1.
Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
2.
Brassica oleracea
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Brassica oleracea is a plant species that includes many common foods as cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, savoy, kohlrabi, and gai lan. In its uncultivated form, it is called wild cabbage, and is native to southern and western Europe. Wild B. oleracea is a biennial plant that forms a stout rosette of large leaves in the first year. The leaves are fleshier and thicker than other Brassica species—an adaptation that helps it store water, in its second year, it uses the stored nutrients to produce a flower spike 1 to 2 metres tall with numerous yellow flowers. B. oleracea has become established as an important human food crop plant, used because of its large food reserves and it is rich in essential nutrients including vitamin C. A diet rich in vegetables is linked to a reduced risk of several human cancers. Theophrastus mentions three kinds of rhaphanos, a curly-leaved, a smooth-leaved, and a wild-type and he reports the antipathy of the cabbage and the grape vine, for the ancients believed cabbages grown near grapes would impart their flavour to the wine. The historical genus of Crucifera, meaning cross-bearing, may be the only unifying feature beyond taste, according to the Triangle of U theory, B. oleracea is very closely related to five other species of the genus Brassica. These tree cabbages yield fresh leaves throughout the year, are perennial and their woody stalks are sometimes dried and made into walking sticks. With the advent of agriculture and the domestication of wild crop plants, through artificial selection for various phenotype traits the emergence of variations of the plant with drastic differences in looks took only a few thousand years. Preference for leaves, terminal bud, lateral bud, stem, the preference for the eating of the leaves led to the selection of plants with larger leaves being harvested and their seeds planted for the next growth. Around the fifth century BC, the formation of what we now know as kale had developed, preference led to further artificial selection of kale plants with more tightly bunched leaves, or terminal bud. Somewhere around the first century AD emerged the phenotype variation of Brassica oleracea that we know as cabbage, phenotype selection preferences in Germany led kale down another evolutionary pathway. By selecting for fatter stems the variant plant known as kohlrabi emerged around the first century AD, further selection in Belgium in lateral bud led to the Brussels sprout in the 18th century. European preference emerged for eating immature buds, selection for inflorescence, by the 15th century AD, cauliflower had developed leading also to the emergence of broccoli in Italy about 100 years later. PROTAbase on Brassica oleracea PROTAbase on Brassica oleracea Video Overview of Brassica oleracea, from Untamed Science
3.
Brassicaceae
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Brassicaceae or Cruciferae is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. The name Brassicaceae is derived from the included genus Brassica, the alternative older name, Cruciferae, meaning cross-bearing, describes the four petals of mustard flowers, which resemble a cross. Cruciferae is one of eight plant family names without the suffix -aceae that are authorized alternative names, the family contains 372 genera and 4060 accepted species. The largest genera are Draba, Erysimum, Lepidium, Cardamine, pieris rapae and other butterflies of the family Pieridae are some of the best-known pests of Brassicaceae species planted as commercial crops. The family is included in the Brassicales according to the APG system, older systems placed them into the Capparales, a now-defunct order that had a similar definition. This family comprises about 375 genera and 2500 species all over the world,94 species of 38 genera are found in Nepal, a close relationship has long been acknowledged between the Brassicaceae and the caper family, Capparaceae, in part because members of both groups produce glucosinolate compounds. The APG II system, therefore, has merged the two families under the name Brassicaceae, the APG III system has recently adopted this last solution, but this may change as a consensus arises on this point. This article deals with Brassicaceae sensu stricto, i. e. treating the Cleomaceae and Capparaceae as segregated families, the family consists mostly of herbaceous plants with annual, biennial, or perennial lifespans. The leaves are alternate, sometimes organized in basal rosettes, in rare shrubby crucifers of Mediterranean their leaves are mostly in terminal rosettes and they are very often pinnately incised and do not have stipules. The structure of the flowers is extremely uniform throughout the family and they have four free saccate sepals and four clawed free petals, staggered. They can be disymmetric or slightly zygomorphic, with a typical cross-like arrangement and they have six stamens, four of which are longer and are arranged in a cross like the petals and the other two are shorter. The pistil is made up of two fused carpels and the style is short, with two lobes. The flowers form ebracteate racemose inflorescences, often apically corymb-like, pollination occurs by entomogamy, nectar is produced at the base of the stamens and stored on the sepals. The fruit is a kind of capsule named siliqua. It opens by two valves, which are the modified carpels, leaving the attached to a framework made up of the placenta. Often, an indehiscent beak occurs at the top of the style, where a siliqua is less than three times as long as it is broad, it is usually termed a silicula. The siliqua may break apart at constrictions occurring between the segments of the seeds, thus forming a sort of loment, it may eject the seeds explosively or may be evolved in a sort of samara. The fruit is often the most important diagnostic character for plants in this family, most members share a suite of glucosinolate compounds that have a typical pungent odour usually associated with cole crops
4.
