaning brine, in the U. S. and Canada, and sometimes Australia and New Zealand, the word pickle alone almost always refers to a pickled cucumber, except when it is used figuratively. It may also refer to types of pickles such as pickled onion, pickled cauliflower. In the UK, pickle, as in a cheese and pickle sandwich, may refer to Ploughmans pickle. South Asia has a variety of pickles, which are mainly made from varieties of mango, lemon, lime, goongura, tamarind and Indian gooseberry. Vegetables such as brinjal, carrots, cauliflower, tomato, bitter gourd, green tamarind, ginger, garlic, onion and these fruits and vegetables are generally mixed with ingredients like salt, spices, and vegetable oils and are set to mature in a moistureless medium
Pickling
–
Pickled cucumbers
Pickling
–
Pickled herring
Pickling
–
Pickled
mushrooms
Pickling
–
Pickled
Olives
9.
Meat
–
Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
Meat
–
Varieties of meat
Meat
–
A typical shoulder cut of
lamb
Meat
–
A
Hereford bull, a breed of cattle frequently used in beef production.
Meat
–
Blade steaks are an example of "red" meat
10.
Fish
–
A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
Fish
–
Giant grouper swimming among
schools of other fish
Fish
Fish
–
Leedsichthys (left) the largest known fish.
Fish
–
Dunkleosteus was a gigantic, 10 meter (33 feet) long
prehistoric fish.
11.
Steeping
–
Steeping is the soaking in liquid of a solid so as to extract flavours or to soften it. The specific process of teas being prepared for drinking by leaving the leaves in heated water to release the flavour, herbal teas may be prepared by decoction, infusion, or maceration. Some solids are soaked to remove an ingredient, such as salt from smoked ham or salted cod, one example is the steeping of corn, part of the milling process. As described by the US Corn Refiners Association, harvested kernels of corn are cleaned, in the process their moisture content rises from 15% to 45% and their volume more than doubles. The gluten bonds in the corn are weakened and starch is released, the corn is then ground to break free the germ and other components, and the water used, which has absorbed various nutrients, is recycled for use in animal feeds. Dried teas as loose tea or tea bags are prepared for drinking by steeping the leaves in just boiled or heated water to release the flavour and this is often done in a cup, mug, teapot, pitcher or urn. A tea infuser or a tea strainer may be used to assist in this process, steeping grain is a part of beer making
Steeping
–
Green tea leaves steeping in a
gaiwan (type of tea cup)
12.
Marination
–
Marination is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. The origin of the word alludes to the use of brine in the pickling process, the liquid in question, the marinade, can be either acidic or enzymatic. In addition to ingredients, a marinade often contains oils, herbs. It is commonly used to flavor foods and to tenderize tougher cuts of meat, the process may last seconds or days. Different marinades are used in different cuisines, for example, in Indian cuisine the marinade is usually prepared with a mixture of spices. In meats, the causes the tissue to break down. A good marinade has a balance of acid, oil, if raw marinated meat is frozen, the marinade can break down the surface and turn the outer layer mushy. Often confused with marinating, macerating is a form of food preparation. Raw pork, seafood, beef and poultry may contain harmful bacteria which may contaminate the marinade, marinating should be done in the refrigerator to inhibit bacterial growth. Used marinade should not be made into a sauce unless rendered safe by boiling directly before use, otherwise, the container used for marinating should be glass or food safe plastic. Metal, including pottery glazes which can lead, reacts with the acid in the marinade
Marination
–
Chicken in marinade
Marination
–
Beef marinating for a Korean barbecue dish
Marination
–
Poultry and game
Marination
13.
Spices
–
A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, sometimes, spices may be ground into a powder for convenience. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics or perfume production, the spice trade developed throughout South Asia and Middle East by at least 2000 BCE with cinnamon and black pepper, and in East Asia with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for mummification and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. The word spice comes from the Old French word espice, which became epice, and which came from the Latin root spec, by 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, archaeological excavations have uncovered clove burnt onto the floor of a kitchen, dated to 1700 BCE, at the Mesopotamian site of Terqa, in modern-day Syria. The ancient Indian epic Ramayana mentions cloves, the Romans had cloves in the 1st century CE, as Pliny the Elder wrote about them. In the story of Genesis, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants, in the biblical poem Song of Solomon, the male speaker compares his beloved to many forms of spices. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, the Ebers Papyrus from Early Egyptians that dates from 1550 B. C. E. Describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures, historians believe that nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in Southeast Asia, was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE. Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian port city of Alexandria being the trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade were the monsoon winds, sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans. Spices were among the most demanded and expensive available in Europe in the Middle Ages. Given medieval medicines main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were indispensable to balance humors in food, in addition to being desired by those using medieval medicine, the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages. An example of the European aristocracys demand for spice comes from the King of Aragon and he was specifically looking for spices to put in wine, and was not alone among European monarchs at the time to have such a desire for spice. Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive, from the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice had the monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, and along with it the neighboring Italian city-states. The trade made the region rich and it has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages
Spices
–
A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran
Spices
–
A group of
Indian spices and herbs in bowls
Spices
–
An assortment of spices used in
Indian cuisine
Spices
–
Spice market,
Marakesh
14.
