1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
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Saratoga Springs, New York
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Saratoga Springs is a city in Saratoga County, New York, United States. The population was 26,586 at the 2010 census, the name reflects the presence of mineral springs in the area, which has made Saratoga a popular resort destination for over 200 years. The city is just north of Albany, in the heart of New Yorks Capital Region, Saratoga Springs was ranked tenth in the list of the top 10 places to live in New York State for 2014 according to the national online real estate brokerage Movoto. The picturesque area was occupied by the Algonquian-speaking Mahican Indians before they were pushed out by European settlement and they eventually moved east and became allied with other remnant peoples and became known as the Stockbridge Indians, as they settled near Stockbridge, Massachusetts. The British built Fort Saratoga in 1691 on the west bank of the Hudson River, the current village of Schuylerville was settled about a mile south by British colonists shortly after the fort, it was known as Saratoga until 1831. In 1767, William Johnson, a British soldier who was a hero of the French and they treated his war wounds, as the spring was thought to have medicinal properties. Now known as High Rock Spring, it may still be visited today, in 1756 Johnson had been appointed British Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the Northeast region due to his success in building alliances with the Mohawk and other Iroquois tribes. He had learned the language, and created many trading relationships and he achieved great wealth from trading and landholdings, and was knighted for his service to the Crown with the Iroquois. The first permanent European-American settler built a dwelling about 1776, the springs attracted tourists, and Gideon Putnam built the first hotel for travelers. Putnam also laid out the roads and donated land for use as public spaces, the Battle of Saratoga, the turning point of the Revolutionary War, did not take place in Saratoga Springs. Rather, the battlefield is 15 miles to the southeast in the Town of Stillwater, a museum dedicated to the two battles is located on the fields where the battles were fought. The British encampment before the surrender at Saratoga took place 10 miles east of the city, in Schuylerville, the surrender of the sword of battle took place where Fort Saratoga had been, south of Schuylerville. Saratoga Springs was established as a settlement in 1819 from a portion of the Town of Saratoga. Its principal community was incorporated as a village in 1826 and the region became a city in 1915. Tourism was greatly aided after 1832 by the arrival of the Saratoga and Schenectady Railroad, Resort hotels developed to accommodate them. In the 19th century, the noted doctor Simon Baruch encouraged developing European-style spas in the United States as centers for health. With its wealth of waters, Saratoga Springs was developed as a spa, generating the development of many large hotels, including the United States Hotel. The latter was, in its day, the largest hotel in the world, in 1863, Saratoga Race Course opened, moving to its current location the following year
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New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Richard Upjohn
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Richard Upjohn was a British-born American architect who emigrated to the United States and became most famous for his Gothic Revival churches. He was partially responsible for launching the movement to such popularity in the United States, Upjohn also did extensive work in and helped to popularize the Italianate style. He was a founder and the first president of the American Institute of Architects and his son, Richard Mitchell Upjohn, was also a well-known architect and served as a partner in his continued architectural firm in New York. Richard Upjohn was born in Shaftesbury, England, where he was apprenticed to a builder and cabinet-maker and he and his family emigrated to the United States in 1829. They initially settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts and then moved on to Boston in 1833 and he became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1836. His first major project was for the entrances to the Boston Common and he had relocated to New York City by 1839 where he worked on alterations to the famed Trinity Church on Wall Street in lower Manhattan. The alterations were later abandoned and he was commissioned to design a new church, completed in 1846 and he published his extremely influential book, Upjohns rural architecture, Designs, working drawings and specifications for a wooden church, and other rural structures, in 1852. The designs in this publication were widely used across the country by builders, Upjohn, along with 13 other architects, co-founded the American Institute of Architects on February 23,1857. He served as president of organization from 1857 to 1876, being succeeded by Thomas Ustick Walter. He went on the many buildings in a variety of styles. He died at his home in Garrison, New York in 1878. C and he died on 16 August 1878 in Putnam County, New York of softening of the brain. Some of Upjohns notable projects include, William Rotch, Jr, marks Episcopal Church in Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania, Christ Church Episcopal in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, St. Thomas Episcopal Church in New York City, St. Stevens Hall in Hoboken, New Jersey, St. Marks Cathedral in Salt Lake City, Utah, Trinity Church in Princeton, New Jersey, agnes-by-the-Lake in Algoma, Wisconsin, Trinity Episcopal Church in Litchfield, Minnesota, Connecticut State Capitol building in Hartford, Connecticut, St
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Victorian architecture
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Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria, called the Victorian era, however, many elements of what is typically termed Victorian architecture did not become popular until later in Victorias reign. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east, the name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, during the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. Paxton also continued to build houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity new methods of construction were developed, other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen. Victorian architecture usually has many intricate window frames inspired by the famous architect Elliot Rae, some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England, thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield, the Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the state of Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated, The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, during the British colonial period of British Ceylon, Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology and the Galle Face Hotel. In the United States, Victorian architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900, a list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire, Stick-Eastlake, Folk Victorian, Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, and Shingle. As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period, some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick, on the other hand, terms such as Painted Ladies or gingerbread may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles varied between countries, many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another. San Francisco is well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, particularly in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, the extent to which any one is the largest surviving example is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America, cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale, in the USA, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky also claims to be the nations largest Victorian neighborhood, richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan
9.
Saratoga Race Course
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Saratoga Race Course is a thoroughbred horse racing track in Saratoga Springs, New York, United States, with a capacity of 50,000. Opened in 1863, it is the fourth oldest racetrack in the US, Saratoga Springs was the site of standardbred racing as early as 1847. On August 3,1863, casino operator and future congressman John Morrissey organized the first thoroughbred race card on the previously used for harness racing. The current course was opened across the street from the old standardbred track the following year, among those instrumental to the creation of the Saratoga Race Course were John Hunter, William R. Travers, John Morrissey, and Cornelius Vanderbilt. The Saratoga meet originally lasted four days. The meet has been lengthened gradually since that time, for many decades, the meet today lasts a total of 40 racing days, with races held six days per week, and traditionally ends on Labor Day. Saratoga Race Course has been in use almost every year since 1864, the course was closed in 1896 due to increasing competition among thoroughbred tracks, making the meet at Saratoga not viable that season. Anti-gambling legislation, which had passed in New York, resulted in a cessation in all thoroughbred racing in that state during 1911 and 1912, the tracks first parimutuel betting machines were installed in 1940. From 1943 to 1945, racing was curtailed at Saratoga due to restrictions during World War II. During those years, the stakes races held at Saratoga Race Course were instead contested at Belmont Park. The late 1800s were a period of decline for the Race Course, in 1892 it was purchased by notorious gambler Gottfried Dutch Fred Waldbaum, the operator of the notorious Guttenberg racetrack in North Bergen, New Jersey. Finally it was purchased in 1901 by a group of investors led by William Collins Whitney, in the 1960s, the grandstand was extended, doubling the tracks seating capacity. In 1999, Saratoga Race Course was rated as Sports Illustrateds #10 sports venue of the 20th Century, Saratoga Race Course has several nicknames, The Spa, the House of Upsets, and the Graveyard of Champions. Steeplechase races are run at Saratoga Race Course and take place on the inner turf course. The Oklahoma Training Track, which is across Union Avenue from the course, is used for warmups. The Oklahoma Training Track site was the location of the used for racing at the inaugural meet in 1863. On August 3,2013, the new Whitney Viewing Stand opened at the Oklahoma Track and it allows public viewing of workouts at the track, replicating a former stand from the 19th century. A former distinctive feature of Saratoga Race Courses dirt track was the Wilson Mile chute, which branched off from the clubhouse turn at a 90-degree angle
10.