Pseudanthium
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The individual flowers of a pseudanthium commonly are called florets. The real flowers are small and often greatly reduced. Pseudanthia are characteristic of the daisy and sunflower family, whose flowers are differentiated into ray flowers and disk flowers, the disk flowers in the center of the pseudanthium are actinomorphic and the corolla is fused into a tube. Flowers on the periphery are zygomorphic and the corolla has one large lobe, either ray or disk flowers may be absent in some plants, Senecio vulgaris lacks ray flowers and Taraxacum officinale lacks disk flowers. The pseudanthium has a whorl of bracts below the flowers, forming an involucre, in all cases, a pseudanthium is superficially indistinguishable from a flower, but closer inspection of its anatomy will reveal that it is composed of multiple flowers. Head This is an equivalent term for head and pseudanthium when used in the botanical sense. Capitulum Capitulum can be used as a synonym for pseudanthium and flower head, however its use is generally. At least one source defines it as a flower head. In addition to its use as a term meaning flower head it is also used to mean the top of the sphagnum plant. Calathid This is a rarely used term. It was defined in the 1966 book, The genera of flowering plants, however, on-line botanical glossaries do not define it and Google Scholar does not link to any significant usage of the term in a botanical sense. Possible pseudanthia of this type may occur in the following families, Hydatellaceae Lemnaceae Pandanaceae Triuridaceae Phyllanthaceae
5.
Cabbage
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Cabbage or headed cabbage is a leafy green or purple biennial plant, grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the cabbage, B. oleracea var. oleracea. Cabbage heads generally range from 0.5 to 4 kilograms, smooth-leafed firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed red and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colors seen more rarely. Under conditions of long sunlit days such as are found at high latitudes in summer. Some records are discussed at the end of the history section and it is difficult to trace the exact history of cabbage, but it was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 1000 BC, although savoys were not developed until the 16th century. By the Middle Ages, it had become a prominent part of European cuisine, cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports that production of cabbage. Almost half of these crops were grown in China, where Chinese cabbage is the most popular Brassica vegetable, cabbages are prepared in many different ways for eating. They can be pickled, fermented for dishes such as sauerkraut, steamed, stewed, sautéed, braised, cabbage is a good source of vitamin K, vitamin C and dietary fiber. Contaminated cabbage has been linked to cases of illness in humans. Cabbage is a member of the genus Brassica and the mustard family, several other cruciferous vegetables are considered cultivars of B. oleracea, including broccoli, collard greens, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea, the varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for having a head. B. oleracea and its derivatives have hundreds of names throughout the world. Cabbage was originally used to refer to forms of B. oleracea. A related species, Brassica rapa, is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage and it is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as Mauritia, Roystonea oleracea, Acrocomia, the original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix. The word brassica derives from bresic, a Celtic word for cabbage, many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap, meaning head. The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche and this in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce
6.
Plant stem
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A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. The stem is divided into nodes and internodes, The nodes hold one or more leaves. Adventitious roots may also be produced from the nodes, the internodes distance one node from another. The term shoots is often confused with stems, shoots generally refers to new plant growth including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers. In most plants stems are located above the surface but some plants have underground stems. Stems have four main functions which are, Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers, the stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits. Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem Storage of nutrients Production of new living tissue, the normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate new living tissue, Stems are often specialized for storage, asexual reproduction, protection or photosynthesis, including the following, Acaulescent – used to describe stems in plants that appear to be stemless. Actually these stems are just extremely short, the leaves appearing to rise out of the ground. Arborescent – tree like with woody stems normally with a single trunk, branched – aerial stems are described as being branched or unbranched Bud – an embryonic shoot with immature stem tip. Bulb – a short underground stem with fleshy storage leaves attached, e. g. onion, daffodil. Bulbs often function in reproduction by splitting to form new bulbs or producing small new bulbs termed bulblets, bulbs are a combination of stem and leaves so may better be considered as leaves because the leaves make up the greater part. Caespitose – when stems grow in a mass or clump or in low growing mats. Cladode – a flattened stem that appears more-or-less leaf like and is specialized for photosynthesis, climbing – stems that cling or wrap around other plants or structures. Corm – a short enlarged underground, storage stem, e. g. taro, decumbent – stems that lie flat on the ground and turn upwards at the ends. Fruticose – stems that grow shrublike with woody like habit, herbaceous – non woody, they die at the end of the growing season. Pedicel – stems that serve as the stalk of a flower in an inflorescence or infrutescence. Peduncle – a stem that supports an inflorescence Prickle – a sharpened extension of the outer layers
7.
