1.
Newspaper
–
A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
2.
Tabloid (newspaper format)
–
A tabloid is a newspaper with a compact page size smaller than broadsheet. There is no standard size for this newspaper format, the term tabloid journalism refers to an emphasis on such topics as sensational crime stories, astrology, celebrity gossip and television, and is not a reference to newspapers printed in this format. Some small-format papers with a standard of journalism refer to themselves as compact newspapers. Larger newspapers, traditionally associated with higher-quality journalism, are called broadsheets, in common usage, tabloid and broadsheet are frequently more descriptive of a newspapers market position than physical format. The Berliner format used by many prominent European newspapers is sized between the tabloid and the broadsheet, in a newspaper context, the term Berliner is generally used only to describe size, not to refer to other qualities of the publication. The word tabloid comes from the name given by the London-based pharmaceutical company Burroughs Wellcome & Co. to the compressed tablets they marketed as Tabloid pills in the late 1880s, the connotation of tabloid was soon applied to other small compressed items. A1902 item in Londons Westminister Gazette noted, The proprietor intends to give in tabloid form all the news printed by other journals, thus tabloid journalism in 1901 originally meant a paper that condensed stories into a simplified, easily absorbed format. The term preceded the 1918 reference to smaller sheet newspapers that contained the condensed stories, a tabloid is defined as roughly 17 by 11 inches and commonly half the size of a broadsheet. Tabloid newspapers, especially in the United Kingdom, boast a very high degree of variation as far as target market, political alignment, editorial style, thus, various terms have been coined to describe the subtypes of this versatile paper format. There are, broadly, two types of tabloid newspaper, red top and compact. The distinction is largely of editorial style, both red top and compact tabloids span the width of the spectrum from socialism to capitalist conservatism. The red top tabloid is, for many, the example of the format. Red tops tend to be written with a simplistic, straightforward vocabulary and grammar, their layout, more often than not, in the extreme case, red top tabloids have been accused of lying or misrepresenting the truth to increase circulation. Poll results are often predicted by red top papers, examples of British red top newspapers include The Sun, the Daily Star, the Daily Mirror and the Daily Sport. In contrast to red top tabloids, compacts use a style more closely associated with broadsheet newspapers. In fact, most compact tabloids formerly used the paper size. The term compact was coined in the 1970s by the Daily Mail, one of the newspapers to make the change. The purpose behind this was to avoid the association of the word tabloid with the flamboyant, the early converts from broadsheet format made the change in the 1970s, two notable British papers that took this step at the time were the Daily Mail and the Daily Express
3.
Frank D. Schroth
–
Frank D. Schroth was an American newspaper publisher who owned and operated the Brooklyn Eagle from 1938 until its demise in 1955 after a strike by The Newspaper Guild. Schroth was born on October 18,1884, in Trenton, New Jersey and he started in the newspaper industry at The True American. He was hired as news and political reporter the next year by The Trenton Times. From 1914 to 1925, he was secretary of the New Jersey State Board of Taxes and he acquired The Trenton State Gazette in 1925 and served as its associate publisher and general manager until 1933. Schroth purchased the paper on August 1,1938, from M. Preston Goodfellow, a statement published in the paper to announce the sale indicated Schroths faith in the viability of the newspaper and in Brooklyn as a community. In addition to dropping the word Daily from the title, Schroth increased the papers profile. The Newspaper Guild went on strike in 1955, with the paper publishing what turned out to be its last issue on January 29. On March 17, Schroth announced that he had made the decision to shut down the publication, as the paper had been destroyed by the Newspaper Guild. Efforts by the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service to mediate the dispute had been unsuccessful and he was one of the originators behind the creation of the Brooklyn war memorial erected in Cadman Plaza. He moved back to Trenton after the Eagle closed and died on June 10,1974, at a New Milford and he was survived by three sons,26 grandchildren and 8 great-grandchildren. Schroths daughter, Sister Marie Eustelle of the Order of Sisters of Charity, died on October 19,1940, in Elizabeth, New Jersey after a long illness. A grandson, the Rev. Raymond A. Schroth SJ, is a Jesuit priest and was the dean of The College of the Holy Cross, Worcester MA, in the early 1980s
4.
Brooklyn
–
Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
5.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
6.
Walt Whitman
–
Walter Walt Whitman was an American poet, essayist, and journalist. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works, Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. His work was controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass. Born in Huntington on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans. Whitmans major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money, the work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892, after a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. When he died at age 72, his became an public spectacle. Walter Whitman was born on May 31,1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interests in Quaker thought, Walter, the second of nine children, he was immediately nicknamed Walt to distinguish him from his father. Walter Whitman, Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders, Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson, the oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couples sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward, at age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments. Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, one happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4,1825. At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling, there, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting. He may have written sentimental bits of material for occasional issues. Clements aroused controversy when he and two attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head. Clements left the Patriot shortly afterward, possibly as a result of the controversy, the following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn. His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, at age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn. He moved to New York City to work as a compositor though, in later years, in May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island. Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, after his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York to found his own newspaper, the Long Islander
7.
Thomas Kinsella (New York)
–
Thomas Kinsella was a United States Representative from New York. Born in County Wexford, Ireland, he immigrated to the United States and settled in New York City and he was postmaster of Brooklyn in 1866, and was a member of the city water commission and board of education. Kinsella was elected as a Democrat to the Forty-second Congress, holding office from March 4,1871 to March 3,1873 and he was not a candidate for renomination in 1872. He established the Brooklyn Sunday Sun in 1874, it combined with the Daily Eagle. He was interred in Holy Cross Cemetery, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
8.
Brooklyn Public Library
–
The Brooklyn Public Library is the public library system of the borough of Brooklyn, in New York City. It is the fifth largest public library system in the United States, in Fiscal Year 2009, Brooklyn Public Library had the highest program attendance of any public library system in the United States. The library currently promotes itself as Bklyn Public Library, in 1852, several prominent citizens established the Brooklyn Athenaeum and Reading Room for the instruction of young men. Its collections focused on the arts and the humanities such as biography, economics, history, literature, philosophy. The Librarian-in-Charge was Stephen Buttrick Noyes, who went to the Library of Congress in 1866. He later commenced developing the extensive catalog for the collections which he completed in 1888, the two collections were merged in 1869 and later moved to a headquarters building on Montague Street. In 1878, the Library Associations were renamed the Brooklyn Public Library, the first free public library in Brooklyn was that of Pratt Institute, a collegiate institute founded by Charles Pratt in 1888. Available not only for its own students and faculty, the library was open to the general public at that early time. The Brooklyn Public Library system was approved by an Act of Legislature of the State of New York on May 1,1892. The Brooklyn Common Council then passed a resolution for the establishment of the Brooklyn Public Library on November 30,1896, the library was re-incorporated in 1902. The first main branch moved among various buildings, including a mansion at 26 Brevoort Place. There are 58 neighborhood branches throughout the borough, of many are Carnegie libraries. The library has four bookmobiles, including the Kidsmobile, which carries childrens materials, and the Bibliobús, the Brooklyn Collection holds the manuscripts and archives for the Brooklyn Public Library and is located at the Central Branch. The Bookmobile is a 32-foot -long,11. 5-foot -high vehicle housing a mobile library, carrying up to 6,000 books, the Bookmobile serves communities whose local branches are closed for renovation. The Bookmobile offers many of the available at other branches. The Kidsmobile is a smaller, more colorful version of the Bookmobile, during the school year, the Kidsmobile visits schools, day care centers, Head Start, after-school programs and community events. In the summer, the Kidsmobile also travels to parks and camps, in addition to books, the Kidsmobile offers storytelling and arts and crafts. The Bibliobús is a mobile Spanish-language library and it brings books and other media to Spanish-speaking communities in Brooklyn
9.