Contributing property
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Government agencies, at the state, national, and local level in the United States, have differing definitions of what constitutes a contributing property but there are common characteristics. Local laws often regulate the changes that can be made to contributing structures within designated historic districts, the first local ordinances dealing with the alteration of buildings within historic districts was in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931. Properties within a district fall into one of two types of property, contributing and non-contributing. A contributing property, such as a 19th Century mansion, helps make a historic district historic, while a non-contributing property, such as a medical clinic. The contributing properties are key to a districts historic associations, historic architectural qualities. A property can change from contributing to non-contributing and vice versa if significant alterations take place, the ordinance declared that buildings in the district could not have changes made to their architectural features visible from the street. By the mid-1930s, other U. S. cities followed Charlestons lead, an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution led to the 1937 creation of the Vieux Carre Commission, which was charged with protecting and preserving the French Quarter in the city of New Orleans. The city then passed an ordinance that set standards regulating changes within the quarter. Other sources, such as the Columbia Law Review in 1963, the Columbia Law Review gave dates of 1925 for the New Orleans laws and 1924 for Charleston. The same publication claimed that two cities were the only cities with historic district zoning until Alexandria, Virginia adopted an ordinance in 1946. The National Park Service appears to refute this, in 1939, the city of San Antonio, Texas, enacted an ordinance that protected the area of La Villita, which was the citys original Mexican village marketplace. In 1941 the authority of local controls on buildings within historic districts was being challenged in court. In City of New Orleans vs Pergament Louisiana state appellate courts ruled that the design, beginning in the mid-1950s, controls that once applied to only historic districts were extended to individual landmark structures. The United States Congress adopted legislation that declared the Georgetown neighborhood in Washington, by 1965,51 American communities had adopted preservation ordinances. By 1998, more than 2,300 U. S. towns, contributing properties are defined through historic district or historic preservation zoning laws, usually at the local level. Zoning ordinances pertaining to historic districts are designed to maintain a historic character by controlling demolition and alteration to existing properties. It can be any property, structure or object that adds to the integrity or architectural qualities that make the historic district, either local or federal. Definitions vary but, in general, they maintain the same characteristics, another key aspect of a contributing property is historic integrity
11.
Canfield Casino and Congress Park
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Canfield Casino and Congress Park is a 17-acre site in Saratoga Springs, New York, United States. At the peak of its popularity it was a place where the wealthy, the parks artwork includes a statue by Daniel Chester French and a landscape design by Frederick Law Olmsted, among others. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987 after having originally been submitted and listed as the Casino-Congress Park-Circular Street Historic District in 1972, the later listing excluded some of the property outside the park and halved the overall size of the district. Congress Park is currently operated by the City of Saratoga Springs as a park, bounded by Broadway, Spring Street, the Canfield Casino building, built in 1870, houses the Saratoga Springs History Museum. Gambling was ended by reformers in 1907, the district boundaries are curved and irregular, generally following those of the park itself. It is bordered by Spring Street on the north and Circular Street, the original historic district included some houses on Circular and Spring streets and Whitney Place. Their removal from it made the district about 16 acres smaller A short, narrow street, named East Congress Street, there are parking spaces along both sides. Stone walls set off the park from the nearby street, the section north of the road is dominated by the casino and parkland around it, the section to the south is primarily hilly parkland. This area is a buffer between the commercial areas at the south end of downtown Saratoga Springs, and the residential neighborhoods on the east and west. Many of the areas are also included in the citys other historic districts. The Broadway Historic District is just to the north, with the East and West Side districts on either side, union Avenue is also a historic district out to the racetrack. The two major resources on the property are the casino and the park. The former is the surviving building from the resort era. The casinos main block is a three-story building faced in brick on an exposed basement and it is topped by a flat roof, bordered by an ornate bracketed cornice. On the south facade the brick around the doorway and at the corners is laid to look like rusticated stone, a belt course divides the first two floors. All three stories have sandstone window trim with a different treatment — segmented pediments on the first, triangular ones on the second, a free-standing segmental pediment distinguishes the roofline on the front center as well. The east wing, used for gambling when the casino was constructed, is a two-story, three-by-five-bay structure with front windows one and it has a similar window treatment to the first story of the main block, and a more elaborate cornice, also with central segmented pediment. To the north is the room and kitchen wing, a 93-by-58-foot steel frame brick structure
12.
Greenfield, New York
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Greenfield is a town in Saratoga County, New York, United States. The population was 7,362 at the 2000 census, the town is named after Greenfield, New Hampshire. The Town of Greenfield is an interior town, the town is northwest of Saratoga Springs, which it borders. The town sends students to Saratoga Springs City School District, the town was settled first around 1786. The town was formed in 1793 from parts of the Towns of Saratoga, the size was reduced in 1794 by contributions of part of its territory to newer towns, Day, Corinth, and Hadley. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 67.7 square miles. Greenfield is the largest town in the county, based on area, route 9N, a north-south highway, passes through east part of the town. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,362 people,2,761 households, the population density was 109.2 people per square mile. There were 3,222 housing units at a density of 47.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 45% White,0. 65% African American,0. 14% Native American,0. 34% Asian,0. 22% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 13% of the population. 20. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.05. In the town, the population was out with 27. 2% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,32. 4% from 25 to 44,23. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 100.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.4 males, the median income for a household in the town was $44,784, and the median income for a family was $48,299. Males had an income of $35,112 versus $27,127 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,014, about 4. 3% of families and 6. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8. 5% of those under age 18 and 3. 4% of those age 65 or over. Chatfield Corner – A hamlet in the southwest part of the town on County Road 12, frink Corner – A location on the south town line, southwest of Middle Grove. Greenfield – A hamlet in the part of the town on County Road 19
13.
Skidmore College
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Skidmore College is a private, independent liberal arts college in Saratoga Springs, New York. Approximately 2,500 students are enrolled at Skidmore pursuing a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science degree in one of more than 60 areas of study, Skidmore College has undergone many transformations since its founding in the early twentieth century as a womens college. In 1911, the club was chartered under the name Skidmore School of Arts as a college to vocationally and professionally train young women. Charles Henry Keyes became the first president of the school in 1912, by 1922 the school had been chartered independently as a four-year, degree-granting college. Skidmore College was first located in downtown Saratoga Springs, but on October 28,1961, the Jonsson Campus was named for the Skidmore trustee Erik Jonsson, the founder and president of Texas Instruments and a former mayor of Dallas, Texas. The first new buildings on the campus opened in 1966, and by 1973, the old campus was sold to Verazzano College, a new institution that did not prove successful, and its buildings have since been put to other uses. In 1971, the college began admitting men to its undergraduate program. Skidmore also launched a program called the University Without Walls, which allows nonresident students over the age of 25 to earn bachelors degrees, the program closed in May,2011. Finally, Skidmore established a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, Skidmore faculty formed the Collaborative Research Program in 1988, which provides students with opportunities to co-author papers and studies with professors. Skidmore began granting degrees in 1991 through its Master of Arts in Liberal Studies program. The Skidmore Honors Forum was founded in 1998, in 2003, Philip A. Glotzbach became the Colleges seventh president. He has since remained in this role, after his presidency was announced, to welcome him to Skidmore, students rallied and drummed up support for his presidency by writing slogans in chalk on sidewalks around the campus. 2006 marked the start of the largest campaign in Skidmores history, the goal was to raise $200 million, which was reached and surpassed in 2010, and celebrated at Celebration Weekend. Nearly all departments offer only a B. A, a B. S. is given to those students majoring in Art, Dance, Dance-Theater, Education, Exercise Science, Business, Social Work, and Theater. The distinction rests in the number of hours of non-liberal arts courses allowed toward the 120 credit hours needed for graduation,60 for a B. S. and 30 for a B. A. These non-liberal arts-designated courses are considered by the college to be of a professional nature, the number enrolling was 724 in 2014, the yield rate was 22. 4%. The mean ACT Composite score was 28, the middle 50% range was 25-30, most of the buildings on Skidmores 850-acre campus were constructed after 1960. The Frances Young Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery is the main arts facility
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U.S. Route 9 in New York
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U. S. Route 9 is a part of the U. S. Highway System that runs from Laurel, Delaware, to Champlain, New York. In New York, US9 extends 324.72 miles from the George Washington Bridge in Manhattan to an interchange with Interstate 87 just south of the Canada–United States border in the town of Champlain. US9 is the longest north–south U. S. Highway in New York, additionally, the highways passage through the state offers a diverse sample of New York to a traveler, passing through busy urban neighborhoods, suburban strips and forested wilderness. It is Broadway in Upper Manhattan, the Bronx and much of Westchester County and it uses parts of the old Albany Post Road in the Hudson Valley, where it passes the historic homes of a U. S. President and Gilded Age heir. It passes the center of New York political power in downtown Albany, and it penetrates into the deep recesses of the Adirondack Park and runs along the shore of Lake Champlain, where it is part of the All-American Road known as the Lakes to Locks Passage. US9 spawns more letter-suffixed state highways than any other route in New York, including the longest, outside of the cities it passes through, it is a mostly a two-lane road, save for two expressway segments in the mid-Hudson region. For much of its southern half it follows the Hudson River closely, in the north it tracks I-87, New York State Bicycle Route 9 follows the US9 corridor, diverging from the route in areas not conducive to bicycling. For example, Bicycle Route 9 follows US 9W in northern New Jersey and Rockland County, crosses the Bear Mountain Bridge, US9 enters New York as part of an expressway, soon becoming a surface street and major urban and suburban artery. Outside of the portions, it is mostly a two- or four-lane road save for a lengthy four-lane strip that leads into one of the expressways. It runs near the more frequently in the southern areas. The concurrency between US1 and US9 that began in New Jersey ends at the first exit from I-95 on the George Washington Bridge, Broadway passes through the Washington Heights neighborhood and then into Inwood, the northernmost neighborhood on the island. The region in which US9 passes through has a large Latino immigrant population, the northernmost section of the New York City Subways underground IND Eighth Avenue Line runs along Broadway between Dyckman Street and the Inwood–207th Street terminal. On the corner of 204th Street is the Dyckman House, the original farmhouse left in Manhattan. Near the islands northern tip, at the intersection with 215th Street, the Marble Hill Metro-North station here is the first of several along Route 9. At or just south of 230th Street,9, still Broadway and it draws alongside I-87, here the Major Deegan Expressway, the first of many encounters between the two roads on their northward course. At the 242nd Street station, the ends and Broadway runs along the west side of Van Cortlandt Park. The Henry Hudson Parkway interchange a mile up this stretch adds NY 9A to 9, the northwestern corner of the park marks the city limit and 9 enters Yonkers, where it is now known as South Broadway. It trends closer to the Hudson River, remaining a busy commercial street
15.