Cauliflower
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Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea in the genus Brassica, which is in the family Brassicaceae. It is a plant that reproduces by seed. Typically, only the head is eaten – the edible white flesh sometimes called curd, the cauliflower head is composed of a white inflorescence meristem. Cauliflower heads resemble those in broccoli, which differs in having flower buds as the edible portion, Brassica oleracea also includes broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, collard greens, and kale, collectively called cole crops, though they are of different cultivar groups. In the 1st century AD, Pliny included what he called cyma among his descriptions of cultivated plants in Natural History, plinys descriptions likely refer to the flowering heads of an earlier cultivated variety of Brassica oleracea, but comes close to describing modern cauliflower. In the 12th century, three varieties were described in Spain as introductions from Syria, where it had doubtless been grown for more than a thousand years. It is found in the writings of the Arab botanists Ibn al-Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar, françois Pierre La Varenne employed chouxfleurs in Le cuisinier françois. It was introduced in India in 1822 from England by the British, the origin of the name is from the Latin word caulis and flower. Cauliflower is relatively difficult to grow compared to cabbage, with problems such as an underdeveloped head. The earliest maturity possible for cauliflower is 7 to 12 weeks from transplanting, in the northern hemisphere, fall season plantings in July may enable harvesting before autumn frost. Long periods of sun exposure in summer hot weather may cause cauliflower heads to discolor with a red-purple hue, transplantable cauliflowers can be produced in containers as flats, hotbeds, or in the field. In soil that is loose, well-drained and fertile, field seedlings are shallow-planted 0.5 inches, ideal growing temperatures are about 65 °F when seedlings are 25 to 35 days old. Applications of fertilizer to developing seedlings begins when leaves appear, usually with a starter solution weekly, transplanting to the field normally begins late spring and may continue until mid-summer. Row spacing is about 15–18 inches, rapid vegetative growth after transplanting may benefit from such procedures as avoiding spring frosts, using starter solutions high in phosphorus, irrigating weekly, and applying fertilizer. The most important disorders affecting cauliflower quality are a stem, stunted head growth or buttoning, ricing, browning. Among major pests affecting cauliflower are aphids, root maggots, cutworms, moths, the plant is susceptible to black rot, black leg, club root, black leaf spot, and downy mildew. When cauliflower is mature, heads appear as white, compact, and 6–8 inches in diameter. Forced air cooling to remove heat from the field during hot weather may be needed for optimal preservation, short-term storage is possible using cool, high-humidity storage conditions
8.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
9.
Antwerp
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Antwerp is a city in Belgium, the capital of Antwerp province in the region of Flanders. With a population of 510,610, it is the most populous city proper in Belgium and its metropolitan area houses around 1,200,000 people, which is second behind Brussels. Antwerp is on the River Scheldt, linked to the North Sea by the Westerschelde estuary, the Port of Antwerp is one of the biggest in the world, ranking second in Europe and within the top 20 globally. Antwerp has long been an important city in the Low Countries, the inhabitants of Antwerp are nicknamed Sinjoren, after the Spanish honorific señor or French seigneur, lord, referring to the Spanish noblemen who ruled the city in the 17th century. The city hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics, according to folklore, notably celebrated by a statue in front of the town hall, the city got its name from a legend about a giant called Antigoon who lived near the Scheldt river. He exacted a toll from passing boatmen, and for those who refused, he severed one of their hands, eventually the giant was killed by a young hero named Silvius Brabo, who cut off the giants own hand and flung it into the river. Hence the name Antwerpen, from Dutch hand werpen, akin to Old English hand and wearpan, a longstanding theory is that the name originated in the Gallo-Roman period and comes from the Latin antverpia. Antverpia would come from Ante Verpia, indicating land that forms by deposition in the curve of a river. Note that the river Scheldt, before a period between 600 and 750, followed a different track. This must have coincided roughly with the current ringway south of the city, however, many historians think it unlikely that there was a large settlement which would be named Antverpia, but more something like an outpost with a river crossing. However, John Lothrop Motley argues, and so do a lot of Dutch etymologists and historians, aan t werp is also possible. This warp is a hill or a river deposit, high enough to remain dry at high tide. Another word for werp is pol hence polders, historical Antwerp allegedly had its origins in a Gallo-Roman vicus. Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt, 1952–1961, produced pottery shards, the earliest mention of Antwerp dates from the 4th century. In the 4th century, Antwerp was first named, having been settled by the Germanic Franks, the name was reputed to have been derived from anda and werpum. The Merovingian Antwerp was evangelized by Saint Amand in the 7th century, at the end of the 10th century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. Antwerp became a margraviate in 980, by the German emperor Otto I, in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years known as the marquis of Antwerp. In the 12th century, Norbert of Xanten established a community of his Premonstratensian canons at St. Michaels Abbey at Caloes
10.