Caramel
–
Caramel is a beige to dark-brown confectionery product made by heating a variety of sugars. It can be used as a flavoring in puddings and desserts, as a filling in bonbons, or as a topping for ice cream, the process of caramelization consists of heating sugar slowly to around 170 °C. As the sugar heats, the break down and re-form into compounds with a characteristic color and flavor. A variety of candies, desserts, and confections are made with caramel, brittles, nougats, pralines, crème brûlée, crème caramel, ice creams sometimes are flavored with or contain swirls of caramel. The English word comes from French caramel, borrowed from Spanish caramelo, most likely that comes from Late Latin calamellus sugar cane, a diminutive of calamus reed, cane, itself from Greek κάλαμος. Less likely, it comes from a Medieval Latin cannamella, from canna cane + mella honey, finally, some dictionaries connect it to an Arabic kora-mochalla ball of sweet. Caramel sauce is made by mixing caramelized sugar with cream, depending on the intended application, additional ingredients such as butter, fruit purees, liquors or vanilla are often used. Caramel sauce is used in a variety of desserts, though most notably as a topping for ice cream, when it is used for crème caramel or flan, it is known as clear caramel and only contains caramelized sugar and water. Butterscotch sauce is made with brown sugar, butter and often a splash of whiskey. Traditionally, butterscotch is a hard candy more in line with a toffee, toffee, or in the US caramel candy, is a soft, dense, chewy candy made by boiling a mixture of milk or cream, sugar, glucose, butter, and vanilla. The sugar and glucose are heated separately to reach 130 °C, the mixture is then stirred and reheated until it reaches 120 °C. Upon completion of cooking, vanilla or any additional flavorings and salt are added, adding the vanilla or flavorings earlier would result in their burning off at the high temperatures. Adding salt earlier in the process would result in inverting the sugars as they cooked, alternately, all ingredients may be cooked together. In this procedure, the mixture is not heated above the firm ball stage and this temperature is not high enough to caramelize sugar and this type of candy is often called milk caramel or cream caramel. Caramel coloring, a dark, bitter-tasting liquid, is the highly concentrated product of near total caramelization and it is used as food coloring and in beverages, such as cola. Caramelization is the removal of water from a sugar, proceeding to isomerization and polymerization of the sugars into various high-molecular-weight compounds, compounds such as difructose anhydride may be created from the monosaccharides after water loss. Fragmentation reactions result in low-molecular-weight compounds that may be volatile and may contribute to flavor, polymerization reactions lead to larger-molecular-weight compounds that contribute to the dark-brown color. In modern recipes and in production, glucose or invert sugar is added to prevent crystallization
Caramel
–
A saucer of liquid caramel
Caramel
–
A
crème caramel flan that is topped with caramel sauce
Caramel
–
Milk caramel sold as square candies, either for eating or for melting down.
Caramel
–
Caramel sauce being made in a pan with a
whisk.
15.
Vinegar
–
Vinegar is a liquid consisting of about 5–20% acetic acid, water, and other trace chemicals, which may include flavorings. The acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria, Vinegar is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient, or in pickling. As the most easily manufactured mild acid, it has historically had a variety of industrial, medical. Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation processes, in general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars where fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of a few months or up to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a non-toxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria, fast methods add mother of vinegar to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced between 20 hours to three days, the conversion of ethanol and oxygen to acetic acid takes place by the following reaction, CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 BC, apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present and it can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened for consumption. Balsamic vinegar is an aged vinegar produced in the Modena. The original product—Traditional Balsamic Vinegar—is made from the juice, or must. It is very dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper. Regardless of how it is produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product, a high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it very mellow. It ranges from yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar. Because it contains no sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim, cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars, the other way is through fermentation to produce a local wine known as basi. Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid, a white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar to be mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost
Vinegar
–
A variety of flavored vinegars on sale in France (bottom rows)
Vinegar
–
Chinese black vinegar
Vinegar
–
Persimmon vinegar produced in South Korea
Vinegar
–
Raisin vinegar produced in Turkey
16.
