1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Carriageway
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A carriageway or roadway consists of a width of road on which a vehicle is not restricted by any physical barriers or separation to move laterally. A carriageway generally consists of a number of traffic lanes together with any associated shoulder, a single carriageway road has one carriageway with 1,2 or more lanes together with any associated footways and road verges. A dual carriageway road has two separated by a central reservation. A local-express lane system has more than two roadways, typically two sets of lanes or collector lanes and also two sets of express lanes. Cars only lanes may be separated from those open to mixed traffic including trucks. The New Jersey Turnpike in the United States, utilises this design from the Pennsylvania Turnpike to its terminus at the George Washington Bridge in Fort Lee. High-occupancy vehicle lanes may also be separated from the remainder of the general traffic lanes as a distinct roadway. Dual carriageway Frontage road / lane Geometric design of roads Road terminology
3.
Elevated railway
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An elevated railway is a rapid transit railway with the tracks above street level on a viaduct or other elevated structure. The railway may be standard gauge, narrow gauge, light rail, monorail, Elevated railways are usually used in urban areas where there would otherwise be a large number of level crossings. Most of the time, the tracks of elevated railways that run on steel viaducts can be seen from street level, the earliest elevated railway was the London and Greenwich Railway on a brick viaduct of 878 arches, built between 1836 and 1838. The first 2.5 miles of the London and Blackwall Railway was also on a viaduct, during the 1840s there were other schemes for elevated railways in London which did not come to fruition. From the late 1860s elevated railways became popular in US cities, the New York West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway operated with cable cars from 1868 to 1870, thereafter locomotive-hauled. This was followed by the Manhattan Railway in 1875, the South Side Elevated Railroad, Chicago, the Chicago transit system itself is known as L, short for elevated. The Berlin Stadtbahn is also mainly elevated, the first electric elevated railway was the Liverpool Overhead Railway, which operated through Liverpool docks from 1893 until 1956. In London, the Docklands Light Railway is an elevated railway that opened in 1987 and. The trains are driverless and automatic, another modern elevated railway is Tokyos driverless Yurikamome line, opened in 1995. Most monorails are elevated railways, such as the Disneyland Monorail System, the Tokyo Monorail, the Sydney Monorail, the KL Monorail, the Las Vegas Monorail, many maglev railways are also elevated. During the 1890s there was some interest in railways, particularly in Germany, with the Schwebebahn Dresden. H-Bahn suspension railways were built in Dortmund and Düsseldorf airport,1975, the Memphis Suspension Railway opened in 1982. Shonan Monorail and Chiba Urban Monorail in Japan, despite their names, are suspension railways too, People mover or automated people mover is a type of driverless grade-separated, mass-transit system. The term is used only to describe systems that serve as loops or feeder systems. Similar to monorails, Bombardier Innovia APM technology uses only one rail to guide the vehicle along the guideway, aPMs are common at airports and effective at helping passengers quickly reach their gates. Elevator Grade separation Monorail Railway Rapid transit People mover Trackless
4.
Tram
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A tram is a rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets, and also sometimes on a segregated right of way. The lines or networks operated by tramcars are called tramways, Tramways powered by electricity, the most common type historically, were once called electric street railways. However, trams were used in urban areas before the universal adoption of electrification. Tram lines may run between cities and/or towns, and/or partially grade-separated even in the cities. Very occasionally, trams also carry freight, Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter than conventional trains and rapid transit trains, but the size of trams is rapidly increasing. Some trams may also run on railway tracks, a tramway may be upgraded to a light rail or a rapid transit line. For all these reasons, the differences between the modes of rail transportation are often indistinct. In the United States, the tram has sometimes been used for rubber-tired trackless trains. Today, most trams use electrical power, usually fed by a pantograph, in some cases by a sliding shoe on a third rail. If necessary, they may have dual power systems — electricity in city streets, trams are now included in the wider term light rail, which also includes segregated systems. The English terms tram and tramway are derived from the Scots word tram, referring respectively to a type of truck used in coal mines and the tracks on which they ran. The word tram probably derived from Middle Flemish trame, a Romanesque word meaning the beam or shaft of a barrow or sledge, the identical word la trame with the meaning crossbeam is also used in the French language. The word Tram-car is attested from 1873, although the terms tram and tramway have been adopted by many languages, they are not used universally in English, North Americans prefer streetcar, trolley, or trolleycar. The term streetcar is first recorded in 1840, and originally referred to horsecars, when electrification came, Americans began to speak of trolleycars or later, trolleys. The troller design frequently fell off the wires, and was replaced by other more reliable devices. The terms trolley pole and trolley wheel both derive from the troller, Modern trams often have an overhead pantograph mechanical linkage to connect to power, abandoning the trolley pole altogether. Conventional diesel tourist buses decorated to look like streetcars are sometimes called trolleys in the US, the term may also apply to an aerial ropeway, e. g. the Roosevelt Island Tramway. Over time, the trolley has fallen into informal use
5.
East River
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The East River is a salt water tidal estuary in New York City. The waterway, which is not a river despite its name. It separates the borough of Queens on Long Island from the Bronx on the North American mainland, and also divides Manhattan from Queens and Brooklyn, because of its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the Sound River. The tidal strait changes its direction of flow frequently, and is subject to fluctuations in its current. The waterway is navigable for its length of 16 miles. Technically a drowned valley, like the other waterways around New York City, the distinct change in the shape of the strait between the lower and upper portions is evidence of this glacial activity. The upper portion, running perpendicular to the glacial motion, is wide, meandering. The lower portion runs north-south, parallel to the glacial motion and it is much narrower, with straight banks. The bays that exist, as well as those used to exist before being filled in by human activity, are largely wide. The stretch has since been cleared of rocks and widened, washington Irving wrote of Hell Gate that the current sounded like a bull bellowing for more drink at half tide, whilte at full tide it slept as soundly as an alderman after dinner. He said it was like a peaceable fellow enough when he has no liquor at all, or when he has a skinful, but who, the river is navigable for its entire length of 16 miles. Why the river turns to the east as it approaches the three lower Manhattan bridges is currently geologically unknown, in the stretch of the river between Manhattan Island and the borough of Queens, lies Roosevelt Island, a narrow 2-mile long island consisting of 147 acres. Politically part of Manhattan, it begins at around the level of East 46th Street of that borough and it is connected to Queens by the Roosevelt Island Bridge, to Manhattan by the Roosevelt Island Tramway, and to both by a subway station. The Queensboro Bridge runs across Roosevelt Island, but no longer has an elevator connection to it. The abrupt termination of the island on its end is due to an extension of the 125th Street Fault. The Bronx River drains into the East River in the section of the strait. North of Randalls Island, it is joined by the Bronx Kill. Along the east of Wards Island, at approximately the midpoint, it narrows into a channel called Hell Gate
6.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
7.