New York State Route 50
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New York State Route 50 is a 31. 67-mile state highway in the Capital District of New York in the United States. The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY5 in Scotia and its northern terminus is at a junction with NY32 in the Saratoga County hamlet of Gansevoort. All but 1.85 miles of NY50 is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation, NY50 begins at an intersection with NY5 in the village of Scotia in the town of Glenville, just a couple blocks north of the Mohawk River. NY50 winds northeastward through Scotia on North Ballston Avenue, crossing past Collins Lake on a residential street. Near the Cambridge Manor in Scotia, NY50 crosses under the Hudson Subdivision, just north of the crossing, the route leaves Scotia and changes names to Ballston Road. At the junction with Swaggertown Road, NY50 winds northeast into a junction with Freemans Bridge Road in front of Schenectady County Airport, after passing the airport, NY50 continues northeast through Glenville, now with the Saratoga Road moniker. As the route enters the hamlet of Stoodley Corners, it turns northward, after a junction with High Mills Road, NY50 crosses the line from Schenectady County to Saratoga County. Now in the town of Ballston, NY50 retains the Saratoga Road moniker, in the center of Burnt Hills, NY50 intersects with CR58 and CR339, which once served as the western terminus of NY339. Continuing northeast out of Burnt Hills, NY50 crosses a junction with CR110, at a junction with Larkin Road, NY50 turns northward, reaching a junction with the northern terminus of NY 146A. Continuing northwest through Ballston, the remains a two-lane residential roadway. NY50 winds northward through Ballston, crossing the Mourning Kill, the route winds northeast, reaching a junction with NY67. At this junction, NY50 and NY67 become concurrent, dropping the Saratoga Road moniker, now entering a developed section of the town of Ballston, NY50 and NY67 crosses into the village of Ballston Spa, located in both the towns of Ballston and Milton. At the center of the village, NY67 turns west away from NY50 along West High Street, a short distance later, the route forks to the northwest off Milton Avenue, changing names to Doubleday Avenue, exiting the village. NY50 crosses northeast through Milton as Doubleday Avenue, crossing a junction with CR64, just north of this junction, the route crosses into the city of Saratoga Springs, changing names to Ballston Avenue. Passing Saratoga Spa State Park, NY50 parallels a line before crossing over it within the park. At this point, NY50 becomes a four-lane boulevard next to the Saratoga Spa State Park, crossing multiple at-grade junctions, returning to its two-lane alignment, NY50 winds northeast through Saratoga Springs, entering downtown as Ballston Avenue. Through the area south of downtown, the route is a commercial street. Now in the center of Saratoga Springs, US9 and NY50 become concurrent, proceeding north into the core of downtown as Broadway past Congress Park, a block north of the junction, US9 and NY50 junction with NY29
16.
New York State Route 9P
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New York State Route 9P is a state highway in central Saratoga County, New York, in the United States. It is a route off U. S. Route 9 between Malta and Saratoga Springs that connects US9 to the eastern shore of Saratoga Lake. NY 9P meets NY423 in the town of Stillwater and Interstate 87 in Saratoga Springs, in its final mile, NY 9P serves the Saratoga Race Course. NY 9P begins at an intersection with US9 in Malta, NY 9P proceeds eastward from US9 as a two-lane residential street through Malta, passing the Bass Manor Museum. The route bends northeastward and soon southward along the shore of Saratoga Lake, at Saratoga Lake, NY 9P intersects with CR108 before heading southeast and away from the shore. As the route makes a bend to the north, CR76 intersects near the Saratoga Lake Golf Course, at this point, NY 9P becomes a lakeside highway on the eastern side of the lake, passing a long stretch of residences and an intersection with NY423. After NY423, NY 9P bends northeastward alongside the lake, now in the town of Stillwater, north of the hamlet of Maple Shade, NY 9P intersects with the western terminus of CR71. From this point to Circular Street, NY 9P is named Union Avenue, past the lake, NY 9P enters the city of Saratoga Springs, where it intersects the terminus of CR22 and CR66. NY 9P turns to the northwest, passing the Saratoga National Golf Club before the terminus of CR65, turning westward, NY 9P enters interchange 14 with the Adirondack Northway and passing Yaddo Gardens. After the gardens, the passes the Saratoga Race Course. Union Avenue terminates at Circular Street, which abuts the border of Congress Park. From here, NY 9P continues north on Circular Street before turning west on Spring Street a short distance after, the route continues along the north side of Congress Park for three blocks before ending at an intersection with US9 and NY50. An alternate route of U. S. Route 9 between Malta and Saratoga Springs by way of the shore of Saratoga Lake was originally assigned NY 9X c. 1931. In December 1934, a route of US9 in New York City was designated as U. S. Route 9X. The alphanumerical duplication between the two routes was eliminated in April 1935 when NY 9X was redesignated as NY 9P, the entire route is in Saratoga County. New York Roads portal New York State Route 9P at New York Routes • New York State Highway Termini
17.
New York State Route 29
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New York State Route 29 is a state highway extending for 94.79 miles across the eastern portion of the U. S. state of New York. The western terminus of the route is at NY28 and NY169 in Middleville, the eastern terminus of the route is at NY22 just south of Salem, Washington County. NY29 also serves the cities of Johnstown and Saratoga Springs and intersects four major north–south roadways, NY10, NY30, U. S. Route 9, and U. S. Route 4. When the NY29 designation was created in the 1920s, the route extended from Barneveld in the west to Salem in the east, the Trenton-Middleville segment became part of an extended NY28 in 1930. Since that time, the route has remained unchanged, excluding minor realignments in Fulton County. NY29 begins at an intersection with NY28 and NY169 in Middleville, a small village situated on West Canada Creek in western Herkimer County. The route heads east, passing out of the village and into the towns of Fairfield and Salisbury, past NY 170A, as well as the hamlet of Salisbury centered around the junction, NY29 continues to Salisbury Center. In the center of the community, NY 29A, an alternate to NY29, splits off. NY29, however, curves south, paralleling Spruce Creek to the village of Dolgeville, within the village, NY29 meets NY167 prior to crossing over the East Canada Creek and leaving Dolgeville. Once in Fulton County, NY29 turns southeast as it heads through Oppenheim, farther east, NY29 begins to turn to the east as it passes into Ephratah. Just across the line, NY29 intersects NY 10A. NY29 continues on, passing north of the Cork Center Reservoir, at Green Street, NY29 bears right on William Street, then joins with NY67 at East Main Street. After crossing downtown, the ends with NY67 following East State Street toward Amsterdam. NY29 then reaches Comrie Avenue, turning left to join with NY 30A briefly to an intersection with Briggs Street and this portion of the street is generally wider than that of the city-maintained portion. Several businesses are accessed on both sides, as well as an entrance to the nearby Johnstown Arterial Plaza. The Jansen Avenue Elementary School playground is also along this route, East of Johnstown, NY29 heads northeast, intersecting Steele Avenue Extension just west of the Mayfield town line. NY29 continues into Mayfield, meeting both the current eastern terminus of NY 29A and NY30 in the vicinity of the hamlet of Vail Mills, past Mayfield, NY29 passes through both the village and town of Broadalbin before crossing into Saratoga County. For its first few miles in Saratoga County, NY29 roughly parallels the Galway-Providence town line as it heads eastward through a rural area of the county
18.