Timeline of Brooklyn
–
This is a timeline and chronology of the history of Brooklyn, New York. Brooklyn is the most populous of New York Citys boroughs, and was settled in 1646,1646 – Village of Breuckelen on the western end of Long Island authorized by the colonizing Dutch West India Company for their North American colony of New Netherland. Named after the town of Breukelen in the province of Utrecht in the Netherlands,1652 – The Wyckoff House is estimated to have been built in 1652, one of the first structures built by Europeans on Long Island. Only a small section remains from 1652 and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1967. and is owned by New York City but is operated by a nonprofit agency. 1658 Old Gravesend Cemetery – National Register of Historic Places, a cemetery, was founded about 1658 and contains the graves of a number of the original patentees and settlers with their families. 1664 – Dutch Peter Stuyvesant surrenders the colony to the Royal Navys English fleet under the authority of the James, New Netherland becomes the Province of New York. 1677 New Utrecht Reformed Church established of the Dutch Reformed Church and is the fourth oldest church in Brooklyn, both the church and the cemetery are listed in the National Register of Historic Places. 1700 – New Utrecht Reformed Church built,1744 – Joost Van Nuyse House, original section was built in 1744 and enlarged between 1793 and 1806. It was moved to its present site in 1925 and it is a 1 1⁄2-story frame house with a steeply pitched flared roof. And was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006,1766 – Wyckoff-Bennett Homestead is believed to have been built before 1766. During the American Revolution, it housed Hessian soldiers for the British Army) and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976. 1776 – August 27 – The Battle of Long Island, the largest battle in the American Revolutionary War starts, British Army wins and later occupies New York, but General George Washington escapes to begin the New York and New Jersey campaign. 1780 – Fort Brooklyn constructed in Brooklyn Heights area along east bank of the East River by the British Army, then occupying New York Town and Manhattan, later razed for housing development by 1823–1825. 1783 – Evacuation Day, November 25, British forces leave New York, gen. George Washington and his officers of the Continental Army march south from Westchester County to resume American control. 1786 – Erasmus Hall High School – oldest public school in the city with antecedents founded as Erasmus Hall Academy. Later joined by free academy in the 1840s as the first public high school, wooden schoolhouse was opened in 1787. Later wings were added to the Academy building and removed,1788 – New York State debates and ratifies the new Constitution to replace the previous Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. 1790 – Small population recorded for the villages of Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights on the end of Long Island in the first decennial United States Census of 1790
10.
Eagle Warehouse & Storage Company
–
The Eagle Warehouse & Storage Company, commonly referred to as the Eagle Warehouse, is a notable building located in Brooklyn, New York. Designed by Brooklyn architect Frank Freeman and completed in 1894, it had a number of uses before being converted into apartments in 1980, described as a masterpiece, the building was designated a New York City landmark in 1977. It is a building in the Fulton Ferry District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. The site on which the Eagle Warehouse is located belonged to the Brooklyn Eagle. From 1846 to 1848, the editor was Walt Whitman. In the late 19th century the Brooklyn Eagle moved its offices to a different location, the site was subsequently purchased by the Eagle Warehouse & Storage Company, whose name was probably derived from that of the Brooklyn Eagle. Prominent Brooklyn architect Frank Freeman was commissioned to build a new warehouse on the site. The warehouse, which was constructed around the old Brooklyn Eagle pressroom, was completed in 1894 at a cost of $300,000 including furnishings. The Eagle Warehouse & Storage Company used the warehouse primarily to store furniture and silverware, in 1906, Freeman added a six-story extension to the east side, which is entirely in character with the original building. Between 1904 and 1928, part of the warehouse was used as the headquarters of the Brooklyn Law School, mcClellan, Jr. and newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst, who accused his victorious opponent of fraud. The case was to drag on for years, with Hearst posting guards to protect the ballot boxes, the building was subsequently used for a variety of purposes. In 1977, it was designated a landmark structure by New Yorks Landmarks Preservation Commission, in 1980, the building was expertly renovated into condominiums by Brooklyn architect Bernard Rothzeid for the sum of $3,000,000, including the $530,000 purchase price. In 2002, one of the buildings 85 apartments was sold for $601,500, the Eagle Warehouse has been described as an exceptionally handsome brick warehouse and as a Freeman masterpiece. The building is divided vertically into three sections, the ground floor is dominated by the main entrance, a bold Roman arch emblazoned with the company name in large bronze lettering, which leads into a magnificent barrel vault. On either side of the entrance are small windows protected by handsome iron grilles. A simple belt course separates the ground floor from the four floors. The top section of the consists of a row of small attic windows. Along the face of the parapet the name of the company appears in bold lettering
11.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
12.
History of the United States Democratic Party
–
The Democratic Party of the United States is the oldest voter-based political party in the world, tracing its heritage back to the 1820s. During the Second Party System, from 1832 to the mid-1850s, under presidents Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, both parties worked hard to build grassroots organizations and maximize the turnout of voters, which often reached 80 percent or 90 percent. Both parties used patronage extensively to finance their operations, which included emerging big city political machines as well as networks of newspapers. The Democratic party was a proponent for farmers across the country, urban workers and it was especially attractive to Irish immigrants who increasingly controlled the party machinery in the cities. The party was less attractive to businessmen, plantation owners, Evangelical Protestants. The party advocated westward expansion, Manifest Destiny, greater equality among all white men, from the start of the Democratic party which was in 1828, 6th President John Quincy Adams was a Democratic-Republican, and he was not a slave-holder. The 7th through 15th Presidents were either Democratic or Whig and all slaveholders, finally, 16th President Abraham Lincoln was a Republican and the only non-slave-holding President, other than John and John Quincy Adams. Thus in 1860 the Civil War began between the mostly-Republican North against the mostly-Democratic, slaveholding South, the Democrats elected only two presidents to four terms of office for 72 years, Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson. The Party was split between the Bourbon Democrats, representing Eastern business interests, and the elements comprising poor farmers in the South. The agrarian element, marching behind the slogan of free silver, captured the Party in 1896, both Bryan and Wilson were leaders of the Progressive Movement, 1890s–1920s. Starting with 32nd President Franklin D. Eisenhower. S, important Democratic progressive/liberal leaders included Presidents, 33rd – Harry S Truman, and 36th – Lyndon B. Since the Presidential Election of 1976, Democrats have won five out of the last ten presidential elections, winning in the elections of 1976,1992 and 1996. The modern Democratic Party emerged in the 1830s from former factions of the Democratic-Republican Party and it was built by Martin Van Buren who assembled a cadre of politicians in every state behind war hero Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. The spirit of Jacksonian Democracy animated the party from the early 1830s to the 1850s, shaping the Second Party System, the new Democratic Party became a coalition of farmers, city-dwelling laborers, and Irish Catholics. Behind the party platforms, acceptance speeches of candidates, editorials, pamphlets and stump speeches, as Norton explains, The Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed the government as the enemy of individual liberty. The 1824 corrupt bargain had strengthened their suspicion of Washington politics, Jacksonians feared the concentration of economic and political power. They believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special-interest groups and their definition of the proper role of government tended to be negative, and Jacksons political power was largely expressed in negative acts
13.
United States Post Office Department
–
The Post Office Department was the predecessor of the United States Postal Service, in the form of a Cabinet department officially from 1872 to 1971. It was headed by the Postmaster General, the Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20,1792, established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean, in office from 1823 to 1829, was the first to call it the Post Office Department rather than just the Post Office. The organization received a boost in prestige when President Andrew Jackson invited his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, the Post Office Act of 1872 elevated the Post Office Department to Cabinet status. The Postal Reorganization Act was signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12,1970 and it replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service on July 1,1971. The regulatory role of the services was then transferred to the Postal Regulatory Commission. Postage stamps and postal history of the United States
14.
Abraham Lincoln
–
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
15.
Boroughs of New York City
–
New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
16.