Civic Center, Manhattan
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Civic Center is the area of lower Manhattan, New York City, that encompasses New York City Hall, One Police Plaza, the courthouses in Foley Square, and the surrounding area. Although government-related activities are predominant, other pursuits also occur within the district, including entertainment, industrial activity, residential dwellings, for example, there are Chinese restaurants near Civic Centers border with Chinatown, in addition to some museums and some residential buildings in the Civic Center area. The Jacob K. Javits Federal Building is located in the area and it includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation New York field office. Non-government buildings include the 387 feet 15 Park Row, an office,150 Nassau Street, a 21-story granite building, was once a publishers building, as were many in the area, but is now a residential building, as is 38 Park Row. The 76-story 8 Spruce Street is among the worlds tallest residential buildings, southbridge Towers, once Mitchell-Lama affordable housing, is now market-rate housing. Originally, the Lenape American Indians occupied the Civic Center area due to its rich pastoral fields and its proximity to the East River and Hudson River. There was a series of marshes in the area and a big pond in what is now Foley Square that the settlers called “The Collect” or “Collect Pond”. In fact, the area was so low lying that during the spring floods, then in 1609, Henry Hudson, an English explorer working for the Dutch, came and claimed the land for the Dutch. The colony there grew and farms began to expand, so the demand for workers increased, the Dutch West Indies Company decided to import slaves in 1625 to the new colony. The Civic Center was known as the commons and the first recorded building was a built by Jan de Wit. The next year, the colony was renamed New York and the seal was created the following year. Farms continued to grow and slavery expanded rapidly, the slaves built a burial ground in the north area of the Civic Center. The slaves would bury people at night though it was illegal. Because of the slaves’ sneaking out and racism, the Trinity Church banned African burial ceremonies in 1697 and this rule was then overturned in 1773. The city continued expanding and the government system became increasingly powerful, the local government decided to finance their first public works building through public funding. In 1735, the Almshouse was built as a center to house the ill and impoverished, a jail, a score later another jail was built called New Goal, which was a debtor prison. Soldier barracks were built on the border of the commons. During the pre-Revolutionary and Revolutionary eras, City Hall Park, in Lower Manhattan, was the site of many rallies, British soldiers chopped it down, and it was replaced five times
8.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
9.
Dumbo, Brooklyn
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Dumbo is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The neighborhood is bounded by Brooklyn Bridge Park to the north, Dumbo is part of Brooklyn Community Board 2. The large community of tech startups earned DUMBO the nickname of the center of the Brooklyn Tech Triangle, the neighborhood currently serves as the corporate headquarters for e-commerce retailer Etsy and home furnishing stores company West Elm. The name is an acronym, from Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass, several other New York City neighborhoods are known by portmanteaus, including Tribeca, SoHo, NoHo, NoMad, and Nolita in Manhattan, and BoCoCa in Brooklyn. In the 1890s, the portion of the neighborhood was known as Fulton Landing. At that time, it was primarily a manufacturing district, with warehouses and factories that made machinery, paper boxes, the area has been known, variously, as Rapailie, Olympia, and Walentasville. The cardboard box was invented in the Robert Gair building on Washington Street by Robert Gair, a Scottish emigrant, because of Gairs fame, the Gair building is now home to Etsy. The acronym Dumbo arose in 1978, when new residents coined it in the such a unattractive name would help deter developers. Near the end of the 20th century, as property became more and more expensive in Manhattan, glidden stated of Dumbos gentrification, It may be one of the last of what could be considered a true arts community in New York. The DUMBO Historic District, an industrial complex and national historic district in Dumbo, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000. It consists of 95 contributing buildings, the manufacturing concerns located in this district included Arbuckle Brothers, J. W. Masury & Son, Robert Gair, E. W. Bliss, the district includes the earliest large-scale reinforced concrete factory buildings in America. On December 18,2007, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission voted unanimously to designate Dumbo as the citys 90th historic district. The Dumbo historic district consists of properties bound by John Street to the north, York Street to the south, Main Street to the west, chef Jacques Torres opened a chocolate factory in Dumbo in December 2000. Invitations for the 2009 presidential inauguration of U. S. President Barack Obama were printed by Dumbo printer Precise Continental, the first public space in the neighborhood was Fulton Ferry, followed by Empire-Fulton Ferry State Park. The first six acres of Brooklyn Bridge Park, a joint state/city venture currently under development, were opened in March 2010, the building at 200 Water Street, which the Brillo Manufacturing Co. once occupied, is being renovated as a high-end condo building. Dumbo has New York Citys highest concentration of firms by neighborhood. Dumbo is home to 25 percent of New York City-based tech firms, within a 10-block radius are 500 tech and creative firms that employ over 10,000 people. The City of New York, in conjunction with New York University, Dumbos average office rent of $25 per square foot makes it more attractive to start-ups than Manhattan, where rents averaged $40 per square foot in 2013
10.
Brooklyn Heights
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Brooklyn Heights is an affluent residential neighborhood within the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Originally referred to as Brooklyn Village, it has been a prominent area of Brooklyn since 1834, the neighborhood is noted for its low-rise architecture and its many brownstone rowhouses, most of them built prior to the Civil War. It also has an abundance of churches and other religious institutions. Brooklyns first art gallery, the Brooklyn Arts Gallery, was opened in Brooklyn Heights in 1958, in 1965, a large part of Brooklyn Heights was protected from unchecked development by the creation of the Brooklyn Heights Historic District, the first such district in New York City. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, directly across the East River from Manhattan and connected to it by subways and regular ferry service, Brooklyn Heights is also easily accessible from Downtown Brooklyn. The neighborhood stretches from Old Fulton Street near the Brooklyn Bridge south to Atlantic Avenue and from the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway to Court Street, adjacent neighborhoods are Dumbo, Downtown Brooklyn, Cobble Hill, and Boerum Hill. Columbia Heights, an upscale six-block-long street next to the Brooklyn Heights Promenade, is considered to be its own neighborhood. As of 2000, Brooklyn Heights had a population of 22,594 people, the neighborhood is part of Brooklyn Community Board 2, and is served by the 84th Precinct of the New York City Police Department at 301 Gold Street in nearby Downtown Brooklyn. Brooklyn Heights occupies a palisade that rises sharply from the rivers edge, before the Dutch settled on Long Island in the middle of the seventeenth century, this promontory was called Ihpetonga by the native Lenape American Indians. Ferries across the East River were running as early as 1642, the most significant of the ferries went between the current Fulton Street and Peck Slip in Manhattan, and was run by Cornelius Dirksen. The ferry service helped the area to thrive, with both farms and some factories along the water, but the higher ground was sparsely used. They later sold part of their land to John Jackson, who created the Vinegar Hill community, Pierrepont had accumulated 60 acres of land, including 800 feet which directly overlooked the harbor, all of which he planned to sub-divide. Since his intention was to sell to merchants and bankers who lived in Manhattan, he needed easy access between Brooklyn Heights and New York City, which Fultons company provided. A resident of the Heights could leave the office at three oclock, have dinner at home at four oclock, and still have time for a drive to the outskirts of town. A select neighborhood and circle of society, where there had been only seven houses in the Heights in 1807, by 1860 there were over six hundred of them, and by 1890 the area was almost completely developed. Throughout the 19th century, Brooklyn Heights remained an elegant neighborhood and its development gave rise to offshoots such as Cobble Hill and, later, Carroll Gardens. Beecher was a nationally-known figure famous on the circuit for his novel oratorical style, in which he employed humor, dialect. To dramatize the plight of those held in captivity, Beecher once brought a female slave to the church and held an auction, with the highest bidder purchasing not the slave, but her freedom
11.