Peter Scheemakers
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He learned his art from his father, the Antwerp sculptor Pieter Scheemaeckers. He visited Denmark where he studied for four years with the court sculptor Johann Adam Sturmberg and he walked to Rome where he and Delvaux studied both classical and baroque styles of sculpture before settling in London in 1716. He and Delvaux worked there with another Flemish sculptor Pieter-Denis Plumier on a monument to John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham. Scheemakers and Delvaux entered into a partnership and set up a workshop in Millbank, Westminster. Their workshop produced many sober classical monuments and garden statuary after the Antique, the partners sold their stock in the partnership and travelled to Rome in 1728. Scheemakers stayed here for two years to study both antique and recent masterpieces, upon his return to England in 1730 Scheemakers restarted the Milbank workshop on his own. His ideal classical sculptures became very popular with the landowning class and he moved his workshop a few times, first to Old Palace Yard in 1736 and then to Vine Street in 1740 where he was active until his retirement in 1771. He returned to Antwerp where he died at the old age of 90 and he worked for a time with Francis Bird, and was the teacher of Henry Cheere and Charles Cope Trubshaw, amongst others. Joseph Nollekens joined his studio in 1747 and served his apprenticeship here, before leaving for Rome in 1762. Scheemakers brother, Henry Scheemakers, and his son, Thomas Scheemakers, were also sculptors. ”He is best known by his monument to Shakespeare, but as this work was designed by Kent the responsibility must not all be laid to Scheemakers account. In addition to these, there are the monuments to Admiral Sir Charles Wager, Vice-Admiral Watson, Lieut. -General Percy Kirk, George Lord Viscount Howe, General Monck, and Sir Henry Belasye. His busts of John Dryden and Dr. Richard Mead, also in the Abbey, are noted examples of his smaller works, another example of his work is the memorial to Topham Foote in the parish church of St John the Baptist, Windsor. This burial monument, which includes the young mans bust and the Foote family crest, greets visitors in the main High Street entrance, just 300 feet from the Henry VIII gate to Windsor Castle. In 1743, Mary Coghill erected the church of Clonturk, in memory of her brother Marmaduke Coghill. Between 1970 and 1993, an image of Scheemakerss Shakespeare statue appeared on the reverse of Series D £20 notes issued by the Bank of England, alongside the statue was an engraving of the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet
11.
Calabria
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Calabria, known in antiquity as Bruttium and formerly as Italia, is a region in Southern Italy and forms the traditionally conceptualized toe of the Italian Peninsula which resembles a boot. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro and its most populated city, and the seat of the Regional Council of Calabria, is Reggio Calabria in the Province of Reggio Calabria. The region is bordered to the north by the Basilicata Region, to the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, the region covers 15,080 km2 and has a population of just under 2 million. The demonym of Calabria in English is Calabrian, in ancient times Calabria was referred to as Italy. The Romans later extended the name to cover Southern Italy and then the entire peninsula, the region is a long and narrow peninsula which stretches from north to south for 248 km, with a maximum width of 110 km. Some 42% of Calabrias area, corresponding to 15,080 km2, is mountainous, 49% is hilly and it is surrounded by the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas. It is separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina, where the narrowest point between Capo Peloro in Sicily and Punta Pezzo in Calabria is only 3.2 km, three mountain ranges are present, Pollino, La Sila and Aspromonte. All three mountain ranges are unique with their own flora and fauna, the Pollino Mountains in the north of the region are rugged and form a natural barrier separating Calabria from the rest of Italy. Parts of the area are heavily wooded, while others are vast and these mountains are home to a rare Bosnian Pine variety, and are included in the Pollino National Park. The highest point is Botte Donato, which reaches 1,928 metres, the area boasts numerous lakes and dense coniferous forests. La Sila also has some of the tallest trees in Italy which are called the Giants of the Sila, the Sila National Park is also known to have the purest air in Europe. The Aspromonte massif forms the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula bordered by the sea on three sides and this unique mountainous structure reaches its highest point at Montalto, at 1,995 metres, and is full of wide, man-made terraces that slope down towards the sea. In general, most of the terrain in Calabria has been agricultural for centuries. The lowest slopes are rich in vineyards and citrus fruit orchards, the Diamante citron is one of the citrus fruits. Moving upwards, olives and chestnut trees appear while in the regions there are often dense forests of oak, pine, beech. Calabrias climate is influenced by the sea and mountains, mountain areas have a typical mountainous climate with frequent snow during winter. Erratic behavior of the Tyrrhenian Sea can bring heavy rainfall on the slopes of the region, while hot air from Africa makes the east coast of Calabria dry. The mountains that run along the region also influence the climate, the east coast is much warmer and has wider temperature ranges than the west coast
12.