Vinaigrette
–
Vinaigrette is made by mixing an oil with something acidic such as vinegar or lemon juice. The mixture can be enhanced with salt, herbs and/or spices and it is used most commonly as a salad dressing, but can also be used as a marinade. Vinaigrette is the form of the French word vinaigre. It was commonly known as dressing in the 19th century. In general, vinaigrette consists of 3 parts of oil to 1 part of vinegar whisked into an emulsion, salt and pepper are often added. Herbs and shallots are added, especially when it is used for cooked vegetables or grains, sometimes mustard is used as an emulsifier and to add flavour. Some vinaigrettes use a small amount of sweetener, such as maple syrup, vinaigrette may be made with a variety of oils and vinegars. Olive oil and neutral vegetable oils such as oil, canola oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, peanut oil. In northern France, it may be made with oil and cider vinegar. In the United States, vinaigrettes may include a range of additions such as lemon, truffles, raspberries, sugar, garlic. Cheese, parmesan or blue cheese being the most common, may also be added, commercially bottled versions may include emulsifiers such as lecithin. In Southeast Asia, rice bran oil and white vinegar are used as a foundation with fresh herbs, chili peppers, nuts, different vinegars, such as raspberry, create different flavors, and lemon juice or alcohol, such as sherry, may be used instead of vinegar. Balsamic vinaigrette is made by adding an amount of balsamic vinegar to a simple vinaigrette of olive oil. In Brazil, a mix between olive oil, alcohol vinegar, tomatoes, onions and sometimes bell peppers is called vinagrete and it is served on Brazilian churrasco, commonly on Sundays. In classical French cuisine, a vinaigrette is used as a dressing and, as a cold sauce, accompanies cold artichokes, asparagus. Vinaigrette gave its name to a salad in Russian cuisine called vinegret
Vinaigrette
–
Vinaigrette
Vinaigrette
–
Making vinaigrette - pouring oil into vinegar and mustard prior to whipping into emulsion
Vinaigrette
–
A raspberry vinaigrette
Vinaigrette
–
Condiments
17.
Fermentation
–
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, Fermentation is also used more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium, often with the goal of producing a specific chemical product. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur is often remembered for his insights into fermentation, the science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation takes place when the transport chain is unusable. In this case it becomes the primary means of ATP production. Fermentation turns NADH and pyruvate produced in glycolysis into NAD+. In the presence of O2, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration and this is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, cells generally benefit from avoiding fermentation when oxygen is available, the exception being obligate anaerobes which cannot tolerate oxygen. The first step, glycolysis, is common to all fermentation pathways, two ADP molecules and two Pi are converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation. Two molecules of NAD+ are also reduced to NADH, in oxidative phosphorylation the energy for ATP formation is derived from an electrochemical proton gradient generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane via the electron transport chain. Humans have used fermentation to produce drinks and beverages since the Neolithic age, Fermentation can even occur within the stomachs of animals, such as humans. To many people, fermentation simply means the production of alcohol, grains and fruits are fermented to produce beer, if a food soured, one might say it was off or fermented. Here are some definitions of fermentation and they range from informal, general usage to more scientific definitions. Preservation methods for food via microorganisms, any process that produces alcoholic beverages or acidic dairy products. Any large-scale microbial process occurring with or without air, any energy-releasing metabolic process that takes place only under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation does not necessarily have to be carried out in an anaerobic environment, for example, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, yeast cells greatly prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration, as long as sugars are readily available for consumption. The antibiotic activity of hops also inhibits aerobic metabolism in yeast, Fermentation reacts NADH with an endogenous, organic electron acceptor. Usually this is formed from the sugar during the glycolysis step. Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of products are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide
Fermentation
–
Fermentation in progress: Bubbles of
CO2 form a froth on top of the fermentation mixture.
Fermentation
–
Louis Pasteur in his laboratory
18.