City of Greater New York
–
The section of the Bronx west of the Bronx River had been annexed to the City and County of New York in 1874, and was known as the Annexed District. In the years leading up to consolidation, the City of Brooklyn had expanded by annexing all of the other towns, only the western part of Queens County was part of the consolidation plan. In 1899, its three eastern towns separated to form the new Nassau County, while remaining a county in relation to the state, each county became a borough within the City, with the Bronx reunited to form a fifth borough that shared New York County with Manhattan. A separate Bronx County was established in 1914, making the present New York County co-extensive with the Borough of Manhattan. The term City of Greater New York was never a legal or official designation as both the original charter of 1898 and the one of 1938 use the name of City of New York. It is still used in books relating or including the time period when the consolidation took place. In the beginning it already wasn’t the people but the State Legislature in New York that attempted to unify the city. They attempted to do so by government vote, in order to harbor facilities and link the systems of trade. He, as it so happened, was at the also a member. The next real challenge to the independence of the boroughs was a self-promoted, the commission led the “Vote for Greater New York movement and was the force behind its coming to fruition. Some opponents derided the effort as Andy Greens hobby, but eventually they were proven wrong, the center of the plan was the consolidation of the twin cities of New York and Brooklyn, whose fire departments had been merged into a Metropolitan Fire District in 1865. The addition of Long Island City and various rural areas anticipated future development of those areas, with Republicans historically more powerful in Brooklyn and Democrats elsewhere, partisan politics played a role, each major political party hoping to dominate the consolidated city. The plan required a referendum in all affected areas, though the organizers of the referendum clearly had a bias towards the consolidation and they even released full page advert in the New York Times before the vote took place, urging them to vote For Consolidation. Opposition, concentrated in Brooklyn and other outlying districts, focused on loss of control and fears of ethnic. Though overall the independence minded Brooklynites did not want their regional identity to be overtaken by New York, some newspapers such as the Brooklyn Daily Eagle argued that consolidation would destroy the mostly homogenous, Protestant character of the city. Opposing newspapers were accused of seeking to retain the revenues of official advertising, however, concerns over how Brooklyns water supply would be maintained and future financial backing would be possible without New-York were far greater than the rest. Considerations of finance and water supply prevailed, and the people of Brooklyn voted by a margin to consolidate. For example, some issues of taxation and changes in governmental procedures require state approval or granting of specific home rule powers, the New York City Board of Estimate, created in the consolidation Charter with equal votes for each borough, was struck down on similar grounds in 1989
17.
The New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
18.
New York Herald Tribune
–
The New York Herald Tribune was a newspaper published between 1924 and 1966. It was created in 1924 when the New York Tribune acquired the New York Herald and it was widely regarded as a writers newspaper and competed with the The New York Times in the daily morning market. The paper won at least nine Pulitzer Prizes during its lifetime, editorially, the newspaper was the voice for eastern Republicans, later referred to as Rockefeller Republicans, and espoused a pro-business, internationalist viewpoint. However, it enjoyed prosperity during World War II and by the end of the conflict had pulled close to the Times in ad revenue. A series of business decisions, combined with aggressive competition from the Times and poor leadership from the Reid family. In 1958, the Reids sold the Herald Tribune to John Hay Whitney, under his leadership, the Tribune experimented with new layouts and new approaches to reporting the news, and made important contributions to the body of New Journalism that developed in the 1960s. Combined with investments in the World Journal Tribune, Whitney spent $39.5 million in his attempts to keep the newspaper alive. After the Herald Tribune closed, the Times and The Washington Post, joined by Whitney, entered an agreement to operate the International Herald Tribune, the International Herald Tribune was renamed the International New York Times in 2013. New York magazine, created as the Herald Tribunes Sunday magazine in 1963, was revived by editor Clay Felker in 1968, the New York Herald was founded on May 6,1835 by James Gordon Bennett, a Scottish immigrant who came to the United States at age 24. The fight over access eventually overshadowed the trial itself, Bennett founded the New York Globe in 1832 to promote the re-election of Andrew Jackson to the White House, but the paper quickly folded after the election. Bennett, who wrote much of the newspaper himself, perfected the fresh, Bennett put his profits back into his newspaper, establishing a Washington bureau and recruiting correspondents in Europe to provide the first systematic foreign coverage in an American newspaper. By 1839, the Heralds circulation exceeded that of the The London Times, the New York Tribune was founded by Horace Greeley in 1841. Greeley, a native of New Hampshire, had begun publishing a paper called The New-Yorker in 1834. Joining the Whig Party, Greeley published The Jeffersonian, which helped elect William H, with Whigs in power, Greeley saw the opportunity to launch a daily penny newspaper for their constituency. The New York Tribune launched on April 10,1841, however, his moralism appealed to rural America, with six months of beginning the Tribune, Greeley combined The New-Yorker and The Log Cabin into a new publication, the Weekly Tribune. The weekly version circulated nationwide, serving as a digest of news melded with agriculture tips, offering prizes like strawberry plants and gold pens to salesmen, the Weekly Tribune reached a circulation of 50,000 within 10 years, outpacing the Heralds weekly edition. The Tribunes ranks included Henry Raymond, who later founded The New York Times, and Charles Dana, Dana served as second-in-command to Greeley, but Greeley abruptly fired him in 1862, after years of personality conflicts between the two men. After the Civil War, Bennett turned over operations of the Herald to his son James Gordon Bennett, Jr
19.
New York Daily News
–
The New York Daily News, officially titled Daily News, is an American newspaper based in New York City. It is the fourth-most widely circulated newspaper in the United States. It was founded in 1919, and was the first U. S. daily printed in tabloid format and it is owned by Mortimer Zuckerman, and is headquartered at 4 New York Plaza in Lower Manhattan. The Daily News was founded by Joseph Medill Patterson in 1919, Patterson and his cousin, Robert R. McCormick were co-publishers of the Chicago Tribune and grandsons of Tribune founder Joseph Medill. On his way back, Patterson met with Alfred Harmsworth, who was the Viscount Northcliffe and publisher of the Daily Mirror, impressed with the advantages of a tabloid, Patterson launched the Daily News on June 26,1919. The Daily News was not a success, and by August 1919. Still, New Yorks many subway commuters found the tabloid format easier to handle, by the time of the papers first anniversary in June 1920, circulation was over 100,000 and by 1925, over a million. Circulation reached its peak in 1947, at 2.4 million daily and 4.7 million on Sunday. The Daily News carried the slogan New Yorks Picture Newspaper from 1920 to 1991, for its emphasis on photographs, and a camera has been part of the newspapers logo from day one. The papers later slogan, developed from a 1985 ad campaign, is New Yorks Hometown Newspaper, while another has been The Eyes, the Ears, the Honest Voice of New York. News-gathering operations were, for a time, organized using two-way radios, prominent sports cartoonists have included Bill Gallo, Bruce Stark and Ed Murawinski. Editorial cartoonists have included C. D. Batchelor, editions were published as extras in 1991 during the brief tenure of Robert Maxwell as publisher. In 1982, and again in the early 1990s during a newspaper strike, in the 1982 instance, the parent Tribune offered the tabloid up for sale. In 1991, millionaire Robert Maxwell offered financial assistance to The News to help it stay in business, when Maxwell died shortly thereafter, The News seceded from his publishing empire, which eventually splintered under questions about whether Maxwell had the financial backing to sustain it. After Maxwells death in 1991, the paper was held together in bankruptcy by existing management, led by editor James Willse, mort Zuckerman bought the paper in 1993. From its founding until 1991, the Daily News was owned by the Tribune Company, in 1948 The News established WPIX, whose call letters were based on The News nickname of New Yorks Picture Newspaper, and later bought what became WPIX-FM, which is now known as WFAN-FM. The News also maintains local bureaux in the Bronx, Brooklyn, and Queens, at City Hall, within One Police Plaza, in January 2012, former News of the World and New York Post editor Colin Myler was appointed editor-in-chief of the Daily News. Myler was replaced by his deputy Jim Rich in September 2015, ather than portraying New York through the partisan divide between liberals and conservatives, The News has played up the more mythic rift between the city’s fiends and heroes
20.