New York State Route 9N
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New York State Route 9N is a north–south state highway in northeastern New York in the United States. It extends from an intersection with U. S. Route 9, NY29, at 143.49 miles in total length, NY 9N is the longest letter-suffixed route in the state. It is concurrent with its parent route for 1 mile in the village of Lake George, much of NY 9N runs alongside either a river or a lake. The other portions of NY 9N pass through rural and mountainous regions of the Adirondack Mountains. NY 9N was extended southward to Lake George in March 1936 and to Saratoga Springs in the early 1950s, NY 9N is the longest suffixed route in the state, extending for 143.5 miles from Saratoga Springs to Keeseville. The route stretches through four counties—Saratoga, Warren, Essex and Clinton—and serves several villages and hamlets, including Lake George, Ticonderoga and it overlaps its parent route, US9, in Lake George and Elizabethtown and meets Interstate 87 four times. NY 9N begins at the intersection of Church Street, Broadway, situated on the northwestern corner of the junction is the citys post office. The route heads west, following Church Street out of the citys center, at Bensonhurst Avenue, ownership and maintenance of NY 9N shifts from the city of Saratoga Springs to the New York State Department of Transportation. As NY 9N exits the city limits and enters the town of Greenfield and it meets County Route 21 just north of the town line, where the Church Street name ends, and CR362.5 miles to the north in the hamlet of Greenfield Center. The route continues on into the town of Corinth, where it crosses the Blue Line into Adirondack Park, not far to the north, NY 9N enters the village of Corinth, situated on the west bank of the Hudson River. The highway follows Saratoga Avenue and Maple Streets into the village center, NY 9N follows the western edge of the river north for roughly 4 miles through the towns of Corinth and Hadley before crossing over it and passing from Saratoga County to Warren County. Just northeast of Lake Vanare, NY 9N enters the town of Lake George, here, it joins its parent route northward toward the village of Lake George. The conjoined routes intersect the northern end of NY 9L just south of the line before becoming Canada Street. US9 and NY 9N serve as the primary thoroughfare through the village before splitting at the north end of the village. While US9 continues to the north, NY 9N heads northeast along the edge of Lake George. The portion of NY 9N between Lake George village and Hague is relatively isolated, with mountains lining the edge of the highway. Along this stretch, NY 9N serves numerous lakeside hamlets, the southernmost of which is Diamond Point, a community just south of the Lake George–Bolton town line. The route continues on, passing through the hamlets of Bolton and Bolton Landing, the latter of which is home to The Sagamore, a resort situated on an island in Lake George
19.
City block
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A city block, urban block or simply block is a central element of urban planning and urban design. A city block is the smallest area that is surrounded by streets, City blocks are the space for buildings within the street pattern of a city, and form the basic unit of a citys urban fabric. City blocks may be subdivided into any number of land lots usually in private ownership, though in some cases. City blocks are usually built-up to varying degrees and thus form the physical containers or streetwalls of public space, most cities are composed of a greater or lesser variety of sizes and shapes of urban block. This arrangement is intended to provide social interaction among people. Since the spacing of streets in grid plans varies so widely among cities, or even within cities, it is difficult to generalize about the size of a city block. However, as points, the standard square blocks of Portland, Houston, and Sacramento are 264 by 264 feet,330 by 330 feet. Oblong blocks range considerably in width and length, the standard block in Manhattan is about 264 by 900 feet, and in some U. S. cities standard blocks are as wide as 660 feet. The blocks in Edmonton, Canada are 330 by 560 feet, the blocks in central Melbourne, Australia, are 330 by 660 feet, formed by splitting the square blocks in an original grid with a narrow street down the middle. Many world cities have grown by accretion over time rather than being planned from the outset, for this reason, a regular pattern of even, square or rectangular city blocks is not so common among European cities, for example. An exception is represented by those cities that were founded as Roman military settlements, one notable example is Turin, Italy. Following the example of Philadelphia, New York City adopted the Commissioners Plan of 1811 for an extensive grid plan. In much of the United States and Canada, the addressing systems follow a block and lot number system, the concept of city block can be generalized as a superblock or sub-block. Superblocks were popular during the early and mid-20th century, arising from modernist ideas in architecture, planning in this era was based upon the distance and speed scales for the automobile and discounted the pedestrian and cyclist modes, as obsolete transportation vehicles. Superblocks are often found in suburbs or planned cities, or are the result of urban renewal of the mid-20th century, in a residential area of a suburb, the interior of the superblock is typically served by dead-ended or looped streets. In this way, superblocks cut up the city into isolated units, expanded automobile dominance, superblocks can also be found in central city areas, where they are more often associated with institutional, educational, recreational and corporate rather than residential uses. The traditional urban block diffused automobile traffic onto several narrower roads at slower speeds and this more finely connected network of narrower roads better allowed the pedestrian and cyclist realms to flourish. The superblock, at the only suitable for automobiles
20.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
21.
Isaac Jogues
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St. Isaac Jogues, S. J. was a Jesuit priest, missionary and martyr who traveled and worked among the Iroquois, Huron, and other Native populations in North America. He was the first European to name Lake George, calling it Lac du Saint Sacrement, in 1646, Jogues was martyred by the Mohawk at their village of Ossernenon, south of the Mohawk River. A shrine was built in their honor at Auriesville, New York and their feast day is celebrated on September 26 in Canada, and on October 19 in the United States of America. Isaac Jogues was born on January 10,1607, in Orléans, France, into a bourgeois family and he was educated at home until the age of ten, at which point he began attending Jesuit schools. In 1624, at the age of seventeen, he entered the Jesuit novitiate at Rouen in Northern France, here, his Master of Novices was Louis Lallemant. The master, Louis Lallement, already had two brothers and a serving as missionaries in the colony of New France. Jogues professed simple vows in 1626, and went to study philosophy at the college of La Flèche. In 1629, he went to teach humanities to young boys in Rouen, the Jesuit community had a strong missionary spirit, beginning in 1625 with their first mission to New France, its teachers included missionary pioneers, Énemond Massé, and later, Jean de Brébeuf. These Jesuit missionaries inspired Jogues, and he aspired to follow in their footsteps, in 1633, Jogues was sent to the Collège de Clermont in Paris to pursue his studies in Theology. By 1636, he was ordained as a priest at Clermont, Jogues was inspired by the missionaries that had returned to France in 1636, Father Brebeuf, Father Charles Lalement and Father Masse to venture to New France. These missionaries told Jogues of their hardships, treacheries and tortures which ordinarily awaited them by the native population and their accounts however, increased Jogues desire to “devote himself to labor there for the conversion and welfare of the natives”. Soon after Jogues was ordained a priest in January 1636, he accepted service in the missions, Jogues was assigned as a missionary to the Huron and Algonquian peoples, both were allies of the French in Quebec. Jogues sailed from France on 8 April 1636, and eight weeks later his ship dropped anchor in the Baie des Chaleurs, Jogues arrived in Quebec only several weeks later on 2 July. Jogues joined Jean de Brebeuf, the Superior of the Jesuit Mission, at their settlement on Lake Huron, upon his arrival, Jogues was stricken by fever. Soon thereafter, an epidemic broke out among other Jesuits. Due to recurring epidemics, the Huron’s blamed the Black Coats, as called the Jesuits. And at last it is understood from our whole conduct that we have not come to buy skins or to carry on any traffic, but solely to teach them, and to procure them their souls’ health. ”For years, Jogues lived in the village of St. Joseph and learned the ways and language of the Hurons. The missionaries “accommodated themselves to the customs and food of the savages” as much as possible to show the Indians that they intended to share their life, gradually, the native people began to accept Jogues
22.
European colonization of the Americas
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European colonization of the Americas began as early as the 10th–11th century, when West Norse sailors explored and briefly settled limited areas on the shores of present-day Canada. These Norsemen were Vikings who had discovered and settled Greenland, then sailed up the Arctic region of North America alongside Greenland, according to Icelandic Sagas, violent conflicts with the indigenous population ultimately made the Norse abandon those settlements. Running aground on the part of Hispaniola on December 5,1492, which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century. European conquest, large-scale exploration, colonization and industrial development soon followed, Columbus first two voyages reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1497, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas, in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands, and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried colonizing the coasts of present-day Canada, the Age of Exploration was the beginning of territorial expansion for several European countries. Eventually, the entire Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to profound changes to its landscape, population. In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978, Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire, over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil. Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, in the 18th century, Denmark–Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark-Norway would later make claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s. As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates. He was followed by other such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal, amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, in 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and it was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves
23.