Brooklyn
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Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
12.
New York City Department of Transportation
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The New York City Department of Transportation is the agency of the government of New York City responsible for the management of much of New York Citys transportation infrastructure. Polly Trottenberg is the current Commissioner of the Department of Transportation, the Department of Transportations responsibilities include day-to-day maintenance of the citys streets, highways, bridges and sidewalks. The Department of Transportation is also responsible for installing and maintaining the citys street signs, traffic signals, DOT supervises street resurfacing, pothole repair, parking meter installation and maintenance, and the management of a municipal parking facilities. DOT also operates the Staten Island Ferry, DOT is also responsible for oversight of transportation-related issues, such as authorizing jitney van services and permits for street construction. DOT also advocates for safety issues, including promotion of pedestrian. Its regulations are compiled in title 34 of the New York City Rules, the agencys portfolio includes most of the East River and Harlem River bridges, as well as smaller bridges throughout the city. Other agencies that operate road bridges in New York include the MTA, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and the New York State DOT
13.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
14.
Cable-stayed bridge
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A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers, from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables run directly from the tower to the deck. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and this is the range where cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier if the span were lengthened, while suspension bridge cabling would not be more economical if the span were shortened. Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th, early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, Cable-stayed bridges date back to 1595, where designs were found in Machinae Novae, a book by Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge, john A. Roebling took particular advantage of this to limit deformations due to railway loads in the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge. Eduardo Torroja designed an aqueduct at Tempul in 1926. Albert Caquots 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, the steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger is, therefore, more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge. Other key pioneers included Fabrizio de Miranda, Riccardo Morandi, early bridges from this period used very few stay cables, as in the Theodor Heuss Bridge. However, this involves substantial erection costs, and more modern structures tend to use many more cables to ensure greater economy, Cable-stayed bridges may appear to be similar to suspension bridges, but in fact, they are quite different in principle and in their construction. In suspension bridges, large main cables hang between the towers and are anchored at each end to the ground and this can be difficult to implement when ground conditions are poor. The main cables, which are free to move on bearings in the towers, before the deck is installed, the cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or rods connect to the bridge deck, as this is done, the tension in the cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on the cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages. Difference between types of bridges In the cable-stayed bridge, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures which transmit the loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is used to support the bridge deck near the towers. The mono design uses a cable from its towers and is one of the lesser-used examples of the class. In the harp or parallel design, the cables are nearly parallel so that the height of their attachment to the tower is proportional to the distance from the tower to their mounting on the deck
15.
John A. Roebling
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John Augustus Roebling was a German-born American civil engineer. He designed and built wire rope suspension bridges, in particular the Brooklyn Bridge, which has designated as a National Historic Landmark. At first John attended the gymnasium in Mühlhausen, recognizing his intelligence at a young age, Roeblings mother, Friederike Dorothea Roebling arranged for him to be tutored in mathematics and science at Erfurt by Ephraim Salomon Unger. He went to Erfurt when he was 15, in 1824 he passed his Surveyors examination and returned home for a year. Roebling also attended lectures of the philosopher Hegel, Roebling developed an interest in natural philosophy and many years later he worked on a 1000-page treatise about his own concepts of the universe. In 1825 Roebling got a government job at Arnsberg, Westphalia, during this period he made sketches for suspension bridges. In 1829 he returned to his home to work out his final thesis, for unknown reasons, he never took the examination. On May 22,1831, Roebling left Prussia with his brother Carl and Johann Adolphus Etzler, economic mobility and career advancement were difficult for engineers in Prussian society. The Napoleonic Wars, which lasted until 1815, had suppressed investment in infrastructure and this period in European history left Prussia with political unrest, as authoritarian governments took the places of democratic ones. Etzler had ideas about creating a utopia in the United States, but disputes arose en route, John and Carl purchased 1582 acres of land on October 28,1831, in Butler County, Pennsylvania with the intent to establish a German settlement, called Saxonburg. Most of the settlers remained with Etzler. The John Roebling House at Saxonburg was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976, John Roebling and his brother arrived in the United States at an interesting time. The nation was in the stages of an economic boom. Farmers were deeply affected by it, a dominant mode of thought in America would be called manifest destiny by the 1840s. Transportation between eastern industrial hubs and frontier farming markets had become a matter of national and popular interest. Many transportation projects were underway near the location Roebling chose for his colony, after five years he married Johanna Herting, a tailors daughter. Agrarian work was unsatisfactory to John Roebling, and the colony attracted few settlers. In 1837, after the death of his brother and the birth of his first child, Roeblings first engineering work in America was devoted to improving river navigation and canal building
16.
Annual average daily traffic
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Annual average daily traffic, abbreviated AADT, is a measure used primarily in transportation planning and transportation engineering. Traditionally, it is the volume of vehicle traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT is a useful and simple measurement of how busy the road is, newer advances from traffic data providers are now providing AADT by side of the road, by day of week and by time of day. One of the most important uses of AADT is for determining funding for the maintenance, in the United States the amount of federal funding a state will receive is related to the total traffic measured across its Highway network. Each year on June 15, every state in the United States submits a Highway Performance Monitoring System HPMS report, the HPMS report contains various information regarding the road segments in the state based on a sample of the road segments. In the report, the AADT is converted to Vehicle Miles Traveled, VMT is the AADT multiplied by the length of the road segment. To determine the amount of traffic a state has, the AADT cannot be summed for all road segments since an AADT is a rate, the VMT is summed and is used as an indicator of the amount of traffic a state has. For federal-funding, formulas are applied to include the VMT and other highway statistics, to measure AADT on individual road segments, traffic data is collected either by an automated traffic counter or hiring an observer to record traffic. There are two different techniques of measuring the AADTs for road segments, one technique is called continuous count data collection method. This is where sensors are embedded into a road and traffic data is measured all 365 days. The AADT would be the sum of the traffic for the entire year divided by 365 days. There is a problem calculating the AADT with this method. The continuous count equipment is not operating for the full 365 days due to being shut down for maintenance or repair, because of this, seasonal or day-of-week biases might skew the calculated AADT. In 1992, AASHTO released the AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs, for every month and day-of-week, a Monthly Average Day of Week is calculated. Each day-of-weeks MADW is then calculated across months to calculate an Annual Average Day of Week, finally, the AADWs are averaged to calculate an AADT. The United States Federal Highway Administration has adopted this method as the method in the. While providing the most accurate AADT, installing and maintaining continuous count stations method is costly, most agencies are only able to monitor a very small percentage of the roadway using this method. Most AADTs are generated using data collection methods sometimes known as the coverage count data collection method
17.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
18.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
19.