New York Post
–
New York Post is an American daily newspaper, primarily distributed in New York City and its surrounding area. It is the 13th-oldest and seventh-most-widely circulated newspaper in the United States, established in 1801 by federalist and Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, it became a respected broadsheet in the 19th century, under the name New York Evening Post. The modern version of the paper is published in tabloid format, in 1976, Rupert Murdoch bought Post for US$30.5 million. Since 1993, Post has been owned by News Corporation and its successor, News Corp and its editorial offices are located at 1211 Avenue of the Americas. New York Post, established on November 16,1801 as New-York Evening Post, the Hartford Courant, believed to be the oldest continuously published newspaper, was founded in 1764 as a semi-weekly paper, it did not begin publishing daily until 1836. The New Hampshire Gazette, which has trademarked its claim of being The Nations Oldest Newspaper, was founded in 1756, moreover, since the 1890s it has been published only for weekends. Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton with about US$10,000 from a group of investors in the autumn of 1801 as New-York Evening Post, the meeting at which Hamilton first recruited investors for the new paper took place in the then-country weekend villa that is now Gracie Mansion. Hamilton chose William Coleman as his first editor, the most famous 19th-century New-York Evening Post editor was the poet and abolitionist William Cullen Bryant. So well respected was New-York Evening Post under Bryants editorship, it received praise from the English philosopher John Stuart Mill, in the summer of 1829, Bryant invited William Leggett, the Locofoco Democrat, to write for the paper. There, in addition to literary and drama reviews, Leggett began to write political editorials, leggetts classical liberal philosophy entailed a fierce opposition to central banking, a support for voluntary labor unions, and a dedication to laissez-faire economics. He was a member of the Equal Rights Party, Leggett became a co-owner and editor at Post in 1831, eventually working as sole editor of the newspaper while Bryant traveled in Europe in 1834 through 1835. Another co-owner of the paper was John Bigelow, from 1849 to 1861, he was one of the editors and co-owners of New York Evening Post. In 1881 Henry Villard took control of New-York Evening Post, as well as The Nation, with this acquisition, the paper was managed by the triumvirate of Carl Schurz, Horace White, and Edwin L. Godkin. When Schurz left the paper in 1883, Godkin became editor-in-chief, White became editor-in-chief in 1899, and remained in that role until his retirement in 1903. Villard sold the paper in 1918, after allegations of pro-German sympathies during World War I hurt its circulation. The new owner was Thomas Lamont, a partner in the Wall Street firm of J. P. Morgan & Co. Conservative Cyrus H. K. Curtis—publisher of the Ladies Home Journal—purchased New-York Evening Post in 1924, in 1934, J. David Stern purchased the paper, changed its name to New York Post, and restored its broadsheet size and liberal perspective. In 1939, Dorothy Schiff purchased the paper and her husband, George Backer, was named editor and publisher
21.
New York World-Telegram & Sun
–
The New York World-Telegram, later known as the New York World-Telegram and Sun, was a New York City newspaper from 1867 to 1966. Founded by James Gordon Bennett as The Evening Telegram in 1867, the newspaper began as the edition of The New York Herald. Following Bennett’s death, newspaper and magazine owner Frank A. Munsey purchased The Telegram in June 1920, at the time of the sale, the paper was known as The New York Telegram, and it had a circulation of 200,000. The newspaper became the World-Telegram in 1931, following the sale of the New York World by the heirs of Joseph Pulitzer to Scripps Howard, the World-Telegram enjoyed a reputation as a liberal paper for some years after the merger, based on memories of the Pulitzer-owned World. However, under Scripps Howard the paper moved steadily to the right, in 1950, the paper became the New York World-Telegram and Sun after Dewart and his family sold Scripps the remnants of another afternoon paper, the New York Sun. Early in 1966, a proposal to create New Yorks first joint operating agreement led to the merger of the World-Telegram, the intention was to produce a joint afternoon edition, with a separate morning paper to be produced by the Herald Tribune. The last edition of the World-Telegram and Sun was published on April 23,1966, but when strikes prevented the JOA from taking effect, the papers instead united in August 1966 to become the short-lived New York World Journal Tribune, which lasted only until May 5,1967. Its closure left New York City with three newspapers, The New York Times, the New York Post and the New York Daily News. Media of New York City Library of Congress New York World Telegram and Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection
22.
New York Daily Mirror
–
It was created to compete with the New York Daily News which was then a sensationalist tabloid and the most widely circulated newspaper in the United States. Hearst preferred the broadsheet format and sold the Mirror to an associate in 1928, early on, several bright young writers and photographic journalists joined the Daily Mirror, such as Ring Lardner, Jr. Hy Peskin and the political commentator Drew Pearson. The poet-songwriter Nick Kenny was the radio editor, and Edward Zeltner contributed a column. Management of the Mirror estimated that its content was 10% news, by the 1930s, the Daily Mirror was one of the Hearst Corporations largest papers in terms of circulation. Despite having the second-highest daily circulation of an American newspaper at the time, The Daily Mirror closed on October 16,1963, the Daily Mirror name rights were at that point acquired by its rival the Daily News. On January 4,1971, publisher Robert W. Farrell revived the New York Daily Mirror in name only, as a tabloid, published in Long Island City, operating on a shoestring budget, the paper faced obstruction from the Daily News. This new iteration of the Daily Mirror ceased publication on February 28,1972, sportswriter and columnist Max Mercy wrote for the New York Daily Mirror in the 1984 film The Natural. The newspapers title was referenced fictionally in the 2006 movie The Devil Wears Prada as a publication looking to hire Andrea Sachs. In the 1972 film The Godfather, characters Michael Corleone and Kay Adams find out that Vito Corleone has been shot from a copy of the New York Daily Mirror at a newsstand, arthur Brisbane Jack Lait Tex McCrary Lee Mortimer Sidney Skolsky
23.
Newsday
–
As of 2009, its weekday circulation of 377,500 was the 11th-highest in the United States, and the highest among suburban newspapers. In 2012, Newsday expanded to include Rockland and Westchester county news on its website, as of January 2014, Newsdays total average circulation was 437,000 on weekdays,434,000 on Saturdays and 495,000 on Sundays. The newspapers headquarters is in Melville, New York, in Suffolk County, the new publication was first produced on September 3,1940 from Hempstead. For many years until a redesign in the 1970s, Newsday copied the Daily News format of short stories. After Pattersons death in 1963, Guggenheim became publisher and editor, in 1967, Guggenheim turned over the publisher position to Bill Moyers and continued as president and editor-in-chief. But Guggenheim was disappointed by the drift of the newspaper under Moyers. The two split over the 1968 presidential election, with Guggenheim signing an editorial supporting Richard Nixon, Guggenheim, who died a year later, disinherited Moyers from his will. After the competing Long Island Press ceased publication in 1977, Newsday launched a separate Queens edition, in June 2000, Times Mirror merged with the Tribune Company, partnering Newsday with the New York City television station WPIX, also owned by Tribune. Chicago, Illinois, real estate magnate Samuel Zell purchased Tribune in 2007, News Corporation, headed by CEO Rupert Murdoch, attempted to purchase Newsday for US$580 million in April 2008. This was soon followed by a bid from Zuckerman and a $680 million bid from Cablevision. In May 2008, News Corporation withdrew its bid, and on May 12,2008, the sale was completed July 29,2008. Altice, a Netherlands multinational telecoms company, bought Cablevision, including Newsday, on July 7,2016, Newsday announced that Patrick Dolan and father Charles Dolan would purchase a 75 percent stake in Newsday and associated companies. They are now the majority owners of the paper, despite having a tabloid format, Newsday is not known for being sensationalistic, as are other local daily tabloids, such as the New York Daily News and the New York Post. In 2004, the weekly newspaper Long Island Press wrote that Newsday has used its clout to influence local politics in Nassau. Bill Moyers briefly served as publisher, during the tenure of publisher Robert M. Johnson in the 1980s, Newsday made a major push into New York City. The paper featured both advice columnists Ann Landers and Dear Abby for several years, from 1985 to 2005, Michael Mandelbaum wrote a regular foreign affairs analysis column for Newsday. Noted writer and biographer Robert Caro was an investigative reporter and its features section has included, among others, television reporters Verne Gay and Diane Werts, TV/film feature writer Frank Lovece, and film critic Rafer Guzman. Newsday carries the syndicated columnist Froma Harrop, Pulitzer Prize winner Walt Handelsmans editorial political cartoons animation are a nationally syndicated feature of Newsday
24.
Long Island
–
Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
25.