Mohawk people
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The Mohawk people are the most easterly tribe of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy. They are an Iroquoian-speaking indigenous people of North America, the Mohawk were historically based in the Mohawk Valley in present-day upstate New York west of the Hudson River, their territory ranged north to the St. As one of the five members of the Iroquois League. For hundreds of years, they guarded the Iroquois Confederation against invasion from that direction by tribes from the New England and their current major settlements include areas around Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River in Canada and New York. In the Mohawk language, the say that they are from Kanienkehá. The Mohawk became wealthy traders as other nations in their confederacy needed their flint for tool making and their Algonquian-speaking neighbors, the people of Muh-heck Haeek Ing, a name transliterated by the Dutch as Mohican or Mahican, referred to the People of Ka-nee-en Ka as Maw Unk Lin. The Dutch heard and wrote this term as Mohawk, and also referred to the Mohawk as Egil or Maqua, the French colonists adapted these latter terms as Aignier and Maqui, respectively. They also referred to the people by the generic Iroquois, a French derivation of the Algonquian term for the Five Nations, the Algonquians and Iroquois were traditional competitors and enemies. The Mohawk had extended their own influence into the St. Lawrence River Valley and they are believed to have defeated the St. Lawrence Iroquoians in the 16th century, and kept control of their territory. In addition to hunting and fishing, for centuries the Mohawk cultivated productive maize fields on the floodplains along the Mohawk River. The Dutch were primarily merchants and the French also conducted fur trading and their Jesuit missionaries were active among First Nations and Native Americans, seeking converts to Catholicism. In 1614, the Dutch opened a trading post at Fort Nassau, the Dutch initially traded for furs with the local Mahican, who occupied the territory along the Hudson River. European contact resulted in a smallpox epidemic among the Mohawk in 1635. For instance, Johannes Megapolensis, a Dutch minister, recorded the spelling of the three villages as Asserué, Banagiro, and Thenondiogo. While the Dutch later established settlements in present-day Schenectady and Schoharie, further west in the Mohawk Valley, Schenectady was established essentially as a farming settlement, where Dutch took over some of the former Mohawk maize fields in the floodplain along the river. Through trading, the Mohawk and Dutch became allies of a kind, during their alliance, the Mohawks allowed Dutch Protestant missionary Johannes Megapolensis to come into their tribe and teach the Christian message. He operated from the Fort Nassau area about six years, writing a record in 1644 of his observations of the Mohawk, their language, and their culture. While he noted their ritual of torture of captives, he recognized that their society had few other killings, especially compared to the Netherlands of that period
24.
Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet
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Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet was an Anglo-Irish official of the British Empire. Johnson learned the Mohawk language and Iroquois customs, and was appointed the British agent to the Iroquois, because of his success, he was appointed in 1756 as British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the northern colonies. Johnson commanded Iroquois and colonial forces during the French and Indian War. His role in the British victory at the Battle of Lake George in 1755 earned him a baronetcy, serving as the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the northern district from 1756 until his death in 1774, Johnson worked to keep American Indians attached to the British interest. His counterpart for the colonies was John Stuart. William Johnson was born around 1715 in County Meath, in the Kingdom of Ireland and he was the eldest son of Christopher Johnson of Smithstown, Co. Meath and Anne Warren, daughter of Michael Warren of Warrenstown, Meath and Catherine Aylmer, sister of Admiral Matthew Aylmer, 1st Baron Aylmer. His mother Anne was from an Old English Catholic gentry family who had, in previous generations, Christopher Johnson was descended from the ONeill of the Fews dynasty of County Armagh. William Johnsons paternal grandfather was known as William MacShane, but changed his surname to Johnson. Some early biographers portrayed William Johnson as living in poverty in Ireland, although the Johnson family had a history of Jacobitism, William Johnsons uncle Peter Warren was raised as a Protestant to enable him to pursue a career in the British Royal Navy. He achieved considerable success, gaining wealth along the way, as a Catholic, William Johnson had limited opportunities for advancement in the British Empire. Never particularly religious, Johnson converted to Protestantism when offered an opportunity to work for his uncle in British America, Peter Warren had purchased a large tract of undeveloped land along the south side of the Mohawk River in the province of New York. Warren convinced Johnson to lead an effort to establish a settlement there, to be known as Warrensburgh, Johnson arrived in about 1738 with twelve Irish Protestant families and began to clear the land. He purchased African slaves to do the labor of clearance. Warren intended Johnson to become involved in trading with American Indians, acting on his own initiative, in 1739 Johnson bought a house and small farm on the north side of the river, where he built a store and a sawmill. From this location, which he called Mount Johnson, Johnson was able to cut into Albanys Indian trade and he supplied traders with goods who were going to Fort Oswego, and he bought furs from them when they returned downriver. He dealt directly with New York City merchants and cut out the middlemen at Albany. The Albany merchants were irate, and Warren was not pleased that his nephew was becoming independent, Johnson became closely associated with the Mohawk, the easternmost nation of the Six Nations of the Iroquois League
25.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
26.
Capital District, New York
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The Capital District, also known as the Capital Region, refers to the metropolitan area surrounding Albany, the capital of the U. S. state of New York. With a population of 1,170,483, the Capital District is the fourth largest metropolitan region in the state, companies that have headquarters in Albany include CommerceHub and the Environment One Corporation. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. The Capital District was first settled by the Dutch in the early 17th century, Albany has been the permanent capital of the state of New York since 1797. The Capital District is notable for historical events that predate the independence of the United States, including the Albany Plan of Union. The term Capital District is commonly used to refer to the due to its location surrounding the state capital. This is similar to other districts throughout the world, all of which are associated with a respective capital city. Later, Schenectady was added to this district as well, the Capital District Recreation League, formed in 1816, proposed a Capital District Park to be roughly 8 miles from Albany, Cohoes, Rensselaer, Schenectady, Troy, and Watervliet. The location proposed was the area of the Shaker settlement, the park was never created, though in 1928 the location was used for Albany International Airport for the same reason of its central location to those suburbs. Capitaland, Metroland, and Tech Valley are nicknames sometimes used to refer to the Capital District, permanent European claims and settlement began in 1609 when Henry Hudson sailed north up the Hudson River in the name of the Dutch. During the same year, Samuel Champlain explored south down Lake Champlain, conflict soon ensued between the French and Dutch for control of the fur trade and both made alliances with different Native American tribes. In 1630, Kiliaen van Rensselaer founded the Manor of Rensselaerswyck, a Dutch patroonship in the area, in 1664 the English successfully conquered the Dutch while rivalry with the French continued. Through the Dongan Charter, Governor Thomas Dongan granted Albany the right to purchase 500 acres in Schaahtecogue and 1,000 acres at Tionnondoroge, arent van Curler founded Schenectady in 1662, Fort Saratoga was built at present-day Schuylerville in 1691, and Greenbush was settled in the 1620s. South of Albany, settlement occurred quickly at first, but slowed as growth on the frontier pushed people north and west of Albany and it was chartered as a city in 1785, becoming only the third city in the state. The French and Indian War saw several battles in the Capital District. In the end, the French were defeated, freeing the land for settlement to the west. During the American Revolution the area saw fighting and Fort Ticonderoga experienced notable action. The Battle of Saratoga, which place in the present-day town of Stillwater, is considered the turning point of the war
27.
Thoroughbred horse racing
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Thoroughbred horse racing is a worldwide sport and industry involving the racing of Thoroughbred horses. It is governed by different national bodies, there are two forms of the sport, Flat racing and jump racing, called National Hunt racing in the UK and steeplechasing in the US. Jump racing can be divided into hurdling and steeplechasing. Traditionally racehorses have been owned by wealthy individuals. It has become common in the last few decades for horses to be owned by syndicates or partnerships. 2008 Kentucky Derby winner Big Brown, owned by IEAH stables, historically, most race horses were bred and raced by their owners. Additionally, owners may acquire Thoroughbreds by claiming them out of a race, a horse runs in the unique colours of its owner. These colours must be registered under the governing bodies and no two owners may have the same colours. The rights to certain colour arrangements are valuable in the way that distinctive car registration numbers are of value. It is said that Sue Magnier paid £50,000 for her dark blue colours. If an owner has more than one running in the same race then some slight variant in colours is often used or the race club colours may be used. The typical cost of owning a horse in training for one year is in the order of £15,000 in the United Kingdom. The facilities available to trainers vary enormously, some trainers have only a few horses in the yard and pay to use other trainers gallops. Other trainers have every conceivable training asset and it is a feature of racing that a modest establishment often holds its own against the bigger players even in a top race. This is particularly true of national hunt racing, Racing is governed on an All-Ireland basis, with two bodies sharing organising responsibility. The Turf Club is the rulemaking and enforcement body, whilst Horse Racing Ireland governs, in 2013, Ireland exported more than 4,800 Thoroughbreds to 37 countries worldwide with a total value in excess of €205 million. This is double the amount of horses exported annually from the U. S, the Jockey Club in the UK has been released from its regulatory function but still performs various supporting roles. A significant part of the BHAs work relates to the disciplining of trainers and jockeys, disciplinary enquiries usually relate to the running of a horse, for example, failure to run a horse on its merits, interference with other runners, excessive use of the whip
28.