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
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The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. City law also allows for the Commissions decision to be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days, the goal of New York Citys landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and other objects that make up the New York City vista. These regulations are designed to allow property owners to continue to use and maintain their properties. The commission preserves not only significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts. The Commission helps preserve the Citys landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features, the role of the Commission has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. The Landmarks Preservation Commissions first public hearing occurred in September,1965 over the future of the Astor Library on Lafayette Street in Manhattan, the building was designated a New York City Landmark. Subsequently, the building was reused as The Public Theater. Twenty-five years later, the Commission was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York Citys municipal identity and this success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the commission by the citys developers. The Commission was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and later the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. As of April 16,2014, there are more than 31,000 landmark properties in New York City, the total number of protected sites includes 1,332 individual landmarks,115 interior landmarks and 10 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmarks sites, and many are National Registered Historic Places, one of the most prominent decisions in which the Commission was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. This success is cited as significant due to the Commissions origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station. In 1989, the Commission designated the Ladies Mile Historic District, the next year marked the first time in the Commissions history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum, received a unanimous vote by the Commission members. One of the most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle, which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Villages Stonewall Inn, are recognized as not for their architecture. A commission-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11,1989 and this group included the Historic Districts Council, the Save Our Seaport community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. They had encouraged others to write letters to the Landmarks Preservation Commission to support formal designation or district protection, however, in 2013, the Landmarks Preservation Commission declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district
20.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
21.
Bridge
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A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each serve a particular purpose, the Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an Old English word brycg, of the same meaning. The word can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European *bʰrēw-. The word for the game of the same name has a different origin. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support, some early Americans used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get from one place to another. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age, it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence, several intact arched stone bridges from the Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese. The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans, the Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. An example is the Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, the Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost. In India, the Arthashastra treatise by Kautilya mentions the construction of dams, a Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep. The bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. A number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal administration in India and this bridge is also historically significant as it is the worlds oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar Bridge, rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European colonization in the 16th century. During the 18th century there were innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich Grubenmann, Johannes Grubenmann. The first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716, a major breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of the Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn, with the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a tensile strength, much larger bridges were built. In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first welded bridge in the world
22.
Boroughs of New York City
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
23.
Brooklyn Eagle
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At one point it was the most popular afternoon paper in the United States. Walt Whitman, the 19th Century poet, was its editor for two years, other notable editors of the Eagle included Thomas Kinsella, St. Clair McKelway, Cleveland Rogers, Frank D. Schroth, and Charles Montgomery Skinner. The paper, renamed The Brooklyn Daily Eagle and Kings County Democrat on June 1,1846, was renamed, on May 14,1849. On September 5,1938, the name was further shortened, a new version of the Brooklyn Eagle as a revival of the old newspapers traditions began publishing in 1996. The archive was purchased by Ancestry. com for their newspapers. com website, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle was first published on October 26,1841. Its address at this time, and for years afterwards, was at 28 Old Fulton Street. From 1846 to 1848, the editor was the poet Walt Whitman. In August 1938, Frank D. Schroth bought the newspaper from M. Preston Goodfellow, the newspaper received the 1951 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its crime reporting during the year. Investigative journalist Ed Reid in an eight-part series exposed the activities of bookmaker Harry Gross and this exposé led to an investigation by the Brooklyn District Attorney, and resulted in the eventual resignation of Mayor of New York City William ODwyer. On June 22,1953, a boy, collecting for the Brooklyn Eagle. When he dropped it on the ground, it popped open, the microfilm contained a series of numbers. He told the New York City Police Department, who in two days told a Federal Bureau of Investigation agent about the strange nickel. Thomas N. C. which covered the activities and actions of the United States Congress in the Quarterly, and national capital political events in the Journal which endure into the 21st Century. In 1960, former book publisher Robert W. Farrell acquired the Eagles assets in bankruptcy court. In 1962–1963, under the corporate name Newspaper Consolidated Corporation, Farrell, during the 1962–63 New York City newspaper strike, the paper saw circulation grow from 50,000 to 390,000 until the strike ended. The final edition appeared on June 25,1963, a smaller newspaper also focused on the borough, The Brooklyn Daily Bulletin began publishing when the original Eagle folded in 1955. In 1996, it merged with a newly revived Brooklyn Daily Eagle, as of 2014, it is one of three English-language daily newspapers published in the borough of Brooklyn. As an homage to the original Eagle it publishes a daily feature called On This Day in History and it is published by J. Dozier Hasty under the auspices of Everything Brooklyn Media
24.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
25.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
26.
Rosendale cement
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The fast-setting Rosendale natural cement mortars proved to be more efficient than the mortars based on lime and sand. Because of its reputation, Rosendale cement has also used as both a trade name and as a generic term referring to natural hydraulic cements produced elsewhere. Natural cement is produced in a process begins with the calcination of crushed carbonate sedimentary rocks in kilns. The resulting clinker is ground into a powder before being shipped to market. Historically, this natural cement product was packaged in paper-lined wooden barrels or heavy canvas bags, Rosendale natural cement from the Rosendale area was produced from dolostone extracted from the Rosendale and Whiteport members of the Late Silurian Rondout Formation. Because of the switch to Portland cement, by the end of the 1920s, in the early 1930s, it was discovered that Portland cement, with a faster curing time, was not as durable, especially for highways. As a result, some states stopped building highways and roads with cement, mr. Wait convinced the New York Commissioner of Highways to construct near New Paltz, New York, an experimental section of highway using one sack of Rosendale to six sacks of synthetic cement. It proved a success, and for decades the Rosendale-synthetic cement blend was common in highway, many of the original cement plants in the Rosendale area are preserved in the Snyder Estate Natural Cement Historic District. Energetically modified cement The Society for the Preservation of Historic Cements, Inc
27.
Essex County, New York
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Essex County is a county in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 39,370 and its county seat is the hamlet of Elizabethtown. Its name is from the English county of Essex, along with Hamilton County, Essex is entirely within the Adirondack Park. When counties were established in the state of New York in 1683 and this was an enormous county, including the northern part of New York state as well as all of the present state of Vermont and, in theory, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. This county was reduced in size on July 3,1766, by the creation of Cumberland County, on March 12,1772, what was left of Albany County was split into three parts, one remaining under the name Albany County. One of the pieces, Charlotte County, contained the eastern portion. In 1784, the name Charlotte County was changed to Washington County to honor George Washington, in 1788, Clinton County was split off from Washington County. This was a larger area than the present Clinton County. Essex County was split from Clinton County in 1799, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,916 square miles, of which 1,794 square miles is land and 122 square miles is water. It is the second-largest county in New York by land area, Essex County is in the northeastern part of New York state, just west of Vermont along the eastern boundary of the state. The eastern boundary of Essex County is Lake Champlain, which serves as the New York – Vermont border at an elevation of just under 100 feet, the highest natural point in New York, Mount Marcy at 5,344 feet, is in the town of Keene. The Ausable River forms a northern boundary for the county. As of the census of 2000, there were 38,851 people,15,028 households, the population density was 22 people per square mile. There were 23,115 housing units at a density of 13 per square mile. Of the population,22. 0% were of French,16. 3% Irish,13. 0% English,8. 6% German,7. 1% American and 6. 2% Italian ancestry,95. 2% spoke English,2. 2% Spanish, and 1. 3% French as their first language. 28. 30% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.93. In the county, the population was out with 22. 80% under the age of 18,6. 90% from 18 to 24,29. 80% from 25 to 44,24. 50% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 107.60 males
28.