Romanesco broccoli
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First documented in Italy, it is chartreuse in color. Romanesco has an appearance because its form is a natural approximation of a fractal. When compared to a cauliflower, its texture as a vegetable is far more crunchy. The Romanesco stems share the same toxic substances as rhubarb leaves, including oxalic acid and it has been grown in Italy since the 16th Century. Romanesco superficially resembles a cauliflower, but it is chartreuse in color, the inflorescence is self-similar in character, with the branched meristems making up a logarithmic spiral. In this sense the buds form approximates a natural fractal, each bud is composed of a series of smaller buds and this self-similar pattern continues at several smaller levels. The pattern is only an approximate fractal since the pattern eventually terminates when the feature size becomes sufficiently small, the number of spirals on the head of Romanesco broccoli is a Fibonacci number. Nutritionally, romanesco is rich in vitamin C, vitamin K, dietary fiber, and carotenoids
13.
Kale
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Kale or leaf cabbage refers to certain vegetable cultivars of the plant species Brassica oleracea. A kale plant has green or purple leaves and the leaves do not form a head. Kales are considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most domesticated forms of Brassica oleracea, Kale bears semblance to kail, a variant of cawul for various cabbages. Until the end of the Middle Ages, kale was one of the most common vegetables in Europe. Curly-leaved varieties of cabbage already existed along with flat-leaved varieties in Greece in the fourth century BC and these forms, which were referred to by the Romans as Sabellian kale, are considered to be the ancestors of modern kales. Russian kale was introduced into Canada, and then into the United States, during World War II, the cultivation of kale in the U. K. was encouraged by the Dig for Victory campaign. The vegetable was easy to grow and provided important nutrients missing from a diet because of rationing, some varieties can reach a height of six or seven feet, while others are compact, symmetrical and of good quality for eating. Many, however, are coarse and indigestible, most kales are annuals or biennials. Kale seeds resemble those of cabbage in size, form, one may differentiate between kale varieties according to the low, intermediate, or high length of the stem, along with the variety of leaf types. The leaf colours range from green to green, to dark green and violet-green. An extra-tall variety is known as Jersey kale or cow cabbage, kai-lan or Chinese kale is a cultivar often used in Chinese cuisine, but in English it is occasionally just called kale. In Portugal, the bumpy-leaved kale is mostly called couve galega, Kale is usually an annual plant grown from seed with a wide range of germination temperatures. It is hardy and thrives in wintertime, many varieties of kale and cabbage are grown mainly for ornamental leaves that are brilliant white, red, pink, lavender, blue or violet in the interior of the rosette. Ornamental kale is as edible as any variety, but potentially not as palatable. Kale leaves are used as an ingredient for vegetable bouquets. In a 100 gram serving, raw kale provides 49 calories, like collards, it is very high in vitamin K. It is also a source of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B6, folate. Kale is a source of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, vitamin E and several dietary minerals, including iron, calcium, potassium
14.
Collard greens
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Collard greens describes certain loose-leafed cultivars of Brassica oleracea, the same species as many common vegetables, including cabbage and broccoli. Collard greens are part of the Acephala Group of the species and they are in the same cultivar group owing to their genetic similarity. The name collard is a form of the word colewort. The cultivar group name Acephala refers to the fact that this variety of B. oleracea does not have the core of leaves like cabbage does. The plant is a biennial where winter frost occurs, and a perennial in colder regions and it is also moderately sensitive to salinity. It has a stalk, often growing up to two feet tall. The plant is similar to kale. Popular cultivars of collard greens include Georgia Southern, Morris Heading, Butter Collard, the plant is commercially cultivated for its thick, slightly bitter, edible leaves. They are available year-round, but are tastier and more nutritious in the cold months, for best texture, the leaves are picked before they reach their maximum size, at which stage they are thicker and are cooked differently from the new leaves. Flavor and texture also depend on the cultivar, the couve manteiga and couve tronchuda are especially appreciated in Brazil, fresh collard leaves can be stored for up to 10 days if refrigerated to just above freezing at high humidity. In domestic refrigerators, fresh leaves can be stored for about three days. Once cooked, they can be frozen and stored for greater lengths of time, like kale, collard greens are very high in vitamin K. They are excellent sources of vitamin A, vitamin C, and manganese, a 100 g serving of cooked collard greens provides 33 calories, is 90% water, 3% protein, 6% carbohydrates and less than 1% fat. Collard greens have been eaten for at least 2000 years, with evidence showing that the ancient Greeks cultivated several types of collard greens, Collard greens is a staple vegetable in Southern U. S. cuisine. They are often prepared with similar green leaf vegetables, such as kale, turnip greens, spinach. Typical seasonings when cooking collards are smoked and salted meats, diced onions, vinegar, salt, and black pepper, white pepper, or crushed red pepper, and some cooks add a small amount of sugar. Traditionally, collards are eaten on New Years Day, along with black-eyed peas or field peas and cornbread, cornbread is used to soak up the pot liquor, a nutrient-rich collard broth. Collard greens may also be sliced and fermented to make a collard sauerkraut that is often cooked with flat dumplings
15.