Mustard seed
–
Mustard seeds are the small round seeds of various mustard plants. The seeds are usually about 1 to 2 millimetres in diameter and they are important spice in many regional foods and may come from one of three different plants, black mustard, brown Indian mustard, or white mustard. Grinding and mixing the seeds with water, vinegar, or other liquids, an archaic name for the seed is eye of newt. These mustard seeds are known in Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi as sarson and these are used as a spice in Pakistan, Northern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. The seeds are usually roasted until they pop and they are also planted to grow saag which are stir-fried and eaten as a vegetable preparation, called sarson ka saag in Urdu and Hindi. In Maharashtra, it is called as mohari, and is used frequently in Marathi recipes, sarson ka tel is used for body massage during extreme winters, as it is assumed to keep the body warm. In Bengali cuisine mustard oil or shorsher tel is the predominant cooking medium, Mustard seeds are also essential ingredients in spicy fish dishes like jhaal and paturi. Mustard seeds generally take three to ten days to germinate if placed under the conditions, which include a cold atmosphere. Mature mustard plants grow into shrubs, Mustard grows well in temperate regions. Major producers of mustard seeds include India, Pakistan, Canada, Nepal, Hungary, Great Britain, brown and black mustard seeds return higher yields than their yellow counterparts. In Pakistan, rapeseed-mustard is the second most important source of oil and it is cultivated over an area of 307,000 hectares with annual production of 233,000 tonnes and contributes about 17% to the domestic production of edible oil. Mustard seeds are a source of oil and protein. The seed has oil as high as 46-48%, and whole seed meal has 43. 6% protein, in the Bible Jesus tells the Parable of the Mustard Seed referring to faith and the Kingdom of God. There, Jesus says that the kingdom of God is like a mustard seed, yet when planted, it grows and becomes the largest of all garden plants, with such big branches that the birds can perch in its shade. This story is recounted referring to faith in Luke 17, 6-10, with reference to the Kingdom of Heaven it is mentioned in Luke 13, 18-19 and Matthew 13, 31-32. This parable referred to having a mustard seed type faith to someone that needs to have just enough faith to believe anything is possible. As Jesus referred to a man that was a lunatic and had many sores on his body. The boys father came to the disciples for healing of his son, Jesus let them to know that all one needs is just a little faith and nothing is impossible
Mustard seed
–
mustard seed, yellow
19.
Garlic
–
Garlic is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, garlic is native to the region between the Mediterranean and China, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant and it grows up to 1.2 m in height. Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 and it is pollinated by bees and other insects. Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized, the wild garlic, crow garlic, and field garlic of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale and Allium canadense, known as garlic or wild garlic. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek, and not a true garlic, single clove garlic originated in the Yunnan province of China. A. sativum var. ophioscorodon Döll, called Ophioscorodon, or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic and it is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, in colder climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring or early summer. The cloves must be planted deep enough to prevent freeze/thaw, which causes mold or white rot, Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, when selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic, the latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small. Garlic scapes are removed to all the garlics energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked, Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases
Garlic
–
Garlic
Garlic
–
Flower head
Garlic
–
Italian garlic PDO (Aglio Bianco Polesano)
Garlic
–
Bulbils
20.
Cinnamon
–
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. Cinnamon is used in sweet and savoury foods. The term cinnamon also refers to its mid-brown colour, Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae, only a few Cinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice. The English word cinnamon, attested in English since the 15th century, derives from the Greek κιννάμωμον kinnámōmon, via Latin, the Greek was borrowed from a Phoenician word, which was similar to the related Hebrew qinnamon. The name cassia, first recorded in English around AD1000, was borrowed via Latin and ultimately derives from Hebrew qtsīʿāh, Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BCE, the first Greek reference to kasia is found in a poem by Sappho in the seventh century BCE. According to Herodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense, myrrh, and ladanum, the phoenix was reputed to build its nest from cinnamon and cassia. Herodotus mentions other writers who believed the source of cassia was the home of Dionysos, egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia from Hellenistic times onward. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon, as well as incense, myrrh, Cinnamon was brought around the Arabian peninsula on rafts without rudders or sails or oars, taking advantage of the winter trade winds. Pliny also mentions cassia as a agent for wine. According to Pliny, a Roman pound of cassia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost up to 300 denarii, diocletians Edict on Maximum Prices from 301 AD gives a price of 125 denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25 denarii per day. Malabathrum leaves were used in cooking and for distilling an oil used in a sauce for oysters by the Roman gourmet Gaius Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is among the spices that, according to Apicius, any good kitchen should contain, through the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the ports of Egypt. Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic, Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century that traders had made this up to charge more, but the story remained current in Byzantium as late as 1310. The first mention that the spice grew in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwinis Athar al-bilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad about 1270 and this was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292. Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, venetian traders from Italy held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria
Cinnamon
–
Raw cinnamon
Cinnamon
–
Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants (1887)
Cinnamon
–
Writing a Arabic name by
stencil and cinnamon powder on Iranian dessert, Shole-zrad.