Vinalhaven, Maine
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Vinalhaven is a town located on the larger of the two Fox Islands in Knox County, Maine, United States. Vinalhaven is also used to refer to the Island itself, the population was 1,165 at the 2010 census. It is home to a lobster fishery and hosts a summer colony. Archeological remains indicate that the island was first inhabited 3800–5000 years ago by the Red Paint People, europeans visited in the 16th century, and English Capt. Martin Pring named the archipelago Fox Islands in 1603. Others soon followed to establish the fishing and farming community in the Gulf of Maine. The first families of Vinalhaven are considered to be Arey, Calderwood, Carver, Coombs, Dyer, Ginn, Greem, Hopkins, Lane, Leadbetter, Norton, Philbrook, Pierce, Roberts, Smith, Warren and Vinal. On June 25,1789, Vinalhaven was incorporated as a town, Vinal was not an island resident, merely the agent who petitioned the Maine General Court to incorporate the new township, nonetheless the name stuck. In 1847, the North Fox Island seceded and became a township called North Haven. Fishing, shipbuilding, logging and shipping were important early businesses on Vinalhaven, high quality granite was discovered in 1826, and Vinalhaven became one of Maines largest quarrying centers for the next century. Today the island is dotted with abandoned old quarries, many of which have filled with groundwater and are popular swimming holes for residents. Granite was shipped for customs houses and post offices in New York, St. Louis, Kansas City, Buffalo, the quarries also provided foundation stone for the cathedral. A noted lobster fishing community, Vinalhaven has fishing rights to much of Penobscot Bay, shrimp, dogfish, mackerel and herring are also abundant in the waters around Vinalhaven. Vinalhaven lobstermen were the first in the nation to unionize and they began to organize in the winter of 2012-13, after frustration with low lobster prices being to paid to them and disagreements with the Maine Lobstermens Associations leadership. Like neighboring North Haven Island, Vinalhaven is well known for its community of wealthy Northeasterners, mostly from Boston, New York. The movie The Islander was filmed on Vinalhaven and some of the locals acted in the movie. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 168.69 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,165 people,545 households, the population density was 49.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,295 housing units at a density of 55.2 per square mile
29.
New York (magazine)
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New York is a bi-weekly magazine concerned with life, culture, politics, and style generally, and with a particular emphasis on New York City. Founded by Milton Glaser and Clay Felker in 1968 as a competitor to The New Yorker, it was brasher and less polite, and established itself as a cradle of New Journalism. Since its redesign and relaunch in 2004, the magazine has won more National Magazine Awards than any other publication and it was one of the first dual-audience lifestyle magazines, and its format and style have been emulated by some other American regional city publications. In 2009, its paid and verified circulation was 408,622 and its websites—NYmag. com, Vulture. com, The Cut, and Grub Street—receive visits from more than 14 million users per month. New York began life in 1963 as the Sunday-magazine supplement of the New York Herald Tribune newspaper, edited first by Sheldon Zalaznick and then by Clay Felker, the magazine showcased the work of several talented Tribune contributors, including Tom Wolfe, Barbara Goldsmith, and Jimmy Breslin. Soon after the Tribune went out of business in 1966–67, Felker and his partner, Milton Glaser, gerald Goldsmith, and reincarnated the magazine as a stand-alone glossy. Joining them was managing editor Jack Nessel, Felkers number-two at the Herald Tribune, New Yorks first issue was dated April 8,1968. Among the by-lines were many names from the magazines earlier incarnation, including Breslin, Wolfe, and George Goodman. Within a year, Felker had assembled a team of contributors who would come to define the magazines voice, Breslin became a regular, as did Gloria Steinem, who wrote the city-politics column, and Gail Sheehy. Harold Clurman was hired as the theater critic, Alan Rich covered the classical-music scene. Gael Greene, writing under the rubric The Insatiable Critic, reviewed restaurants, Woody Allen contributed a few stories for the magazine in its early years. The magazines regional focus and innovative illustrations inspired numerous imitators across the country, the office for the magazine was on the top floor of the old Tammany Hall clubhouse at 207 East 32nd Street, which Glaser owned. Wolfe, a contributor to the magazine, wrote a story in 1970 that captured the spirit of the magazine, Radical Chic. The article described a benefit party for the Black Panthers, held in Leonard Bernsteins apartment, in a collision of high culture, in 1972, New York also launched Ms. magazine, which began as a special issue. New West, a magazine on New Yorks model that covered California life, was also published for a few years in the 1970s. As the 1970s progressed, Felker continued to broaden the magazines editorial vision beyond Manhattan, covering Richard Nixon, twenty years later, Cohn admitted that hed done no more than drive by Odysseys door, and that hed made the rest up. It was a problem of what Wolfe, in 1972, had labeled The New Journalism. In 1976, the Australian media baron Rupert Murdoch bought the magazine in a hostile takeover, a succession of editors followed, including Joe Armstrong and John Berendt
30.
C-SPAN
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C-SPAN, an acronym for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service. C-SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government, as well as public affairs programming. Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited, thereby providing viewers with unfiltered information about politics, non-political coverage includes historical programming, programs dedicated to non-fiction books, and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy. The network operates independently, and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming, Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions. Lamb shared his idea with several executives, who helped him launch the network. Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $25,000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C-SPAN signal. C-SPAN was launched on March 19,1979, in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives, upon its debut, only 3.5 million homes were wired for C-SPAN, and the network had just three employees. The second C-SPAN channel, C-SPAN2, followed on June 2,1986 when the U. S. Senate permitted itself to be televised, C-SPAN Radio began operations on October 9,1997, covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming. The station broadcasts on WCSP in Washington, D. C. is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c-span. org and it was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006. Lamb semi-retired in March 2012, coinciding with the channels 33rd anniversary, on January 12,2017, the online feed for C-SPAN1 was interrupted and replaced by a feed from the Russian television network RT for approximately 10 minutes. C-SPAN announced that they were troubleshooting the incident and were operating under the assumption that it was an internal routing issue, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three-hour retrospective, featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network. Five years later, the series American Presidents, Life Portraits, in 2004, C-SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary, by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes, C-SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C-SPAN3 was in eight million homes. Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C-SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service. For example, one essay contest winner wrote about how C-SPANs non-fiction book programming serves as a resource in his mission to record non-fiction audio books for people who are blind. The network also had an essay contest, the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPANs Capitol Hill studios. C-SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings, with a history of requests to government officials for greater access, in December 2009, Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate, requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C-SPAN. Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C-SPAN and may be viewed on the C-SPAN website, in November 2010, Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House. In particular, C-SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government-controlled cameras in the House chamber, in February 2011, Boehner denied the request
31.
Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct
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Roeblings Delaware Aqueduct, also known as the Roebling Bridge, is the oldest existing wire suspension bridge in the United States. It runs 535 feet over the Delaware River, from Minisink Ford, New York, to Lackawaxen, opened in 1849 as an aqueduct connecting two parts of the Delaware & Hudson Canal, it has since been converted to carry automotive traffic and pedestrians. The bridge was begun in 1847 as one of four suspension aqueducts on the D&H Canal, the canal opened in 1828, was enlarged after the 1840s, and closed in 1898. Russell F. Lord and John A. Roebling designed the bridge, Roebling would design the Brooklyn Bridge 20 years later. Two important local industries with conflicting needs brought about construction of Roeblings Delaware and Lackawaxen Aqueducts, canal traffic, since the mid-18th century, timber from the Delaware valley had been floated down the river to shipyards and industries in Trenton and Philadelphia. The D&H Canals rope ferry crossing of the Delaware at Lackawaxen created a bottleneck, in 1846, to alleviate both problems, the D&H Canal Company approved Russell F. Lords plan to substitute two new aqueducts in place of the rope ferry, after evaluating several options, Lord recommended designs submitted by John A. Roebling, who had already built a wire suspension aqueduct at Pittsburgh in 1845. To raise the canal enough to allow the passage of ice floes and river traffic, after the canal closed in 1898, the aqueduct was drained and converted into a vehicular bridge. Eventually, the sides and towpaths were removed. It operated as a bridge for wagons and, later. Portions of the D&H Canal, including the Delaware Aqueduct, were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1968, the Delaware Aqueduct is also designated a National Civil Engineering Landmark. The National Park Service bought the bridge in 1980, the bridge is now part of the Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River. PA-1, Delaware & Hudson Canal, Delaware Aqueduct HAER No, nY-205, Delaware & Hudson Canal, Delaware Aqueduct Toll House Delaware Aqueduct Bridge at Structurae
32.
Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania
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Lackawaxen Township is the largest and northernmost township in Pike County, Pennsylvania. The population was 4,994 at the 2010 census, the Delaware River, which marks the eastern boundary of the township, joins the Lackawaxen River at Lackawaxen Village. The housing communities Fawn Lake Forest and Masthope Mountain are in the township, the European-American settlement in 1798 adopted the Lenape name Lackawaxen, meaning swift waters, after the river that flows twelve miles through the township. Bands of both Algonquian-speaking Lenape and Iroquoian-speaking Seneca lived in the area through the early 19th century, neither tribe had any substantial villages in the area, and they used the land as hunting grounds. Their tools, pot shards and bone fragments have been found at Native American rock shelters, the first permanent European settlers in the area were Jonathan Conkling and John Barnes, who built in 1770. During the early part of the 19th century, logging was the commercial activity in the area. It produced as much as 50 million board feet of lumber annually, workers floated logs downriver on the Delaware to markets in Easton or Trenton. In 1829, the Delaware and Hudson Canal began operating between Honesdale, Pennsylvania and Kingston, New York, in its time, the canal company was the largest private commercial enterprise in the nation. It built 28 locks in Lackawaxen Township alone, raising the elevation of the canal 278 feet, some of the old locks are still visible and several lock houses are now privately owned. Roeblings Delaware Aqueduct, built by John A. Roebling, famed engineer of the Brooklyn Bridge, was constructed in 1848 as part of the canal and it is now preserved as a National Civil Engineering Landmark and National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service. In 1848, the New York and Erie Railroad was built through the area, although the continued to operate for another fifty years. At the same time, the railroad brought tourism to the area and new sources of revenue, stations were built at Lackawaxen, West Colang and Mast Hope, and elaborate resort hotels soon were developed nearby. They often provided guides to visitors for fishing, hiking and riding in the area, bluestone quarrying became a major enterprise in the area, starting in the mid-19th century. It was used extensively in the construction of the regions buildings, from 1905 to 1918, western author Zane Grey lived in Lackawaxen with his wife and growing family. His early stories related his experiences of fishing along the upper Delaware, listed on the National Register of Historic Places is the Greys home from 1914 to 1918, now preserved by the NPS as a house museum, part of the Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River area. Grey was buried nearby in the local Union Cemetery, physician Orvan Hess was born here. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 81.2 square miles. A scenic area within the Upper Delaware River National Park, Lackawaxen is located about a two-hour drive from New York City and it is also located about twenty-two miles north-west of Milford, the County Seat of Government of Pike County
33.
John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge
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The John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge spans the Ohio River between Cincinnati, Ohio and Covington, Kentucky. When the first pedestrians crossed on December 1,1866, it was the longest suspension bridge in the world at 1,057 feet main span. Pedestrians use the bridge to get between the venues in Cincinnati and the hotels, bars, restaurants, and parking lots in Northern Kentucky. The bar and restaurant district at the foot of the bridge on the Kentucky side is known as Roebling Point, ramps were constructed leading directly from the bridge to the Dixie Terminal building used for streetcars. When streetcar service ceased in the 1950s the terminal was converted to a bus terminal. The ramps were removed in 1998 when it ceased being used as a bus terminal, in the decades before 1856, want and need of a passage over the Ohio River was apparent. Commerce between Ohio and Kentucky could not continue unless some form of transportation was devised that did not bow to the whims of mother nature, the distance from shore to shore was great and the steamboat traffic highly congested. The only solution that would not constrict traffic on the river even further was a cable suspension bridge of the type developed by French engineers. Several American engineers had begun designing and building suspension bridges, one of these men was John A. Roebling of Saxonburg, Pennsylvania. The Ohio River, however, was wider than any river that had been bridged in France. The Covington and Cincinnati Bridge Company was incorporated in February 1846, steamboat and ferry interest groups lobbied against this plan, not believing the dimensions stated. They feared an obstructed waterway, loss of a market, depreciation of property. This very closely resembled the opposition to the Brooklyn Bridge that would be voiced in New York City 30 years later, the Ohio legislature refused the charter of the bridge. In September, Roebling published a 36-page report containing a convincing technical discussion and he attacked steamboat operators for using oversized chimneys, speculated on future commercial interests, and surmised on the importance of spanning western rivers. Roebling also specified that the company should be autonomous in regard to decision making concerning the placement of the bridge along the river. This latter provision would later be regretted by everyone involved, the roads of Cincinnati and Covington were laid collinear with each other, in the hope that a bridge would be built sometime in the future. The bridge itself would be located almost entirely in Kentucky because the boundary follows the north bank of the river. It deprived Cincinnati forever of one of the finest and most magnificent avenues on this continent, in 1854, a small suspension bridge over the Licking River at Newport collapsed
34.
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
35.
Covington, Kentucky
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Covington is a city in Kenton County, Kentucky. It is located at the confluence of the Ohio and Licking rivers, cincinnati, Ohio, lies to its north across the Ohio and Newport, Kentucky, to its east across the Licking. Part of the Cincinnati–Northern Kentucky metropolitan area, Covington had a population of 40,640 at the time of the 2010 U. S. census and it is one of its countys two seats, along with Independence. The city was incorporated by the Kentucky General Assembly a year later. Stewart Iron Works was established in 1862 and became the largest iron fence maker in the world, Covington experienced growth during most of the 19th century, only to decline during the Great Depression and the middle 20th century. The city has seen some redevelopment during the late 20th and early 21st centuries, instead, Covington was awarded a team in the new outlaw circuit, the Federal League. The city raised $13,500, with $6,000 budgeted to build the ballpark, bernard Wisehall, a prominent local architect, designed Federal Park with a capacity to 6,000. The playing field was tiny, believed to be smallest for any pro baseball park ever built, by June, Covington was seeing only a few hundred fans per contest. On June 26, the moved to Kansas City and ownership of the team reverted to creditors. Federal Park was used for other events the next few years, Covington has not hosted a professional team in any sport since. Covington claims 19 distinct neighborhoods, ranging in population from several hundred to 10,000 people, many of the neighborhoods are located in 12 historic districts that are predominantly found in the northern portion of the city. According to the United States Census Bureau, Covington has an area of 13.7 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 43,370 people,18,257 households, the population density was 3,301.3 people per square mile. There were 20,448 housing units at a density of 1,556.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 87. 05% White,10. 14% African American,0. 24% Native American,0. 34% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 63% from other races, and 1. 57% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 1. 38% of the population,36. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the family size was 3.08. The age distribution was 25. 9% under the age of 18,10. 0% from 18 to 24,33. 3% from 25 to 44,19. 0% from 45 to 64, the median age was 33 years
36.