Kohlrabi
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Kohlrabi is a biennial vegetable, and is a low, stout cultivar of cabbage. Kohlrabi can be eaten raw as well as cooked, edible preparations are made with both the stem and the leaves. The name comes from the German Kohl plus Rübe ~ Rabi and it is also found in the Kashmir valley in north India and is there known as Monj-hakh, monj being the round part, and hakh being the leafy part. This vegetable is called Nol Khol in the north of India, the taste and texture of kohlrabi are similar to those of a broccoli stem or cabbage heart, but milder and sweeter, with a higher ratio of flesh to skin. The young stem in particular can be as crisp and juicy as an apple, the plant matures in 55–60 days after sowing and has good standing ability for up to 30 days after maturity. The approximate weight is 150 g, there are several varieties commonly available, including White Vienna, Purple Vienna, Grand Duke, Gigante, Purple Danube, and White Danube. Coloration of the types is superficial, the edible parts are all pale yellow. The leafy greens can also be eaten, one commonly used variety grows without a swollen stem, having just leaves and a very thin stem, and is called Haakh. Haakh and Monj are popular Kashmiri dishes made using this vegetable. In the second year, Kohlrabi also comes in three different colors, white, purple, and pale green. Kohlrabi stems are surrounded by two distinct layers that do not soften appreciably when cooked. These layers are peeled away prior to cooking or serving raw. The kohlrabi root is used raw in salad or slaws. It has a similar to that of a broccoli stem. Kohlrabi leaves are edible and can be used interchangeably with collard greens, Kohlrabi is an important part of the Kashmiri diet and one of the most commonly cooked foods. It is prepared with its leaves and served with a light soup, some varieties are grown as feed for cattle. PROTAbase on Brassica oleracea Horticultural information on the tasty kohlrabi From the Learn2Grow databases Kohlrabi and Brussels Sprouts Are European Texts on Wikisource, Kohl-rabi
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Brussels sprout
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The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera Group of cabbages, grown for its edible buds. The leafy green vegetables are typically 2. 5–4 cm in diameter, the Brussels sprout has long been popular in Brussels, Belgium, and may have originated and gained its name there. Forerunners to modern Brussels sprouts were likely cultivated in Ancient Rome, Brussels sprouts as they are now known were grown possibly as early as the 13th century in what is now Belgium. The first written reference dates to 1587, during the 16th century, they enjoyed a popularity in the Southern Netherlands that eventually spread throughout the cooler parts of Northern Europe. Brussels sprouts grow in temperature ranges of 7–24 °C, with highest yields at 15–18 °C, fields are ready for harvest 90 to 180 days after planting. The edible sprouts grow like buds in helical patterns along the side of long, thick stalks of about 60 to 120 cm in height, each stalk can produce 1.1 to 1.4 kg, although the commercial yield is about 900 g per stalk. Harvest season in temperate zones of the northern latitudes is September to March, in the home garden, harvest can be delayed as quality does not suffer from freezing. Sprouts are considered to be sweetest after a frost, Brussels sprouts are a cultivar group of the same species as cabbage, in the same family as collard greens, broccoli, kale, and kohlrabi, they are cruciferous. Many cultivars are available, some being purple in colour, such as Ruby Crunch or Red Bull, in Continental Europe, the largest producers are the Netherlands, at 82,000 metric tons, and Germany, at 10,000 tons. The United Kingdom has production comparable to that of the Netherlands, production of Brussels sprouts in the United States began in the 18th century, when French settlers brought them to Louisiana. The first plantings in Californias Central Coast began in the 1920s, the harvest season lasts from June through January. Total American production is approximately 32,000 tons, with a value of $27 million, about 80% to 85% of US production is for the frozen food market, with the remainder for fresh consumption. Once harvested, sprouts last three to five weeks under ideal near-freezing conditions before wilting and discolouring, and about half as long at refrigerator temperature, American varieties are generally 2. 5–5 cm in diameter. Brussels sprouts, as with broccoli and other brassicas, contain sulforaphane, although boiling reduces the level of sulforaphane, steaming and stir frying do not result in significant loss. Consuming Brussels sprouts in excess may not be suitable for patients taking anticoagulants such as warfarin since they contain vitamin K, in one reported incident, eating too many Brussels sprouts precipitated hospitalization for an individual on blood-thinning therapy. The most common method of preparing Brussels sprouts for cooking begins with cutting the buds off the stalk, any surplus stem is cut away, and any loose surface leaves are peeled and discarded. Once cut and cleaned, the buds are typically cooked by boiling, steaming, stir frying, grilling, to ensure even cooking throughout, buds of a similar size are usually chosen. Some cooks will make a cut or a cross in the center of the stem to aid the penetration of heat
17.