Cinnamon
–
Leaves from a wild cinnamon tree
21.
Cloves
–
Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and are used as a spice. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, cloves are available throughout the year. The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 m tall, with large leaves, the flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1. 5–2.0 cm long, and consist of a calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals. Cloves are used in the cuisine of Asian, African, and the Near and Middle East countries, lending flavor to meats, curries, cloves may be used to give aromatic and flavor qualities to hot beverages, often combined with other ingredients such as lemon and sugar. They are an element in spice blends such as pumpkin pie spice. In Mexican cuisine, cloves are best known as clavos de olor and they are also used in Peruvian cuisine, in a wide variety of dishes as carapulcra and arroz con leche. A major component of clove taste is imparted by the chemical eugenol, and it pairs well with cinnamon, allspice, vanilla, red wine and basil, as well as onion, citrus peel, star anise, or peppercorns. The spice is used in a type of cigarette called kretek in Indonesia, clove cigarettes have been smoked throughout Europe, Asia and the United States. Starting in 2009, clove cigarettes must be classified as cigars in the US, because of the bioactive chemicals of clove, the spice may be used as an ant repellent. Cloves can be used to make a fragrance pomander when combined with an orange, when given as a gift in Victorian England, such a pomander indicated warmth of feeling. Cloves are used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and western herbalism, cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural anthelmintic, the essential oil is used in aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for digestive problems. Topical application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the digestive tract, applied to a cavity in a decayed tooth, it also relieves toothache. Because the herb is so warming, it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration has reclassified eugenol, downgrading its effectiveness rating. The FDA now believes not enough evidence indicates clove oil or eugenol is effective for toothache pain or a variety of types of pain. Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent and it remains unproven whether clove may reduce blood sugar levels
Cloves
–
Clove
Cloves
–
Dried cloves
Cloves
–
Clove model of a
proa
22.
Canning
–
Canning is a method of preserving food in which the food contents are processed and sealed in an airtight container. Canning provides a shelf life ranging from one to five years. A freeze-dried canned product, such as canned dried lentils, could last as long as 30 years in an edible state. In 1974, samples of canned food from the wreck of the Bertrand, although appearance, smell and vitamin content had deteriorated, there was no trace of microbial growth and the 109-year-old food was determined to be still safe to eat. The larger armies of the period required increased and regular supplies of quality food, limited food availability was among the factors limiting military campaigns to the summer and autumn months. In 1809, Nicolas Appert, a French confectioner and brewer, observed that food cooked inside a jar did not spoil unless the seals leaked, Appert was awarded the prize in 1810 by Count Montelivert, a French minister of the interior. The reason for lack of spoilage was unknown at the time, unfortunately for Appert, the factory which he had built with his prize money was razed in 1814 by Allied soldiers when they entered France. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the process was gradually employed in other European countries. Durand did not pursue food canning himself, selling his patent in 1811 to Bryan Donkin and John Hall, Bryan Donkin developed the process of packaging food in sealed airtight cans, made of tinned wrought iron. Initially, the process was slow and labour-intensive, as each large can had to be hand-made. The main market for the food at this stage was the British Army, by 1817 Donkin recorded that he had sold £3000 worth of canned meat in six months. In 1824 Sir William Edward Parry took canned beef and pea soup with him on his voyage to the Arctic in HMS Fury, in 1829, Admiral Sir James Ross also took canned food to the Arctic, as did Sir John Franklin in 1845. Some of his stores were found by the expedition led by Captain Leopold McLintock in 1857. One of these cans was opened in 1939, and was edible and nutritious, throughout the mid-19th century, canned food became a status symbol amongst middle-class households in Europe, being something of a frivolous novelty. Increasing mechanization of the process, coupled with a huge increase in urban populations across Europe. Demand for canned food greatly increased during wars, urban populations in Victorian Britain demanded ever-increasing quantities of cheap, varied, quality food that they could keep at home without having to go shopping daily. In response, companies such as Underwood, Nestlé, Heinz, in particular, Crosse and Blackwell took over the concern of Donkin Hall and Gamble. Shortages of canned food in the British Army in 1917 led to the government issuing cigarettes and amphetamines to soldiers to suppress their appetites, after the war, companies that had supplied military canned food improved the quality of their goods for civilian sale
Canning
–
The
Berthold-Weiss Factory, one of the first large canned food factories in
Csepel -
Budapest (1885)
Canning
–
How canned food was made, picture from Albert Seigneurie's Grocery Encyclopedia (1898)
Canning
–
Appert canning jar
Canning
–
Nicolas Appert, developer of the canning process
23.