Historic preservation
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The term tends to refer specifically to the preservation of the built environment, and not to preservation of, for example, primeval forests or wilderness. In England, antiquarian interests were a familiar gentlemans pursuit since the mid 17th century, Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries. Another early preservation event also occurred at Berkhamsted, in 1866, Lord Brownlow who lived at Ashridge, tried to enclose the adjoining Berkhamsted Common with 5-foot steel fences in an attempt to claim it as part of his estate. In England from early Anglo-Saxon times, Common land was an area of land which the community could use as a resource. Across England between 1660 and 1845,7 million acres of Common land had been enclosed by land owners by application to parliament. In 1870, Sir Robert Hunter and the Commons Preservation Society succeed in legal action that ensured protection of Berkhamsted Common, in 1926 the common was acquired by the National Trust. By the mid 19th century, much of Britains unprotected cultural heritage was being slowly destroyed, even well-meaning archaeologists like William Greenwell excavated sites with virtually no attempt at their preservation, Stonehenge came under increasing threat by the 1870s. Tourists were chipping off parts of the stones or carving their initials into the rock, the private owners of the monument decided to sell the land to the London and South-Western Railway as the monument was not the slightest use to anyone now. John Lubbock, an MP and botanist emerged as the champion of the national heritage. Soon, he began campaigning in Parliament for legislation to protect monuments from destruction and this finally led to the legislative milestone under the Liberal government of William Gladstone of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. The first government appointed inspector for this job was the archaeologist Augustus Pitt-Rivers, the Act only covered ancient monuments and explicitly did not cover historic buildings or structures. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 had only given legal protection to prehistoric sites, the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 took this further by empowering the governments Commissioners of Work and local County Councils to protect a wider range of properties. Further updates were made in 1910, Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire, a medieval manor house had been put up for sale in 1910 with its greatest treasures, the huge medieval fireplaces, still intact. However, when an American bought the house they were ripped out, the former viceroy of India, George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, was outraged at this cultural destruction and stepped in to buy back the castle and reinstall the fireplaces. After a nationwide hunt for them they were found in London. He restored the castle and left it to the National Trust on his death in 1925 and his experience at Tattershall influenced Lord Curzon to push for tougher heritage protection laws in Britain, which saw passage as the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913. The new structure involved the creation of the Ancient Monuments Board to oversee the protection of such monuments, powers were given for the board, with Parliamentary approval, to issue preservation orders to protect monuments, and extended the public right of access to these. The term monument was extended to include the lands around it, the National Trust was founded in 1894 by Octavia Hill, Sir Robert Hunter and Hardwicke Canon Rawnsley as the first organisation of its type in the world
29.
Spandrel
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A spandrel, less often spandril or splaundrel, is the space between two arches or between an arch and a rectangular enclosure. Also included is the space under a flight of stairs, if it is not occupied by another flight of stairs and this is a common location to find storage space in residential structures. In a building more than one floor, the term spandrel is also used to indicate the space between the top of the window in one story and the sill of the window in the story above. In concrete or steel construction, a beam extending from column to column usually carrying an exterior wall load is known as a spandrel beam. The spandrels over doorways in Perpendicular work are generally richly decorated, at Magdalen College, Oxford is one which is perforated. The spandrel of doors is sometimes ornamented in the Decorated period, spandrels can also occur in the construction of domes and are typical in grand architecture from the medieval period onwards. Cathedral architecture Spandrel This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
30.
Adirondack Trust Company
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The Adirondack Trust Company is the largest independent community bank in Saratoga County, New York, USA. Founded in 1901 by State Senator Edgar T. Brackett, it played a role in transforming Saratoga Springs from a small boom. Through the years, it has become the highest rated bank in Saratoga County, the Adirondack Trust Company has been named one of the 100 safest banks in the country by Money magazine. Adirondack Trusts 167 full-time employees own the company, which offers banking, loans, as of 2015 the banks current chairman and CEO is Charles V. Wait, the president is Stephan R. von Schenk. Official web page With the Strength of the Adirondacks, A History of the Adirondack Trust Company, 1901-2001
31.
Marble
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
32.
Beaux-Arts architecture
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Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880 to 1920, in contrast, many European architects of the period 1860–1914 outside France gravitated away from Beaux-Arts and towards their own national academic centers. American architects of the Beaux-Arts generation often returned to Greek models, for the first time, repertories of photographs supplemented meticulous scale drawings and on-site renderings of details. Beaux-Arts training emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highly finished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. In the façade shown to the right, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in an action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with architecture. A sense of appropriate idiom at the craftsman level supported the teams of the first truly modern architectural offices. The prestige of the École gave the style Beaux-Arts a second wind in combining the new manner with the traditional training and they were followed by an entire generation. Henry Hobson Richardson absorbed Beaux-Arts lessons in massing and spatial planning and his Beaux-Arts training taught him to transcend slavish copying and recreate in the essential fully digested and idiomatic manner of his models. Richardson evolved a personal style freed of historicism that was influential in early Modernism. The White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago was a triumph of the movement, the Beaux-Arts curriculum was subsequently begun at Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. From 1916, the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York City schooled architects, painters, bosworth, Carnegie Mellon University, designed by Henry Hornbostel, and the University of Texas, designed by Paul Philippe Cret. Beaux-Arts architecture also brought a civic face to the railroad, two of the best American examples of the Beaux-Arts tradition stand within a few blocks of each other, Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library. Another prominent U. S. example of the style is the largest academic dormitory in the world, in the late 1800s, during the years when Beaux-Arts architecture was at a peak in France, Americans were one of the largest groups of foreigners in Paris. Many of them were architects and students of architecture who brought this back to America. Beaux-Arts was very prominent in public buildings in Canada in the early 20th century, notably all three prairie provinces legislative buildings are in this style. Buenos Aires is a center of Beaux-Arts architecture which continued to be built as late as the 1950s, national Theatre, Melbourne General Post Office building, Forrest Place, Perth Argus Building. Beaux-Arts Architecture in New York, A Photographic Guide United States, sixteenth Street Architecture – profiles of Beaux-Arts architecture in Washington D. C
33.
Tiffany & Co.
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Tiffany & Company is an American luxury jewelry and specialty retailer, headquartered in New York City. Tiffany sells jewelry, sterling silver, china, crystal, stationery, fragrances, water bottles, watches, personal accessories, many of these goods are sold at Tiffany stores, as well as through direct-mail and corporate merchandising. Tiffany is renowned for its goods and is particularly known for its diamond jewelry. Tiffany markets itself as an arbiter of taste and style, and was once a purveyor to the Russian imperial family, founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany and John B. The name was shortened to Tiffany & Company in 1853 when Charles Tiffany took control, Tiffany & Company has since opened stores in major cities all over the world. Unlike other stores at the time in the 1830s, Tiffany clearly marked the prices on its goods to forestall any haggling over prices, in addition, against the social norm at the time, Tiffany only accepted cash payments, and did not accept payments on credit. Such practices, fixed prices for ready money, were first introduced by Palmers of London Bridge in 1750, who employed the young Robert Owen, the later social reformer. The first Tiffanys mail order catalog, known as the Blue Book, was published in 1845 in the United States, in 1862, Tiffany & Company supplied the Union Army with swords, flags and surgical implements. In 1867, Tiffany & Co. was the first US firm to win an award for the excellence in silverware at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. In 1870, the built an new store building at 15 Union Square West, Manhattan, designed by John Kellum. It was described by The New York Times as a palace of jewels, Tiffany stayed at this site until 1906. In 1877, an insignia that would become the famous New York Yankees NY logo was struck on a medal of honor by Tiffany & Company. In 1878, Tiffany won the medal for jewelry and a grand prize for silverware at the Paris Exposition. In 1887, Tiffany bought the French Crown Jewels, which attracted publicity, the company revised the Great Seal of the United States in 1885. In 1902, after the death of Charles Lewis Tiffany, his son, Louis Comfort Tiffany, in 1919, the company made a revision to the Medal of Honor on behalf of the United States Department of the Navy. This Tiffany Cross version was rare because it was awarded only for combat, in 1942 the Navy established the Tiffany version for non-combat heroism, but in August 1942 the Navy eliminated the Tiffany Cross and the two-medal system. In 1956, legendary designer Jean Schlumberger joined Tiffany, and Andy Warhol collaborated with Tiffany to create Tiffany Holiday Cards. In 1968 Lady Bird Johnson, First Lady of the U. S. at the time, in November 1978, Tiffany & Co. was sold to Avon Products Inc. for about US$104 million in stock
34.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
35.