Gai lan
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Gai lan is the Chinese name for a vegetable that is also known as Chinese broccoli or Chinese kale. It is a leaf vegetable featuring thick, flat, glossy leaves with thick stems with flower heads, similar to. Broccoli and gai lan belong to the same species Brassica oleracea and its flavor is very similar to that of broccoli, but slightly more bitter. Broccolini is a hybrid between broccoli and gai lan, produced by Mann Packing Company, Inc, gai lan can be sown in late summer for early-winter harvesting. Seedlings planted in autumn will last all winter, gai lan is eaten widely in Chinese cuisine, Common preparations include gai lan stir-fried with ginger and garlic, and boiled or steamed and served with oyster sauce. It is also common in Vietnamese, Burmese and Thai cuisine, bok choy Choy sum Kale Rapeseed Rapini Chinese Kale. Media related to Kai-lan at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Rapini
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Rapini is a green cruciferous vegetable. The edible parts are the leaves, buds, and stems, the buds somewhat resemble broccoli, but do not form a large head. Rapini is known for its bitter taste and is particularly associated with Italian, Galician. Within the Italian tradition, the plant is associated especially with southern Italian cuisines such as those of Ciociaria, Rome, Naples, Campania, and Apulia. In Italy, broccoli rabe is known by different names, in Naples it is known as friarielli, in Rome broccoletti, in Puglia and it is also known as i broccoli friarelli and sometimes broccoli di rape, rapi, or rapini. In Portugal and Spain they are called grelos, the plant is a member of the tribe Brassiceae of the Brassicaceae. The young leaves of plants as used in cooking are either the same as or the South European equivalent of turnip tops or turnip greens. Rapini has many spiked leaves that surround clusters of buds that resemble small heads of broccoli. Small, edible yellow flowers may be blooming among the buds, the flavor of rapini has been described as nutty, bitter, and pungent. The flavour is reminiscent of mustard greens. Rapini is a source of vitamins A, C, and K, as well as potassium, calcium, the cultivated vegetable probably descends from a wild herb related to the turnip that grew either in China or the Mediterranean region. Rapini is similar in shape to the Chinese Brassica oleracea cultivar called kai-lan, rapini is now grown throughout the world. Rapini is available all year long, but its peak season is fall to spring, in Europe, it is widely used in southern Italian cuisine, in Roman cuisine and in northern Portuguese cuisine and in that of Galicia in Spain. In southern Lazio, Frosinone, Ciociaria, it is sauteed with garlic and chili pepper. In the Central Italy regions, rapini sautéed with garlic, chili pepper and guanciale can be a dish for porchetta, grilled pork ribs, sausages. In Apulia, its most famous use is in orecchiette e cime di rapa and it is best blanched in salted boiling water before sautéeing in olive oil with garlic and chili pepper. Kai-lan Chinese cabbage Collard greens Mustard greens Rutabaga Turnip Brassica rapa Wang X, Wang H, Wang J, the genome of the mesopolyploid crop species Brassica rapa. Osborn TC, Kole C, Parkin IA, et al, comparison of flowering time genes in Brassica rapa, B. napus and Arabidopsis thaliana
19.
Brassica rapa
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Brassica rapa L. is a plant consisting of various widely cultivated subspecies including the turnip, napa cabbage, bomdong, bok choy, and cime di rapa, and. The oil made from the seed is also called canola, which is one reason why it is sometimes confused with rapeseed oil. The oilseeds known as canola are sometimes particular varieties of Brassica rapa but usually the related species Brassica napus, in the 18th century the turnip and the oilseed-producing variants were seen as being different species by Carl Linnaeus who named them B. rapa and B. campestris. 20th-century taxonomists found that the plants were cross fertile and thus belonged to the same species, since the turnip had been named first by Linnaeus, the name Brassica rapa was adopted. Many butterflies, including the small white pollinate the B. rapa flowers, media related to Brassica rapa at Wikimedia Commons Multilingual taxonomic information. PROTA database record on Brassica rapa L. Brassica rapa, Brassica rapa L. Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture
20.