Sterilization (microbiology)
–
Sterilization can be achieved through various means, including, heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure, and filtration. Sterilization is distinct from disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization in that kills, deactivates, or eliminates all forms of life. Canning of foods is an extension of the principle, and has helped to reduce food borne illness. Other methods of sterilizing foods include food irradiation and high pressure, in general, surgical instruments and medications that enter an already aseptic part of the body must be sterile. Examples of such instruments include scalpels, hypodermic needles and artificial pacemakers and this is also essential in the manufacture of parenteral pharmaceuticals. Most medical and surgical devices used in healthcare facilities are made of materials that are able to go under steam sterilization, however, since 1950, there has been an increase in medical devices and instruments made of materials that require low-temperature sterilization. Ethylene oxide gas has been used since the 1950s for heat-, within the past 15 years, a number of new, low-temperature sterilization systems have been developed and are being used to sterilize medical devices. ]Steam sterilization is the most widely used and the most dependable. Steam sterilization is nontoxic, inexpensive, rapidly microbicidal, sporicidal, there are strict international rules to protect the contamination of Solar System bodies from biological material from Earth. Standards vary depending on both the type of mission and its destination, the more likely a planet is considered to be habitable, the aim of sterilization is the reduction of initially present microorganisms or other potential pathogens. The degree of sterilization is commonly expressed by multiples of the decimal reduction time, or D-value, then the number of microorganisms N after sterilization time t is given by, N N0 =10. The D-value is a function of sterilization conditions and varies with the type of microorganism, temperature, water activity, for steam sterilization typically the temperature is given as index. Theoretically, the likelihood of survival of an individual microorganism is never zero, to compensate for this, the overkill method is often used. Using the overkill method, sterilization is performed by sterilizing for longer than is required to kill the present on or in the item being sterilized. This provides a sterility assurance level equal to the probability of a non-sterile unit, for high-risk applications such as medical devices and injections, a sterility assurance level of at least 10−6 is required by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A widely used method for heat sterilization is the autoclave, sometimes called a converter or steam sterilizer, autoclaves use steam heated to 121-134 °C under pressure. To achieve sterility, the article is heated in a chamber by injected steam until the article reaches a time, meantime almost all the air is removed from the chamber, because air is undesired in the moist heat sterilization process. The article is then held at that setpoint for a period of time varies depending on the bioburden present on the article being sterilized. Following sterilization, liquids in a pressurized autoclave must be cooled slowly to avoid boiling over when the pressure is released and this may be achieved by gradually depressurizing the sterilization chamber and allowing liquids to evaporate under a negative pressure, while cooling the contents
Sterilization (microbiology)
–
Joseph Lister was a pioneer of
antiseptic surgery.
Sterilization (microbiology)
–
Apparatus to sterilize surgical instruments, Verwaltungsgebäude der Schweiz. Kranken- und Hilfsanstalt, 1914-1918
Sterilization (microbiology)
–
Front-loading autoclave
Sterilization (microbiology)
–
Dry heat sterilizer
24.