Pulitzer Prize for Public Service
–
The Pulitzer Prize for Public Service is one of the fourteen American Pulitzer Prizes annually awarded for journalism. The Public Service prize was one of the original Pulitzers, established in 1917 and it is the only prize in the program that awards a gold medal and is the most prestigious one for a newspaper to win. As with other Pulitzer Prizes, a committee of jurors narrows the field to three nominees, from which the Pulitzer Board generally picks a winner and finalists, finalists have been made public since 1980. The Pulitzer Board issues an official citation explaining the reason for the award, in its first 97 years to 2013, the Public Service Pulitzer was awarded 96 times. There were four years for which no award was given, in 1950,1951,1953,1955 and 1959, prizes were awarded to two newspapers. A reporter was first named in 1947, recently that has more common. 1919, Milwaukee Journal, for its strong and courageous campaign for Americanism in a constituency where foreign elements made such a policy hazardous from a point of view. 1920, no award given 1921, Boston Post, for its exposure of the operations of Charles Ponzi by a series of articles which finally led to his arrest. 1922, New York World, for exposing the operations of the Ku Klux Klan. 1923, Memphis Commercial Appeal, for its courageous attitude in the publication of cartoons,1928, Indianapolis Times, for its work in exposing political corruption to Indiana, prosecuting the guilty and bringing about a more wholesome state of affairs in civil government. 1930, no award given 1931, The Atlanta Constitution, for a successful municipal graft exposure,1932, Indianapolis News, for its successful campaign to eliminate waste in city management and to reduce the tax levy. McKee, and the exposing the lottery schemes of various fraternal organizations. 1934, Medford Mail Tribune, for its campaign against unscrupulous politicians in Jackson County,1935, The Sacramento Bee, for its campaign against political machine influence in the appointment of two Federal judges in Nevada. 1936, Cedar Rapids Gazette, for its crusade against corruption,1937, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, for its exposure of wholesale fraudulent registration in St. Louis. 1938, Bismarck Tribune, for its news reports and editorials entitled,1939, Miami Daily News, for its campaign for the recall of the Miami City Commission. 1940, Waterbury Republican & American, for its campaign exposing municipal graft,1941, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, for its successful campaign against the city smoke nuisance. 1942, Los Angeles Times, for its campaign which resulted in the clarification and confirmation for all American newspapers of the right of free press as guaranteed under the Constitution. 1943, Omaha World-Herald, for its initiative and originality in planning a campaign for the collection of scrap metal for the war effort
26.
New York City Police Department
–
The New York City Police Department, officially the City of New York Police Department, is the largest municipal police force in the United States. Established in 1845, the agency has primary responsibilities in law enforcement, the NYPD is one of the oldest police departments established in the U. S. tracing its roots back to the nineteenth century. According to the department, its mission is to enforce the laws, preserve the peace, reduce fear, the departments regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules. In June 2004, there were about 40,000 sworn officers plus several thousand employees, in June 2005. As of December 2011, that figure increased slightly to over 36,600, the NYPDs current authorized uniformed strength is 34,450. The Patrolmens Benevolent Association of the City of New York, the largest municipal police union in the United States, represents over 50,000 active, the NYPD Intelligence Division & Counter-Terrorism Bureau has officers stationed in 11 cities internationally. In the 1990s the department developed a CompStat system of management which has also since established in other cities. The NYPD is headquartered at 1 Police Plaza, located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan across the street from City Hall, the NYPD has extensive crime scene investigation and laboratory resources, as well as units which assist with computer crime investigations. The NYPD runs a Real Time Crime Center, essentially a search engine. A Domain Awareness System, a joint project of Microsoft and the NYPD, links 6,000 closed-circuit television cameras, license plate readers, members of the NYPD are frequently referred to by politicians, some media and their own police cars by the nickname New Yorks Finest. The Municipal Police were established in 1845, replacing an old night watch system, in 1857, it was tumultuously replaced by a Metropolitan force, which consolidated many other local police departments in 1898. Twentieth-century trends included professionalization and struggles against corruption, Officers begin service with the rank of Probationary Police Officer, also referred to as Recruit Officer. After successful completion of six months of Police Academy training and various academic, physical, There are three career tracks in the NYPD, supervisory, investigative, and specialist. The supervisory track consists of 12 sworn titles, referred to as ranks, promotion to the ranks of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain are made via competitive civil service examinations. Promotion from the rank of police officer to detective is determined by the current police labor contract, the entry level appointment to detective is third grade or specialist. The commissioner may grant discretionary grades of first or second and these grades offer compensation roughly equivalent to that of supervisors. Specifically, a second grade detectives pay roughly corresponds to a sergeants, Detectives are police officers who have been given a more investigatory position but no official supervisory authority. A Detective First Grade still falls under the command of a sergeant or above, just like detectives, sergeants and lieutenants can receive pay grade increases within their respective ranks
27.
Mayor of New York City
–
The Mayor of the City of New York is head of the executive branch of New York Citys government. The mayors office administers all city services, public property, police and fire protection, most public agencies, the budget overseen by the mayors office is the largest municipal budget in the United States at $70 billion a year. The city employs 325,000 people, spends about $21 billion to more than 1.1 million students, levies $27 billion in taxes. The mayors office is located in New York City Hall, it has jurisdiction over all five boroughs of New York City, Manhattan, Brooklyn, the mayor appoints a large number of officials, including commissioners who head city departments, and his deputy mayors. The mayors regulations are compiled in title 43 of the New York City Rules, according to current law, the mayor is limited to two consecutive four-year terms in office. It was changed two to three terms on October 23,2008, when the New York City Council voted 29–22 in favor of passing the term limit extension into law. However, in 2010, a referendum reverting the limit to two terms passed overwhelmingly, the current mayor is Democrat Bill de Blasio, who was elected on November 5,2013. In 1665, Governor Richard Nicolls appointed Thomas Willett as the first mayor of New York, for 156 years, the mayor was appointed and had limited power. Between 1783 and 1821 the mayor was appointed by the Council of Appointments in which the governor had the loudest voice. In 1821 the Common Council, which included elected members, gained the authority to choose the mayor, an amendment to the New York State Constitution in 1834 provided for the direct popular election of the mayor. Cornelius W. Lawrence, a Democrat, was elected that year, gracie Mansion has been the official residence of the mayor since Fiorello La Guardias administration in 1942. Its main floor is open to the public and serves as a small museum, the mayor is entitled to a salary of $225,000, but early 21st century mayor Michael Bloomberg, the 16th-richest man in the world, declined the salary and instead was paid $1 yearly. Bloomberg had a net worth of $33 billion as of 2014. In 2000 direct control of the public school system was transferred to the mayors office. In 2003 the reorganization established the New York City Department of Education, tammany Hall, which evolved from an organization of craftsmen into a Democratic political machine, gained control of Democratic Party nominations in the state and city in 1861. It played a role in New York City politics into the 1960s and was a dominant player from the mayoral victory of Fernando Wood in 1854 through the era of Robert Wagner. The mayor of New York City may appoint several deputy mayors to help oversee major offices within the branch of the city government. The powers and duties, and even the number of deputy mayors, are not defined by the City Charter, the post was created by Fiorello La Guardia to handle ceremonial events that the mayor was too busy to attend
28.
William O'Dwyer
–
William ODwyer was the 100th Mayor of New York City, holding that office from 1946 to 1950. ODwyer was born in Bohola, County Mayo, Ireland and studied at St. Nathys College, Ballaghaderreen and he emigrated to the United States in 1910, after abandoning studies for the priesthood. He worked as a laborer, then as a New York City police officer and he received his degree in 1923 and then built up a successful practice before serving as a Kings County Court judge. He won election as the Kings County District Attorney in November 1939 and his prosecution of the crime syndicate known as Murder. During that time, he was on leave from his position as district attorney and replaced by his chief assistant, Thomas Cradock Hughes. In 1945, ODwyer received the support of Tammany Hall leader Edward V. Loughlin, won the Democratic nomination, in 1948, ODwyer received The Hundred Year Association of New Yorks Gold Medal Award in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York. Shortly after his re-election to the mayoralty in 1949, ODwyer was confronted with a corruption scandal uncovered by the Kings County District Attorney. ODwyer resigned from office on August 31,1950, upon his resignation, he was given a ticker tape parade up Broadways Canyon of Heroes in the borough of Manhattan. President Harry Truman appointed him U. S. Ambassador to Mexico and he returned to New York City in 1951 to answer questions concerning his association with organized crime figures and the accusations followed him for the rest of his life. He resigned as ambassador on December 6,1952, but remained in Mexico until 1960 and he visited Israel for 34 days in 1951 on behalf of his Jewish constituents. He helped organize the first Israel Day Parade, along with New Yorks Jewish community and his youngest sibling, his brother Paul, was also a New York politician, serving as the then-city-wide elected position of City Council President. William ODwyer died in New York City on November 24,1964, in Beth Israel Hospital, aged 74, list of mayors of New York City
29.