Chandelier
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A chandelier /ˌʃæn. dəlˈɪər/ is a decorative ceiling-mounted light fixture, a distinct type of pendant light. Chandeliers are often ornate, and normally use incandescent light bulbs, crystal chandeliers have more or less complex arrays of crystal prisms to illuminate a room with refracted light. Chandeliers are often located in hallways, living rooms, dining rooms, the word chandelier was first known in the English language in the 1736, borrowed from the Old French word chandelier, which comes from the Latin candelabrum. The earliest candle chandeliers were used by the wealthy in medieval times, from the 15th century, more complex forms of chandeliers, based on ring or crown designs, became popular decorative features in palaces and homes of nobility, clergy and merchants. Its high cost made the chandelier a symbol of luxury and status, by the early 18th century, ornate cast ormolu forms with long, curved arms and many candles were in the homes of many in the growing merchant class. Neoclassical motifs became a common element, mostly in cast metals. Chandeliers made in style also drew heavily on the aesthetic of ancient Greece and Rome, incorporating clean lines, classical proportions. During the 18th century glass chandeliers were produced by Bohemiens and Venetian glassmakers who were masters in the art of making chandeliers. Bohemian style was successful across Europe and its biggest draw was the chance to obtain spectacular light refraction due to facets. As a reaction to this new taste Italian glass factories in Murano created new kinds of light sources. Since Murano glass was not suitable for faceting, typical work realized at the time in countries where crystal was used. Typical features of a Murano chandelier are the intricate arabeques of leaves, flowers and fruits that would be enriched by coloured glass, made possible by the specific type of glass used in Murano. This glass they worked with was so unique, as it was glass and was a complete contrast to all different types of glass produced in the world at that time. An incredible amount of skill and time was required to precisely twist and this new type of chandelier was called ciocca literally bouquet of flowers, for the characteristic decorations of glazed polychrome flowers. One of the use of the huge Murano Chandeliers was the interior lighting of theatres. In the mid-19th century, as gas lighting caught on, branched ceiling fixtures called gasoliers were produced, by the 1890s, with the appearance of electric light, some chandeliers used both gas and electricity. As distribution of electricity widened, and supplies became dependable, electric-only chandeliers became standard, Another portmanteau word, electrolier, was formed for these, but nowadays they are most commonly called chandeliers. Some are fitted with bulbs shaped to imitate candle flames, for example those shown below in Epsom and Chatsworth, the worlds largest English Glass chandelier, is located in the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul
36.
Adirondack Mountains
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The Adirondack Mountains /ædᵻˈrɒndæk/ form a massif in the northeast of Upstate New York in the United States. Its boundaries correspond to the boundaries of Adirondack Park, the mountains form a roughly circular dome, about 160 miles in diameter and about 1 mile high. The current relief owes much to glaciation, the earliest written use of the name, spelled Rontaks, was in 1724 by the French missionary Joseph-François Lafitau. He defined it as tree eaters, in the Mohawk language, Adirondack means porcupine, an animal that may eat bark. The Mohawks had no written language at the time so Europeans have used various phonetic spellings, an English map from 1761 labels it simply Deer Hunting Country and the mountains were named Adirondacks in 1837 by Ebenezer Emmons. People first arrived in the following the settlement of the Americas around 10,000 BC. The Algonquian peoples and the Mohawk nation used the Adirondacks for hunting and travel, european colonisation of the area began with Samuel de Champlain visiting what is now Ticonderoga in 1609, and Jesuit missionary Isaac Jogues visited the region in 1642. In 1664 the land came under the control of the English when New Netherland was ceded to The Crown, after the American Revolutionary War, the lands passed to the people of New York State. Needing money to war debts, the new government sold nearly all the original public acreage about 7 million acres for pennies an acre. Lumbermen were welcomed to the interior, with few restraints, resulting in massive deforestation, for the history of the area since industrialization, see The History of Adirondack Park. In 1989, part of the Adirondack region was designated by UNESCO as the Champlain-Adirondack Biosphere Reserve, the rocks of the mountains originated about two billion years ago as 50,000 feet deep sediments at the bottom of a sea near the equator. Because of continental drift these collided with Laurentia in a mountain building episode known as the Grenville orogeny, during this time the sedimentary rock was changed into metamorphic rock. It is these Proterozoic minerals and lithologies that make up the core of the massif, such minerals of interest include, wollastonite, mined near Harrisville magnetite and hematite, formerly mined at the Benson Mines, Lyon Mountain, Mineville, Tawahus, and Witherbee. Graphite, mined near Hague and Ticonderoga, garnet, mined at the Barton Mine, north of Gore Mountain. Anorthosite, visible in road cuts on the New York State Route 3 between Saranac Lake and Tupper Lake, marble zinc, The Balmat-Edwards district on the northwest flank of the massif also in St. Lawrence County was a major zinc ore deposit titanium was mined at Tawahus. Around 600 million years ago the area began to be pulled apart, as Laurentia drifted away from Baltica, faults developed, running north to north east which formed valleys and deep lakes. Examples visible today include the grabens Lake George and Schroon Lake, by this time the Grenville mountains had been eroded away and the area was covered by a shallow sea. Several thousand feet of sediment accumulated on the sea bed, trilobites were the principal life-form of the sea bed, and fossil tracks can be seen in the Potsdam sandstone floor of the Paul Smiths Visitor Interpretive Center
37.
Ornament (art)
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In architecture and decorative art, ornament is a decoration used to embellish parts of a building or object. A wide variety of styles and motifs have been developed for architecture. In textiles, wallpaper and other objects where the decoration may be the justification for its existence. The vast range of used in ornament draw from geometrical shapes and patterns, plants. In a 1941 essay, the architectural historian Sir John Summerson called it surface modulation, the earliest decoration and ornament often survives from prehistoric cultures in simple markings on pottery, where decoration in other materials has been lost. Ornament implies that the object has a function that an unornamented equivalent might also fulfill. Where the object has no function, but exists only to be a work of art such as a sculpture or painting. In recent centuries a distinction between the arts and applied or decorative arts has been applied, with ornament mainly seen as a feature of the latter class. Ornament increased over the Romanesque and Gothic periods, but was reduced in Early Renaissance styles. While the concept of the Kunstwollen has few followers today, his analysis of the development of forms has been confirmed and refined by the wider corpus of examples known today. Styles of ornamentation can be studied in reference to the culture which developed unique forms of decoration. The Ancient Egyptian culture is arguably the first civilization to add decoration to their buildings. Their ornament takes the forms of the world in that climate, decorating the capitals of columns and walls with images of papyrus. Assyrian culture produced ornament which shows influence from Egyptian sources and a number of themes, including figures of plants. Ancient Greek civilization created many new forms of ornament, with variations from Doric, Ionic. The Romans Latinized the pure forms of the Greek ornament and adapted the forms to every purpose, a few medieval notebooks survive, most famously that of Villard de Honnecourt showing how artists and craftsmen recorded designs they saw for future use. As printing became cheaper, the single ornament print turned into sets, from the 16th to the 19th century, pattern books were published in Europe which gave access to decorative elements, eventually including those recorded from cultures all over the world. Napoleon had the great pyramids and temples of Egypt documented in the Description de lEgypte, owen Jones published The Grammar of Ornament in 1856 with colored illustrations of decoration from Egypt, Turkey, Sicily and Spain
38.
Pediment
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The tympanum, the triangular area within the pediment, is often decorated with relief sculpture. The pediment is found in classical Greek temples, renaissance, a prominent example is the Parthenon, where it contains a tympanum decorated with figures in relief sculpture. This architectural element was developed in the architecture of ancient Greece, in Ancient Rome, the Renaissance, and later architectural revivals, the pediment was used as a non-structural element over windows, doors and aedicules. A variant is the segmental or arch pediment, where the normal angular slopes of the cornice are replaced by one in the form of a segment of a circle, both traditional and segmental pediments have broken and open forms. In the broken pediment the raking cornice is left open at the apex, the open pediment is open along the base – often used in Georgian architecture. A further variant is the Swan-necked pediment, where the cornice is in the form of two S-shaped brackets. The decorations in the tympanum frequently extend through these openings, in the form of Alto-relievo sculpture, tondo paintings and these forms were adopted in Mannerist architecture, and applied to furniture designed by Thomas Chippendale. The terms open pediment and broken pediment are often used interchangeably, a pediment is sometimes the top element of a portico
39.