Food scientist
–
Food science is the applied science devoted to the study of food. Food scientists may study more fundamental phenomena that are linked to the production of food products and its properties. Food science brings together multiple scientific disciplines and it incorporates concepts from fields such as microbiology, chemical engineering, and biochemistry. Some of the subdisciplines of food science are described below, Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer and this discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. Food engineering is the processes used to manufacture food. Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms that inhabit, create, or contaminate food, good bacteria, however, such as probiotics, are becoming increasingly important in food science. In addition, microorganisms are essential for the production of such as cheese, yogurt, bread, beer, wine and. It deals with the study of microorganism in food and it includes study of microorganism in food causing food spoilage, food poisoning and food infection. It also include method of food preservation like canning, freezing, drying and it also includes cleanliness and sanitation in food microbiology. Some microorganisms are use in preparation of food like deli, cheese, pickles, Food packaging is packaging of food to preserve food after it has been processed and contain it through distribution. Its main objective is to physical and barrier protection for food. In most cases food packaging contains labels bearing nutritional and other information about the specific food, Food packaging is mostly done by using packaging machines. Food preservation involves the causes and prevention of quality degradation, Food substitution refers to the replacement of fat, sugar, or calories from a product while maintaining similar shape, texture, color, or taste. Food technology is the technological aspects, early scientific research into food technology concentrated on food preservation. Nicolas Appert’s development in 1810 of the process was a decisive event. The process wasn’t called canning then and Appert did not really know the principle on which his process worked, molecular gastronomy is the scientific investigation of processes in cooking, social and artistic gastronomical phenomena. Molecular gastronomy is a subdiscipline of food science that seeks to investigate the physical and chemical transformations of ingredients that occur in cooking and its program includes three axis, as cooking was recognized to have three components, which are social, artistic and technical
Food scientist
–
A food science laboratory
Food scientist
–
Food
scientists working in Australia
Food scientist
–
A bread factory in Germany, an example of
food engineering
25.
Solutes
–
In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the characteristics of the solvent when the solvent is the fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is the mass of that solute expressed as a percentage of the mass of the whole solution, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye, a solution does not allow beams of light to scatter. The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration and it is composed of only one phase. Homogeneous means that the components of the form a single phase. Heterogeneous means that the components of the mixture are of different phase, the properties of the mixture can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena or after their completion. Usually, the present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids or solids, one or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the physical state as the solvent. If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a set of conditions. An example of a solution is air. Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions, in part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids, here are some examples, Gas in liquid, Oxygen in water Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction. Liquid in liquid, The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant, alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid, Sucrose in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water, solutions in water are especially common. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous, colloids, body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes
Solutes
–
Making a
saline water solution by dissolving
table salt (
NaCl) in
water. The salt is the solute and the water the solvent.
Solutes
–
Diving medicine:
26.
Diffusion
–
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. This is also referred to as the movement of a substance down a concentration gradient, a gradient is the change in the value of a quantity with the change in another variable. The word diffusion derives from the Latin word, diffundere, which means to spread out, a distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it results in mixing or mass transport, without requiring bulk motion. Thus, diffusion should not be confused with convection, or advection, an example of a situation in which bulk flow and diffusion can be differentiated is the mechanism by which oxygen enters the body during external respiration. The lungs are located in the cavity, which expands as the first step in external respiration. This expansion leads to an increase in volume of the alveoli in the lungs and this creates a pressure gradient between the air outside the body and the alveoli. The air moves down the gradient through the airways of the lungs and into the alveoli until the pressure of the air. The air arriving in the alveoli has a concentration of oxygen than the “stale” air in the alveoli. The increase in oxygen concentration creates a concentration gradient for oxygen between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli, oxygen then moves by diffusion, down the concentration gradient, into the blood. The other consequence of the air arriving in alveoli is that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli decreases and this creates a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli. The pumping action of the heart then transports the blood around the body, as the left ventricle of the heart contracts, the volume decreases, which increases the pressure in the ventricle. This creates a gradient between the heart and the capillaries, and blood moves through blood vessels by bulk flow. The concept of diffusion is widely used in, physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, economics, however, in each case, the object that is undergoing diffusion is “spreading out” from a point or location at which there is a higher concentration of that object. In the phenomenological approach, diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration without bulk motion, according to Ficks laws, the diffusion flux is proportional to the negative gradient of concentrations. It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration, some time later, various generalizations of Ficks laws were developed in the frame of thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. From the atomistic point of view, diffusion is considered as a result of the walk of the diffusing particles. In molecular diffusion, the molecules are self-propelled by thermal energy. Random walk of small particles in suspension in a fluid was discovered in 1827 by Robert Brown, the theory of the Brownian motion and the atomistic backgrounds of diffusion were developed by Albert Einstein
Diffusion
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Diffusion furnaces used for
thermal oxidation
Diffusion
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A diffusion is a process in physics. Some particles are
dissolved in a glass of water. At first, the particles are all near one corner of the glass. If the particles all randomly move around ("diffuse") in the water, then the particles will eventually become distributed randomly and uniformly, and organized (but diffusion will still continue to occur, just that there will be no net
flux).
27.