Hollow Nickel Case
–
When he dropped it on the ground, it popped open, revealing that it contained microfilm. The microfilm contained a series of numbers and he told the daughter of a New York City Police Department officer, and that officer told a detective who in two days told an FBI agent about the strange nickel. After agent Louis Hahn of the FBI obtained the nickel and the microfilm, on the microfilm, there were five digits together in each number,21 sets of five in seven columns and another 20 sets in three columns, making a total of 207 sets of five digits. There was no key for the numbers, the FBI tried for nearly four years to find the origin of the nickel and the meaning of the numbers. Häyhänen was being recalled to Moscow for good, and defected on the way back in Paris. The deciphered message in the turned out to be only a personal message to Häyhänen from the KGB in Moscow welcoming him to the U. S. He gave the FBI the information that it needed to crack the cipher, uncover the identity of his two contacts in New York, and a nearly identically made Finnish 50 Markka coin. WE CONGRATULATE YOU ON A SAFE ARRIVAL, WE CONFIRM THE RECEIPT OF YOUR LETTER TO THE ADDRESS V REPEAT V AND THE READING OF LETTER NUMBER1. FOR ORGANIZATION OF COVER, WE GAVE INSTRUCTIONS TO TRANSMIT TO YOU THREE THOUSAND IN LOCAL, CONSULT WITH US PRIOR TO INVESTING IT IN ANY KIND OF BUSINESS, ADVISING THE CHARACTER OF THIS BUSINESS. ACCORDING TO YOUR REQUEST, WE WILL TRANSMIT THE FORMULA FOR THE PREPARATION OF SOFT FILM AND NEWS SEPARATELY, IT IS TOO EARLY TO SEND YOU THE GAMMAS. ENCIPHER SHORT LETTERS, BUT THE LONGER ONES MAKE WITH INSERTIONS, ALL THE DATA ABOUT YOURSELF, PLACE OF WORK, ADDRESS, ETC. MUST NOT BE TRANSMITTED IN ONE CIPHER MESSAGE, THE PACKAGE WAS DELIVERED TO YOUR WIFE PERSONALLY. EVERYTHING IS ALL RIGHT WITH THE FAMILY, the Soviets were able to get to Rhodes because it had compromising materials about him. Häyhänen and Fisher were in the United States mainly looking for information on the U. S. atomic program, svirin had returned to the Soviet Union in October 1956 and was not available for questioning or arrest. Häyhänen testified against Fisher at the trial, on October 25,1957, the jury found Fisher guilty on all three counts. On February 10,1962, Fisher was exchanged for American Central Intelligence Agency Lockheed U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers, the case is dramatized in the 1959 film The FBI Story, starring James Stewart, with personal supervision by FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. The case was featured in a March 2016 episode of the American Heroes Channels series, What History Forgot entitled Fighting for Freedom and focuses on Jimmy Bozarts role in breaking the case. Concealment device VIC cipher – Rudolph Ivanovich Abel The short film The Hollow Coin is available for download at the Internet Archive Cromley
30.
Microform
–
Microforms are any forms, either films or paper, containing microreproductions of documents for transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced to about one twenty-fifth of the original document size, for special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used. All microform images may be provided as positives or negatives, more often the latter, three formats are common, microfilm, aperture cards and microfiche. Microcards, a no longer produced, were similar to microfiche. Using the daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce microphotographs and he achieved a reduction ratio of 160,1. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared by the 1858 Dictionary of Photography, microphotography was first suggested as a document preservation method in 1851 by James Glaisher, an astronomer, and in 1853 by John Herschel. Both men attended the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, where the exhibit on photography greatly influenced Glaisher and he called it the most remarkable discovery of modern times, and argued in his official report for using microphotography to preserve documents. The developments in microphotography continued through the decades, but it was not until the turn of the century that its potential for practical usage was seized by a wider audience. In 1896, Canadian engineer Reginald A. Fessenden suggested microforms were a solution to engineers unwieldy. He proposed that up to 150,000,000 words could be made to fit in an inch. In 1906, Paul Otlet and Robert Goldschmidt proposed the livre microphotographique as a way to alleviate the cost, in 1925, the team spoke of a massive library where each volume existed as master negatives and positives, and where items were printed on demand for interested patrons. In the 1920s microfilm began to be used in a commercial setting, New York City banker George McCarthy was issued a patent in 1925 for his Checkograph machine, designed to make micrographic copies of cancelled checks for permanent storage by financial institutions. In 1928, the Eastman Kodak Company bought McCarthys invention and began marketing check microfilming devices under its Recordak division, binkley, which looked closely at microform’s potential to serve small print runs of academic or technical materials. In 1935, Kodaks Recordak division began filming and publishing The New York Times on reels of 35 millimeter microfilm and this method of information storage received the sanction of the American Library Association at its annual meeting in 1936, when it officially endorsed microforms. Roll microfilm proved far more satisfactory as a medium than earlier methods of film information storage, such as the Photoscope, the Film-O-Graph, the Fiske-O-Scope. The year 1938 also saw another major event in the history of microfilm when University Microfilms International was established by Eugene Power, for the next half century, UMI would dominate the field, filming and distributing microfilm editions of current and past publications and academic dissertations. After another short-lived name change, UMI was made a part of ProQuest Information, systems that mount microfilm images in punched cards have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort, aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings
31.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
32.
KGB
–
The KGB, an initialism for Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti, was the main security agency for the Soviet Union from 1954 until its break-up in 1991. Formed in 1954, as a successor of such preceding agencies as the Cheka, NKGB, and MGB. It was the government agency of union-republican jurisdiction, acting as internal security, intelligence. Similar agencies were constituted in each of the republics of the Soviet Union aside from Russia and consisted of ministries, state committees. The KGB was a service and was governed by army laws and regulations. While most of the KGB archives remain classified, two documentary sources are available. After the dissolution of the USSR, the KGB was split into the Federal Security Service, after breaking away from the Republic of Georgia in the early 1990s with Russian help, the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia established its own KGB. A1983 Time magazine article reported that the KGB was the worlds most effective information-gathering organization, at best, the compromised spy was either returned to the Soviet Union or was declared persona non grata and expelled by the government of the target country. The illegal resident spied, unprotected by diplomatic immunity, and worked independently of Soviet diplomatic, in its early history, the KGB valued illegal spies more than legal spies, because illegal spies infiltrated their targets with greater ease. The KGB classified its spies as agents and controllers, the false-identity or legend assumed by a USSR-born illegal spy was elaborate, using the life of either a live double or a dead double. In the 1980s, the glasnost liberalisation of Soviet society provoked KGB Chairman Vladimir Kryuchkov to lead the August 1991 Soviet coup détat attempt to depose President Mikhail Gorbachev, the thwarted coup détat ended the KGB on 6 November 1991. The KGBs successors are the police agency FSB and the espionage agency SVR. The GRU recruited the ideological agent Julian Wadleigh, who became a State Department diplomat in 1936, the NKVDs first US operation was establishing the legal residency of Boris Bazarov and the illegal residency of Iskhak Akhmerov in 1934. Throughout, the Communist Party USA and its General Secretary Earl Browder, helped NKVD recruit Americans, working in government, business, moreover, when Whittaker Chambers, formerly Alger Hisss courier, approached the Roosevelt Government—to identify the Soviet spies Duggan, White, and others—he was ignored. To wit, British Manhattan Project team physicist Klaus Fuchs was the agent of the Rosenberg spy ring. In 1944, the New York City residency infiltrated the top secret Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, by recruiting Theodore Hall, the KGB failed to rebuild most of its US illegal resident networks. The aftermath of the Second Red Scare and the crisis in the CPUSA hampered recruitment, the last major illegal resident, Rudolf Abel, was betrayed by his assistant, Reino Häyhänen, in 1957. One notable KGB success occurred in 1967, with the recruitment of US Navy Chief Warrant Officer John Anthony Walker
33.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
34.