Ferry
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A ferry is a merchant vessel used to carry passengers, and sometimes vehicles and cargo as well, across a body of water. Most ferries operate regular return services, a passenger ferry with many stops, such as in Venice, Italy, is sometimes called a water bus or water taxi. Ferries form a part of the transport systems of many waterside cities and islands. However, ship connections of much larger distances may also be called ferry services, the profession of the ferryman is embodied in Greek mythology in Charon, the boatman who transported souls across the River Styx to the Underworld. Speculation that a pair of oxen propelled a ship having a wheel can be found in 4th century Roman literature Anonymus De Rebus Bellicis. Though impractical, there is no reason why it could not work and such a ferry, see When Horses Walked on Water, Horse-Powered Ferries in Nineteenth-Century America. The Marine Services Company of Tanzania offers passenger and cargo services in three of the African Great Lakes viz, Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa. It also operates one of the oldest ferries in the region, Ferries from Great Britain also sail to Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Ireland. Some ferries carry mainly tourist traffic, but most also carry freight, in Britain, car-carrying ferries are sometimes referred to as RORO for the ease by which vehicles can board and leave. The busiest single ferry route is across the part of Øresund. Before the Øresund bridge was opened in July 2000, car and car & train ferries departed up to seven times every hour, in 2013, this has been reduced, but a car ferry still departs from each harbor every 15 minutes during daytime. The route is around 2.2 nautical miles and the crossing takes 22 minutes, today, all ferries on this route are constructed so that they do not need to turn around in the harbors. This also means that the ferries lack natural stems and sterns, due to the same circumstances, starboard and port-side are dynamic and depending of in what direction the ferry sails. Despite the short crossing, the ferries are equipped with restaurants, cafeteria, kiosks, large cruiseferries sail in the Baltic Sea between Finland, Åland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia and Saint Petersburg, Russia and from Italy to Sardinia, Corsica, Spain and Greece. In many ways, these ferries are like cruise ships, also many smaller ferries operate on domestic routes in Finland, Sweden and Estonia. The south-west and southern parts of the Baltic Sea has several routes mainly for heavy traffic, on the longer of these routes, simple cabins are available. In Istanbul, ferries connect the European and Asian shores of Bosphorus, as well as Princes Islands, in 2014 İDO transported 47 million passengers, the largest ferry system in the world. Due to the numbers of freshwater lakes and length of shoreline in Canada
37.
Deep foundation
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A deep foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth farther down from the surface than a shallow foundation does, to a subsurface layer or a range of depths. A pile is a structural element of a deep foundation. There are different terms used to different types of deep foundations including the pile, the pier, drilled shafts. Piles are generally driven into the ground in situ, other foundations are typically put in place using excavation. The naming conventions may vary between engineering disciplines and firms, Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver, driven piles are either wood, reinforced concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from the trunks of tall trees, concrete piles are available in square, octagonal, and round cross-sections. They are reinforced with rebar and are often prestressed, steel piles are either pipe piles or some sort of beam section. Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a cap to distribute loads which are larger than one pile can bear. A monopile foundation utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to all the loads of a large above-surface structure. A transition piece is attached to the now deeply driven pile, an additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection. Rotary boring techniques allow larger diameter piles than any other piling method, Construction methods depend on the geology of the site, in particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in dry ground conditions or through water-saturated strata - i. e. wet boring. Casing is often used when the sides of the borehole are likely to slough off before concrete is poured, for end-bearing piles, drilling continues until the borehole has extended a sufficient depth into a sufficiently strong layer. Depending on site geology, this can be a layer, or hardpan, or other dense. Both the diameter of the pile and the depth of the pile are highly specific to the conditions, loading conditions. Pile depths may vary substantially across a project if the layer is not level. Drilled piles can be tested using a variety of methods to verify the pile integrity during installation, under-reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that are as much as 6 m in diameter. The form is that of a cone and can only be formed in stable soils
38.
Washington Roebling
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Washington Augustus Roebling was an American civil engineer best known for supervising the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, which was initially designed by his father John A. Roebling. The oldest son of John Roebling, Washington was born in Saxonburg, Pennsylvania and his early schooling consisted of tutoring by Riedel and under Henne in Pittsburgh. He was also sent to stay with Professor Lemuel Stephens of the Western University of Pennsylvania where Roebling also attended some classes, following his graduation as civil engineer, he joined his father to work as a bridge builder. From 1858 to 1860, he assisted his father on the Allegheny Bridge project, following the completion of the bridge, he returned to Trenton to work in his fathers wire mill. On April 16,1861, during the American Civil War, seeking more than garrison duty, he resigned after two months and re-enlisted in a New York artillery battery, 2nd Lieut. Company K, 83rd NY Volunteers performing staff duty engaged in the erection of suspension bridges and he rose steadily in rank and was soon commissioned as an officer. Roebling saw action in numerous battles, Manassas Junction, Antietam, Chancellorsville, the Wilderness, Siege of Petersburg, soon after Chancellorsville, he was perhaps the first to note the movement of Robert E. Lees Confederate Army toward the northwest while conducting air balloon reconnaissance. On July 2,1863, during Gettysburg, Roebling was one of the officers on Little Round Top. Observing signs of Confederate troops approaching, he hurried down the hill to report to Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, general Warren and Roebling then descended the hill to find troops to secure this important tactical position. Roebling assisted in hoisting artillery up the hill, while Warren sent two of his aides, one of whom was Lt. Ranald S. Mackenzie, searching for infantry support, the two aides were able to secure a brigade from the Union V Corps. This brigade was commanded by Col, strong Vincent whose brigade immediately occupied the hill and defended the left flank of the Army of the Potomac against repeated Confederate attacks. However, the 140th New York provided much needed reinforcements, Roebling was brevetted lieutenant colonel in December 1864 for gallant service, ending his service brevetted to colonel. After the war, he became a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. From mid-1865 to 1867, Roebling worked with his father on the Cincinnati-Covington Bridge, while traveling in Europe to research wire mills, bridges and caisson foundations, his only son, John A. Roebling, II, was born. After returning in 1868, Washington became assistant engineer on the Brooklyn Bridge and he made several important improvements on the bridge design and further developed bridge building techniques. Thus, he designed the two large pneumatic caissons that became the foundations for the two towers, in 1870, fire broke out in one of the caissons, from within the caisson, Roebling directed the efforts to extinguish the flames. Besides the bends, he may have had additional afflictions, possible neurasthenia, side effects of treatments, although husband and wife jointly planned the bridges continued construction, Emily successfully lobbied for formal retention of Washington as chief engineer. McCullough remarked that nowhere in the history of great undertakings is there anything comparable to Roebling conducting the largest and most difficult engineering project ever in absentia, Roebling would battle the after-effects from the caisson disease and its treatment the rest of his life
39.