Osmosis
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It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves across a semipermeable membrane separating two solutions of different concentrations. Osmosis can be made to do work, osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure is a property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute. Osmosis is a process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size, water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins. Osmosis provides the means by which water is transported into. The turgor pressure of a cell is maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment. Jean-Antoine Nollet first documented observation of osmosis in 1748, the word osmosis descends from the words endosmose and exosmose, which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet from the Greek words ἔνδον, ἔξω, and ὠσμός. Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a membrane toward a higher concentration of solute. In biological systems, the solvent is water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids. When a cell is submerged in water, the water pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell, when the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane, the mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute or by a solutes attraction to water. Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted, the diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water. The bound water model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property—or how hydrophilic they are, one fact to take note of is that heat from the surroundings is able to be converted into mechanical energy. Osmotic pressure is the cause of support in many plants. The osmotic entry of water raises the pressure exerted against the cell wall, until it equals the osmotic pressure
Osmosis
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The process of osmosis over a semi-permeable membrane, the blue dots represent particles driving the osmotic gradient
28.
Denaturation (biochemistry)
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If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Protein denaturation is also a consequence of cell death, denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from conformational change and loss of solubility to aggregation due to the exposure of hydrophobic groups. Protein folding is key to whether a protein or a membrane protein can do its job correctly. It must be folded into the shape to function. This is one reason why tight homeostasis is physiologically necessary in life forms. This concept is unrelated to denatured alcohol, which is alcohol that has mixed with additives to make it unsuitable for human consumption. When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured and this is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm. A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid. Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming a solid mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical, pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites translucent and solid. The skin that forms on curdled milk is another example of denatured protein. The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by cooking raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade. Denatured proteins can exhibit a range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to protein aggregation. The newly created protein strand then undergoes posttranslational modification, in which additional atoms or molecules are added, for copper, zinc. The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment, when a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the amino acids are left intact. Since all structural levels of the protein determine its function, the protein can no longer perform its function once it has been denatured and this is in contrast to intrinsically unstructured proteins, which are unfolded in their native state, but still functionally active. In quaternary structure denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted, in secondary structure denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets, and adopt a random coil configuration. Primary structure, such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent peptide bonds, is not disrupted by denaturation, most biological substrates lose their biological function when denatured
Denaturation (biochemistry)
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(Top) The protein
albumin in the egg white undergoes denaturation and loss of solubility when the egg is cooked. (Bottom) Paperclips provide a visual analogy to help with the conceptualization of the denaturation process.
29.
Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
Protein
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Proteins in different
cellular compartments and structures tagged with
green fluorescent protein (here, white)
Protein
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A representation of the 3D structure of the protein
myoglobin showing turquoise
alpha helices. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by
X-ray crystallography. Towards the right-center among the coils, a
prosthetic group called a
heme group (shown in gray) with a bound oxygen molecule (red).
Protein
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Constituent amino-acids can be analyzed to predict secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure, in this case hemoglobin containing
heme units
Protein
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John Kendrew with model of myoglobin in progress
30.
Salted fish
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Salted fish, such as kippered herring or dried and salted cod, is fish cured with dry salt and thus preserved for later eating. Drying or salting, either dry salt or with brine, was the only widely available method of preserving fish until the 19th century. Dried fish and salted fish are a staple of diets in the Caribbean, North Africa, Southeast Asia, Southern China, Scandinavia, coastal Russia, like other salt-cured meats, it provides preserved animal protein even in the absence of electrically powered refrigeration. Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt and it is related to pickling, and is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Salt inhibits the growth of microorganisms by drawing out of microbial cells through osmosis. Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required to kill most species of unwanted bacteria, smoking, often used in the process of curing meat, adds chemicals to the surface of meat that reduce the concentration of salt required. Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a highly salty environment. Any living cell in such an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis, the water activity, aw, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish, available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the water or remove it by reducing the aw. Traditionally, techniques such as drying, salting and smoking have been used, in more recent times, freeze-drying, water binding humectants, and fully automated equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of techniques is used
Salted fish
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Reconstruction of the Roman fish-salting plant at
Neapolis
Salted fish
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Various salted fishes sold in a marketplace in a suburb of
Jakarta,
Indonesia
Salted fish
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Platforms, called
fish flakes, where cod dry in the sun before being packed in salt
Salted fish
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Remains of Roman fish-salting plant at
Neapolis
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. PMID 12732572. doi:10.1128/aem.69.5.2959-2963.2003.