Rudolf Abel
–
Rudolf Ivanovich Abel, real name Vilyam Willie Genrikhovich Fisher, was a Soviet intelligence officer. He adopted his alias when arrested on charges of conspiracy by FBI agents in 1957 and he later served in an instructional role before taking part in intelligence operations against the Germans during World War II. After the war, he working for the KGB, which sent him to the United States where he worked as part of a spy ring based in New York City. He served just over four years of his sentence before he was exchanged for captured American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers, back in the Soviet Union, he lectured on his experiences. He died in 1971 at the age of 68, Fisher was born William August Fisher on July 11,1903, in Benwell, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom, the second son of Heinrich and Lyubov Fisher. Revolutionaries of the Tsarist era, his father was an ethnic German from Russia, Fishers father, a revolutionary activist, taught and agitated with Vladimir Lenin at Saint Petersburg Technological Institute. In 1896 he was arrested for sedition and sentenced to three years internal exile, while living in the United Kingdom, Fishers father, a keen Bolshevik, took part in gunrunning, shipping arms from the North East coast to the Baltic states to help the proletariat. Fisher and his brother, Henry, won scholarships to Whitley Bay High School, though Fisher was not as hard working as Henry, he showed aptitude for science, mathematics, languages, art and music, inherited in part from his fathers abilities. Encouraging their sons love of music, Fishers parents gave him piano lessons and it was during this period that Fisher developed an interest in amateur radio, constructing rudimentary spark transmitters and receivers. Fisher became a draughtsman at Swan Hunter, Wallsend. Though Fisher qualified for university, the costs prohibited him from attending, in 1921, following the Russian Revolution, the Fisher family left Newcastle upon Tyne to return to Moscow. Fluent in English, Russian, German, Polish and Yiddish, trained as a radio operator, he served in a Red Army radio battalion in 1925 and 1926. He then worked briefly in the research institute before being recruited by the OGPU. That year he married Elena Lebedeva, a student at Moscow Conservatoire. They would have one child together, a daughter named Evelyn who was born on October 8,1929, during his interview with the OGPU, it was determined he should adopt a Russian-sounding name and William August Fisher became Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher. Following his recruitment, he worked for the OGPU as an operator in Norway, Turkey, the United Kingdom. He returned to the Soviet Union in 1936, as head of a school that trained radio operators destined for duty in illegal residences, one of these students was the British-born Russian spy Kitty Harris, who was later more widely known as The Spy With Seventeen Names. Despite his foreign birth and the accusation that his brother-in-law was a Trotskyite and he was, however, in 1938 dismissed from the NKVD, which in 1934 replaced the OGPU
35.
The NewsGuild
–
The Newspaper Guild-CWA is a labor union founded by newspaper journalists in 1933 who noticed that unionized printers and truck drivers were making more money than they did. In addition to improving wages and working conditions, its constitution says its purpose is to fight for honesty in journalism and the news industrys business practices. The organizations founders were Joseph Cookman an editor of the New York Post, Allen Raymond of the New York Herald Tribune, carl Randau was its director from 1934 to 1940. It was originally called the American Newspaper Guild, but it changed its name in the 1970s to reflect the fact that it operated outside the United States. It had expanded into Canada in the 1950s and it merged with the Communications Workers of America in 1995. The Guild is also affiliated with the International Federation of Journalists, today, the Guild has more than 32,000 members in the United States, Canada and Puerto Rico. Its membership has expanded from just journalists to many employees of newspapers and news agencies, such as clerks who take classified ads. It also represents workers in a number of other industries and its president is Bernie Lunzer and its secretary-treasurer is Carol Rothman. The Newspaper Guild, represented by journalists and other written media workers since 1933, became one of the most continuous. Heywood Broun was one of the most respected journalist and most popular, on August 7,1933, Broun acknowledged the New York World Telegram column and the progress of the newspaper’s business which was successful. He evaluated the progress more closely with his bosses than any other colleague of similar economic standing, Broun wrote, “the fact that newspaper editors and owners are genial folk should hardly stand in the way of organization of a newspaper writers’ union. This rallied around from Broun’s call for union and one would speak for all newsmen and newswomen. In 1970s, the company expanded their business outside of the United States. The company also collaborated with another called the Communications Workers of America in 1977. This was a union that had already had hundreds of thousands of workers in telecommunications and media, over time the business became a success, but it also had its issues within the company. The impact on print media workers of the industry in the past few decades has changed in unexpected ways, in 1950, exactly 1,774 daily newspapers were in the United States. Over the decades, an unexpected outcome happened in 2002 as only 1,457 were in the United States, showing a 18 percent decrease. During the same period, the quantity of newspapers with circulations raised more than 250,000 increased by 8.5 percent, the amount of daily newspapers dropped while of large newspapers showed popularity with an increase
36.
Congressional Quarterly
–
Congressional Quarterly, Inc. or CQ, is part of a privately owned publishing company called CQ Roll Call that produces a number of publications reporting primarily on the United States Congress. CQ was acquired by the Economist Group and combined with Roll Call to form CQ Roll Call in 2009, as of 2009, CQ ceased to exist as a separate entity. CQ was founded in 1945 by Nelson Poynter and his wife, Henrietta Poynter, CQ has the largest news team covering Capitol Hill, with more than 100 reporters, editors and researchers. CQs readership includes 95 percent of the members of Congress, academic and media outlets, as well as members of business and nonprofit organizations, government affairs and the executive branch. Thomas N. Schroth, who had been managing editor of The Brooklyn Eagle, was elected in October 1955 as executive editor, Schroth built the publications impartial coverage, with annual revenue growing during his tenure from $150,000 when he started to $1.8 million. In addition to adding a division, Schroth added many staff members who achieved future journalistic success, including David S. Broder, Neal R. Peirce. In 1965, Poynter summed up his reasons for founding CQ, saying, The federal government will never set up an agency to check on itself. So it had to be a private enterprise beholden to its clients, despite its name, CQ was published quarterly for only one year. Demand drove more frequent updates, first weekly, then daily, CQ was also an early leader in delivering information on a real-time basis, starting with a dial-up service in 1984. Its website dominates the market for online legislative tracking information and has been nominated for several awards, in recent years, CQ has launched several web-only newsletters with greater focus on particular areas, including CQ Homeland Security, CQ BudgetTracker, and CQ HealthBeat. In 2005, CQs flagship publication, the Weekly Report, was re-launched as CQ Weekly with a focus, including government, commerce. A daily publication, CQ Today, also is every day when Congress is in session. CQ Todays main print competition is Atlantic Medias CongressDaily, until 2009, CQ was owned by the Times Publishing Company of St. Petersburg, Fla. publisher of the Tampa Bay Times and other publications. The Times Publishing Company is in turn owned by the Poynter Institute, the Economist Group acquired CQ, the terms of the deal were not disclosed. In 1999, CQ Executive Conferences was transferred to TheCapitol. Net, TheCapitol. Net is no longer an affiliate of Congressional Quarterly. In May 2008, CQ Press was purchased by SAGE Publications in its entirety, although it retains the name CQ Press, CQ Press is no longer an affiliate of Congressional Quarterly. Roll Call The Economist CQ Roll Call corporate website
37.