Caisson (engineering)
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These are constructed such that the water can be pumped out, keeping the working environment dry. When piers are to be using an open caisson and it is not practical to reach suitable soil. These piles are connected by a foundation pad upon which the pier is erected. Shallow caissons may be open to the air, whereas pneumatic caissons, an airlock allows access to the chamber. Workers move mud and rock debris from the edge of the workspace to a water-filled pit, a crane at the surface removes the soil with a clamshell bucket. The water pressure in the tube balances the air pressure, with excess air escaping up the muck tube, the pressurized air flow must be constant to ensure regular air changes for the workers and prevent excessive inflow of mud or water at the base of the caisson. To install a caisson in place, it is brought down through soft mud until a foundation material is encountered. While bedrock is preferred, a stable, hard mud is used when bedrock is too deep. Caisson disease has been named since it appeared in construction workers when they left the atmosphere of the caisson. It is caused by the processes as decompression sickness in divers. Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, which was built with the help of caissons, barotrauma of the ears, sinus cavities and lungs and dysbaric osteonecrosis are other risks. Caissons have also used in the installation of hydraulic elevators where a single-stage ram is installed below the ground level. Caissons, codenamed Phoenix, were a part of the Mulberry harbours used during the World war II Allied invasion of Normandy. The four main types of caisson are box caisson, open caisson, compressed-air caisson, a box caisson is a prefabricated concrete box, it is set down on prepared bases. Once in place, it is filled with concrete to become part of the permanent works, hollow concrete structures are usually less dense than water so a box caisson must be ballasted or anchored to keep it from floating until it can be filled with concrete. Sometimes elaborate anchoring systems may be required, such as in tidal zones, adjustable anchoring systems combined with a GPS survey enable engineers to position a box caisson with pinpoint accuracy. An open caisson is similar to a box caisson, except that it not have a bottom face. It is suitable for use in soft clays, but not for where there may be large obstructions in the ground, a caisson is sunk by self-weight, concrete or water ballast placed on top, or by hydraulic jacks
40.
Emily Warren Roebling
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Emily Warren Roebling is known for her contribution to the completion of the Brooklyn Bridge after her husband Washington Roebling developed caisson disease. Her husband was a engineer and the Chief Engineer during the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Emily was born to Sylvanus and Phebe Warren at Cold Spring and she was the second youngest of twelve children. Emily’s interest in pursuing education was supported by her older brother Gouverneur K. Warren, the two siblings always held a close relationship. In 1864, during the American Civil War, Emily visited her brother, then commanding the Fifth Army Corps, at his headquarters. During the visit, she became acquainted with Washington Roebling, the son of Brooklyn Bridge designer John A. Roebling, Emily and Washington met and on January 18,1865, the two were married. As John Roebling was starting his work on the Brooklyn Bridge, in November 1867, Emily gave birth to the couples only child, John A. Roebling II. As he immersed himself in the project, Washington developed caisson disease and it was at this point that Emily stepped in as the first woman field engineer and saw out the completion of the Brooklyn Bridge. As the only person to visit her husband during his sickness, Emily was to relay information from Washington to his assistants and she developed an extensive knowledge of strength of materials, stress analysis, cable construction, and calculating catenary curves through Washingtons teachings. Emilys knowledge was complemented by her prior interest in and study of the bridges construction upon her husbands appointment to Chief Engineer, for the next fourteen years, Emilys dedication to the completion of the Brooklyn Bridge was unyielding. She took over much of the chief engineers duties, including day-to-day supervision, Emily and her husband jointly planned the bridges continued construction. She dealt with politicians, competing engineers, and all associated with the work on the bridge to the point where people believed she was behind the bridges design. In 1882, Washingtons title of chief engineer was in due to his sickness. In order to him to retain his title, Emily went to gatherings of engineers. To the Roeblings relief, the politicians responded well to Emilys speeches, with Washington still Chief Engineer, the Brooklyn Bridge was finally completed in 1883. In advance of the opening, carrying a rooster as a sign of victory. Today the Brooklyn Bridge holds a plaque dedicated to the memory of Emily, her husband Washington Roebling, after the completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, the Roebling family moved to Trenton, New Jersey. She travelled widely—in 1896 she was presented to Queen Victoria and she was in Russia for the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II and she also continued her education and received a law degree from New York University
41.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
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Catenary
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In physics and geometry, a catenary is the curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its own weight when supported only at its ends. The curve has a U-like shape, superficially similar in appearance to a parabola, the curve appears in the design of certain types of arches and as a cross section of the catenoid—the shape assumed by a soap film bounded by two parallel circular rings. The catenary is also called the alysoid, chainette, or, particularly in the materials sciences, mathematically, the catenary curve is the graph of the hyperbolic cosine function. The surface of revolution of the curve, the catenoid, is a minimal surface. The mathematical properties of the curve were first studied by Robert Hooke in the 1670s. Catenaries and related curves are used in architecture and engineering, in the design of bridges and arches, in the offshore oil and gas industry, catenary refers to a steel catenary riser, a pipeline suspended between a production platform and the seabed that adopts an approximate catenary shape. The word catenary is derived from the Latin word catēna, which means chain and it appears to be a very scientifical work. I have not yet had time to engage in it, but I find that the conclusions of his demonstrations are and it is often said that Galileo thought the curve of a hanging chain was parabolic. That the curve followed by a chain is not a parabola was proven by Joachim Jungius, some much older arches approximate catenaries, an example of which is the Arch of Taq-i Kisra in Ctesiphon. David Gregory wrote a treatise on the catenary in 1697 in which he provided an incorrect derivation of the differential equation. Euler proved in 1744 that the catenary is the curve which, nicolas Fuss gave equations describing the equilibrium of a chain under any force in 1796. Catenary arches are used in the construction of kilns. To create the desired curve, the shape of a chain of the desired dimensions is transferred to a form which is then used as a guide for the placement of bricks or other building material. The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, United States is sometimes said to be an catenary and it is close to a more general curve called a flattened catenary, with equation y = A cosh, which is a catenary if AB =1. While a catenary is the shape for a freestanding arch of constant thickness. According to the U. S. National Historic Landmark nomination for the arch and its shape corresponds to the shape that a weighted chain, having lighter links in the middle, would form. In free-hanging chains, the force exerted is uniform with respect to length of the chain, the same is true of a simple suspension bridge or catenary bridge, where the roadway follows the cable. A stressed ribbon bridge is a sophisticated structure with the same catenary shape
Presentation by David McCullough on The Great Bridge, September 17, 2002, C-SPAN
I-278 (Brooklyn–Queens Expressway) / Cadman Plaza West
FDR Drive / Pearl Street
Chambers Street west / Centre Street north to NY 9A
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"The Great Bridge and its Lessons" in Popular Science Monthly Volume 23, July 1883