Broccolini
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Broccolini is a green vegetable similar to broccoli but with smaller florets and longer, thin stalks. It is a hybrid of broccoli and kai-lan, both cultivar groups of Brassica oleracea. Broccolini was originally developed over eight years by the Sakata Seed Company of Yokohama, Japan in Salinas, California and it was developed as a natural hybrid rather than being genetically modified. Sakata partnered with Sanbon Incorporated in 1994 to begin growing commercially in Mexico under the title Asparation, after becoming first available in US Markets in 1996, a 1998 partnership with the Mann Packing Company and Sakata marketed it as Broccollini. In 1999, Broccolini as a trademark in Australia was granted to Perfection Fresh Australia by Sakata. Broccolini has a structure to sprouting type broccoli. It grows to 80 centimetres, with an elongated stem that is 15–30 centimetres long. It is annual or biennial, herbaceous and glabrous and its flavor is sweet, with notes of both broccoli and asparagus, and it is directly related to the latter. Common cooking methods include sauteeing, steaming, boiling, and stir frying, according to a 2005 Horticulture Australia study, in Australia 78% of people steam broccolini, 53% stir fry it, and 3% eat it raw or in a salad. It is usually steamed in Japan, where it is highly popular as a spring vegetable. Broccolini is high in vitamin C and also contains vitamin A, calcium, Vitamin E, folate, Iron and it has 35 calories per serving. Broccolini grows in climates, and is intolerant to extreme climates. However, it is sensitive to cold temperatures than broccoli. It is grown near the central California coast during the spring, summer and it takes 50–60 days to grow after being transplanted. It is sold throughout the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, the International Federation for Produce Standards assigns it the price look-up code 3277, baby broccoli. It is also known as asparation, asparations, bimi, broccoletti, broccolette Italian Sprouting broccoli, in the United Kingdom and Ireland it is referred to as tenderstem broccoli. In Brazil, the form of the word broccoli refers to broccolini
21.
Glucoraphanin
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Glucoraphanin is a glucosinolate found in broccoli, cauliflower, and mustard in particular in the young sprouts. Preliminary research also suggests that glucoraphanin may slow and prevent arthritis, a variety of broccoli has been bred to reliably contain 2-3 times more glucoraphanin than standard broccoli. Consumption of large amounts of glucoraphanin may produce negative effects due to increased creation of reactive oxygen species, however, this is based on studies on rats fed pure glucoraphanin at a dose equivalent to a human consuming approximately 250 portions of broccoli per day. Other studies have shown glucoraphanin to be safe, even at far higher than would be obtained through eating broccoli
22.
Brassica
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Brassica is a genus of plants in the mustard family, the. The members of the genus are known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages. Crops from this genus are sometimes called cole crops—derived from the Latin caulis, the genus Brassica is known for its important agricultural and horticultural crops and includes a number of weeds, both of wild taxa and escapees from cultivation. Brassica species and varieties used for food include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, choy sum, rutabaga, turnip and some seeds used in the production of canola oil. Over 30 wild species and hybrids are in cultivation, plus numerous cultivars, most are seasonal plants, but some are small shrubs. Brassica plants have been the subject of scientific interest for their agricultural importance. Six particular species evolved by the combining of chromosomes from three species, as described by the Triangle of U theory. The genus is native to Western Europe, the Mediterranean and temperate regions of Asia, many wild species grow as weeds, especially in North America, South America, and Australia. Almost all parts of species or other have been developed for food, including the root, stems, leaves, flowers, buds. Some forms with white or purple foliage or flowerheads are also grown for ornament. Brassica species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species—see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Brassica. Brassica vegetables are highly regarded for their nutritional value and they provide high amounts of vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain nutrients with anticancer properties,3, 3-diindolylmethane, sulforaphane and selenium. Boiling reduces the level of anticancer compounds, but steaming, microwaving, steaming these vegetable for three to four minutes is recommended to maximize sulforaphane. Brassica vegetables are rich in indole-3-carbinol, a chemical which boosts DNA repair in cells in vitro and they are also a good source of carotenoids, with broccoli having especially high levels. However, it also is an antiandrogen but is known to be only in hormone-sensitive prostate cancer cells. These vegetables also contain goitrogens, some of which suppress thyroid function, goitrogens can induce hypothyroidism and goiter in the absence of normal iodine intake. There is some disagreement among botanists on the classification and status of Brassica species and subspecies, the following is an abbreviated list, with an emphasis on economically important species. The B. rapa genome was sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project in 2011 and this also represents the A genome component of the amphidiploid crop species B. napus and B. juncea
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China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
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