Bethesda Episcopal Church (Saratoga Springs)
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Bethesda Episcopal Church is an Episcopal Church in Saratoga Springs, New York. The parish was incorporated in 1830, in 1841 it purchased the site of its present church at 41 Washington Street, noted architect Richard Upjohn drew up plans for the church in English Gothic style, and construction was begun in 1842. The first services were held in the building in 1844, side aisles were added in 1856. In 1886 Mrs. Rockwell Putnam, widow of the owner of the Grand Union Hotel in Saratoga Springs donated money for construction of a tower in memory of her late husband, page Brown designed the additions in Norman Romanesque style. The work was completed in 1887, a notable feature of the renovation was the addition of Tiffany windows in the front facade. The church is listed in the National Register of Historic Places as a property of the Broadway Historic District in Saratoga Springs. National Register of Historic Places listings in Saratoga County, New York Official website
40.
Facade
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A façade is generally one exterior side of a building, usually, but not always, the front. It is a loan word from the French façade, which means frontage or face. In architecture, the façade of a building is often the most important aspect from a design standpoint, from the engineering perspective of a building, the façade is also of great importance due to its impact on energy efficiency. For historical façades, many local zoning regulations or other laws restrict or even forbid their alteration. The word comes from the French foreign loan word façade, which in turn comes from the Italian facciata, from faccia meaning face, the earliest usage recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is 1656. It was quite common in the Georgian period for existing houses in English towns to be given a fashionable new façade, in modern highrise building, the exterior walls are often suspended from the concrete floor slabs. Examples include curtain walls and precast concrete walls, the façade can at times be required to have a fire-resistance rating, for instance, if two buildings are very close together, to lower the likelihood of fire spreading from one building to another. In general, the systems that are suspended or attached to the precast concrete slabs will be made from aluminium or stainless steel. In recent years more lavish materials such as titanium have sometimes been used, whether rated or not, fire protection is always a design consideration. The melting point of aluminium,660 °C, is reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Firestops for such building joints can be qualified, too, putting fire sprinkler systems on each floor has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with curtain walls. Some building codes also limit the percentage of area in exterior walls. When the exterior wall is not rated, the slab edge becomes a junction where rated slabs are abutting an unrated wall. For rated walls, one may also choose rated windows and fire doors, on a film set and within most themed attractions, many of the buildings are only façades, which are far cheaper than actual buildings, and not subject to building codes. In film sets, they are held up with supports from behind. Within theme parks, they are usually decoration for the interior ride/attraction/restaurant, by Ulrich Knaack, Tillmann Klein, Marcel Bilow and Thomas Auer. ISBN 978-3-7643-7961-2 ISBN 978-3-7643-7962-9 Giving buildings an illusion of grandeur Poole, the article outlines the development of the façade in ecclesiastical architecture from the early Christian period to the Renaissance
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Italianate architecture
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The Italianate style of architecture was a distinct 19th-century phase in the history of Classical architecture. The style of architecture that was created, though also characterised as Neo-Renaissance, was essentially of its own time. The Italianate style was first developed in Britain about 1802 by John Nash and this small country house is generally accepted to be the first Italianate villa in England, from which is derived the Italianate architecture of the late Regency and early Victorian eras. The Italianate style was developed and popularised by the architect Sir Charles Barry in the 1830s. Barrys Italianate style drew heavily for its motifs on the buildings of the Italian Renaissance, the style was not confined to England and was employed in varying forms, long after its decline in popularity in Britain, throughout Northern Europe and the British Empire. From the late 1840s to 1890 it achieved popularity in the United States. A late intimation of Nashs development of the Italianate style was his 1805 design of Sandridge Park at Stoke Gabriel in Devon. Later examples of the Italianate style in England tend to take the form of Palladian-style building often enhanced by a belvedere complete with Renaissance-type balustrading at the roof level. Sir Charles Barry, most notable for his works on the Tudor, unlike Nash he found his inspiration in Italy itself. Barry drew heavily on the designs of the original Renaissance villas of Rome, the Lazio and his most defining work in this style was the large Neo-Renaissance mansion Cliveden. Thomas Cubitt, a London building contractor, incorporated simple classical lines of the Italianate style as defined by Sir Charles Barry into many of his London terraces. Following the completion of Osborne House in 1851, the became a popular choice of design for the small mansions built by the new. These were mostly built in cities surrounded by large but not extensive gardens, on occasions very similar, if not identical, designs to these Italianate villas would be topped by mansard roofs, and then termed chateauesque. However, after a modest spate of Italianate villas, and French chateaux by 1855 the most favoured style of an English country house was Gothic, the Italianate style came to the small town of Newton Abbot in Devon, with Isambard Brunels atmospheric railway pumping houses. An example that is not very known, but a clear example of Italianate architecture, is St. Christophers Anglican church in Hinchley Wood, Surrey. When the Ottomans exiled Fakhreddine to Tuscany in 1613, he entered an alliance with the Medicis, upon his return to Lebanon in 1618, he began modernising Lebanon. He developed an industry, upgraded olive-oil production, and brought with him numerous Italian engineers who began the construction of mansions. The cities of Beirut and Sidon were especially built in the Italianate style, the influence of these buildings, such as the ones in Deir el Qamar, influenced building in Lebanon for many centuries and continues to the present time
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Troy, New York
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Troy is a city in the U. S. State of New York and the seat of Rensselaer County. The city is located on the edge of Rensselaer County. Troy has close ties to the cities of Albany and Schenectady. The city is one of the three centers for the Albany Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of 1,170,483. At the 2010 census, the population of Troy was 50,129, troja est, which means Ilium was, Troy is. Before European arrival, the area was settled by the Mahican Indian tribe, the Dutch began settling in the mid 17th century, the patroon Kiliaen van Rensselaer called the area Pafraets Dael, after his mother. Control of New York passed to the English in 1664 and in 1707 Derick Van der Heyden purchased a farm near todays downtown area, in 1771, Abraham Lansing had his farm in todays Lansingburgh laid out into lots. Responding to Lansings success to the north, in 1787, Van der Heydens grandson Jacob had his extensive holdings surveyed and laid out into lots as well, in 1789, Troy got its current name after a vote of the people. In 1791, Troy was incorporated as a town and extended east across the county to the Vermont line, in 1796, Troy became a village and in 1816 it became a city. Lansingburgh, to the north, became part of Troy in 1900, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Mohican Indians had a number of settlements along the Hudson River near the confluence with the Mohawk River. The land comprising the Poesten Kill and Wynants Kill areas were owned by two Mohican groups, the land around the Poesten Kill was owned by Skiwias and was called Panhooseck. The area around the Wynants Kill, was known as Paanpack, was owned by Peyhaunet, the land between the creeks, which makes up most of downtown and South Troy, was owned by Annape. South of the Wynants Kill and into present-day North Greenbush, the land was owned by Pachquolapiet and these parcels of land were sold to the Dutch between 1630 and 1657 and each purchase was overseen and signed by Skiwias, the sachem at the time. In total, more than 75 individual Mohicans were involved in deed signings in the 17th century, the site of the city was a part of Rensselaerswyck, a patroonship created by Kiliaen van Rensselaer. Dirck Van der Heyden was one of the first settlers, in 1707, he purchased a farm of 65 acres which in 1787 was laid out as a village. One skeleton was female and Caucasian with an iron ring, the other was Native-American and male. The name Troy was adopted in 1789 before which it had known as Ashleys Ferry. The township included Brunswick and Grafton, Troy became a village in 1801 and was chartered as a city in 1816
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Bay (architecture)
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In architecture, a bay is the space between architectural elements, or a recess or compartment. Bay comes from Old French baee, meaning an opening or hole, the spaces between posts, columns, or buttresses in the length of a building, the division in the widths being called aisles. This meaning also applies to overhead vaults, in a building using a vaulted structural system, for example, the Gothic architecture periods Chartres Cathedral has a nave that is seven bays long. Similarly in timber framing a bay is the space between posts in the direction of the building and aisles run longitudinally. The openings for windows in a wall, for example, in Georgian style, at Mulberry Fields, the building is described as a 5 bay by 2 bay facade, meaning a 5 windows by 2 windows exterior. A recess in a wall, such as a bay window, a division of space such as an animal stall, sick bay, or bay platform. The space between joists or rafters, a joist bay or rafter bay
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