National Journal
–
It publishes daily journalism covering politics and public policy and is led by President Kevin Turpin and Editor-in-Chief Stephen G. Smith. National Journal now serves over 1,000 members from both the public and private sectors, david G. Bradley, who founded the Advisory Board Company and Corporate Executive Board, purchased National Journal and The Hotline from Times Mirror in 1997 to form the National Journal Group. Bradley also acquired Government Executive in his deal for National Journal, Bradley later consolidated the properties to form Atlantic Media. In 2005, Bradley centralized all of his publications at Atlantic Media’s headquarters in the Watergate Building in Washington, National Journal’s newest standalone product, Network Science Initiative helps members achieve their advocacy goals by identifying key influencer networks. Another standalone service provides advocacy and government affairs organizations intelligence on how their policy brand is perceived among influential policymakers, Membership packages can be customized to include Network Science Initiative, Policy Brands Roundtable, and Leadership Council individually or in any combination. National Journal Membership, National Journal Membership launched in 2011 to provide government affairs professionals with tools to support their organizations, member organizations have access to executive briefs and presentations, strategy trends and research case studies, and event programs. National Journal Hotline, Hotline is a digest of the political events relating to upcoming national elections. Published daily, Hotline condenses newspaper, magazine and digital political coverage from the previous 24 hours, Hotline Wake-Up Call releases daily coverage of the mornings political headlines, Hotline Latest Edition assembles election and campaign news across the country. Hotline reporters contribute to National Journals overall political coverage, the Almanac of American Politics, The Almanac of American Politics is a reference work that was published biennially by the National Journal Group from 1984 through 2014. In 2015, Columbia Books & Information Services became the publisher of The Almanac of American Politics, the Almanac aims to provide a detailed look at the politics of the United States through an approach of profiling individual leaders and areas of the country. Some of its best known current and former contributors have been, Official website
38.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
39.
United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
40.
National League
–
Both leagues currently have 15 teams. The two league champions of 1903 arranged to compete against each other in the inaugural World Series, after the 1904 champions failed to reach a similar agreement, the two leagues formalized the World Series as an arrangement between the leagues. National League teams have won 48 of the 112 World Series contested from 1903 to 2016, the 2016 National League champions are the Chicago Cubs. By 1875, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players was dangerously weak, additionally, Hulbert had a problem—five of his star players were threatened with expulsion from the NAPBBP because Hulbert had signed them to his club using what were considered questionable means. Hulbert had a vested interest in creating his own league. After recruiting St. Louis privately, four western clubs met in Louisville, Kentucky, Boston Red Stockings, the dominant team in the N. A. Hartford Dark Blues from the N. A. Mutual of New York from the N. A. St. Louis Brown Stockings from the N. A, the only strong club from 1875 excluded in 1876 was a second one in Philadelphia, often called the White Stockings or Phillies. The first game in National League history was played on April 22,1876, at Philadelphias Jefferson Street Grounds, 25th & Jefferson, the new leagues authority was tested after the first season. The National League operated with six clubs during 1877 and 1878, over the next several years, various teams joined and left the struggling league. By 1880, six of the eight members had folded. The two remaining original NL franchises, Boston and Chicago, remain in operation today as the Atlanta Braves, in 1883 the New York Gothams and Philadelphia Phillies began National League play. Both teams remain in the NL today, the Phillies in their original city, the NL encountered its first strong rival organization when the American Association began play in 1882. The A. A. played in cities where the NL did not have teams, offered Sunday games and alcoholic beverages in locales where permitted, the National League and the American Association participated in a version of the World Series seven times during their ten-year coexistence. These contests were less organized than the modern Series, lasting as few as three games and as many as fifteen, with two Series ending in disputed ties, the NL won four times and the A. A. only once, in 1886. Starting with the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1887, the National League began to raid the American Association for franchises to replace NL teams that folded and this undercut the stability of the A. A. Other new leagues that rose to compete with the National League were the Union Association, the Union Association was established in 1884 and folded after playing only one season, its league champion St. Louis Maroons joining the NL. The NL suffered many defections of star players to the Players League, the Brooklyn, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and New York franchises of the NL absorbed their Players League counterparts. The labor strife of 1890 hastened the downfall of the American Association, after the 1891 season, the A. A. disbanded and merged with the NL, which became known legally for the next decade as the National League and American Association
41.
History of the Brooklyn Dodgers
–
The teams name derived from the reputed skill of Brooklyn residents at evading the citys trolley streetcar network. The team is noted for signing Jackie Robinson in 1947 as the first black player in the major leagues. Brooklyn was home to numerous clubs in the mid-1850s. Eight of 16 participants in the first convention were from Brooklyn, including the Atlantic, Eckford, Brooklyn helped make baseball commercial, as the locale of the first paid admission games, a series of three all star contests matching New York and Brooklyn in 1858. The Excelsiors no longer challenged for the championship after the Civil War. The Eckfords and Atlantics declined to join until 1872 and thereby lost their best players, the Eckfords survived only one season and the Atlantics four, with losing teams. When the Mutuals were expelled by the league, the Hartford Dark Blues club moved in, changed its name to The Brooklyn Hartfords and played its home games at Union Grounds in 1877 before disbanding. Byrne arranged to build a grandstand on a lot bounded by Third Street, Fourth Avenue, Fifth Street, and Fifth Avenue, the Grays played in the minor Inter-State Association of Professional Baseball Clubs that first season. Doyle became the first team manager, and they drew 6,431 fans to their first home game on May 12,1883 against the Trenton team. The Grays won the title after the Camden Merritt club disbanded on July 20. The Grays were invited to join the American Association for the 1884 season and they lost the 1889 World Series to the New York Giants and tied the 1890 World Series with the Louisville Colonels. Their success during this period was partly attributed to their having absorbed skilled players from the defunct New York Metropolitans, in 1899, the Grays merged with the Baltimore Orioles, as Baltimore manager Ned Hanlon became the clubs new manager and Charles Ebbets became the primary team owner. The team name, Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers, was coined in 1895, the nickname was still new enough in September 1895 that a newspaper could report that Trolley Dodgers is the new name which eastern baseball cranks have given the Brooklyn club. Some sources erroneously report that the name Trolley Dodgers referred to pedestrians avoiding fast cars on street car tracks that bordered Eastern Park on two sides, however, Eastern Park was not bordered by street-level trolley lines that had to be dodged by pedestrians. The name was shortened to Brooklyn Dodgers. Other team names used by the franchise that finally came to be called the Dodgers were the Grooms, the Bridegrooms, Wards Wonders, the Superbas, and the Robins. All of these nicknames were used by fans and newspaper sports writers to describe the team, the teams legal name was the Brooklyn Base Ball Club. However, the Trolley Dodgers nickname was used throughout this period, along with nicknames, by fans
42.
Flatbush, Brooklyn
–
Flatbush is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Founded in 1651 by Dutch colonists, the neighborhood, which consists of several subsections, had a population of 110,875 as of the 2010 United States Census, by the 2010s, the area was quickly gentrifying. Flatbush was a prior to being incorporated into the City of Brooklyn. Generally, the township was larger than what is considered Flatbush today by the residents of Brooklyn, the modern neighborhood includes or borders several institutions of note, including Prospect Park and Brooklyn College. The name Flatbush is a calque of the Dutch language Vlacke bos, Flatbush was originally chartered as the Dutch Nieuw Nederland colony town of Midwout in 1651. Both names were used in the Dutch era, and Midwood was a name for Flatbush into the early 20th century. In a reversal, Midwood, now the area south of Brooklyn College, is often alternatively called Flatbush. Midwoods residents predominately feature a mix of the latter and Irish Americans, Flatbush and the five other towns of what was to become Kings County, were surrendered to the English in 1664. The town was the county seat for Kings County and was a center of life for what is now called Brooklyn, Flatbush played a key role in the American Revolution. Flatbush was where significant skirmishes and battles of the Battle of Long Island took place, Kings County at the time had the highest concentration of slaves north of the Mason–Dixon line – almost one-third of the total population for the county were slaves. Loyalist residents of Flatbush included David Mathews, Mayor of New York City, Flatbush residents maintained their loyalist sympathies, the Kings Arms, for example, appeared in the towns inn for a half-century after the conclusion of the conflict. Many of the remaining early Dutch structures are in the Flatlands, Flatbush maintained a kind of distance from the rest of Brooklyn and New York, but the emergence of the subway in the 1920s connected it to surrounding areas in an unprecedented way. In the first half of the 20th century, Flatbush had a population of Irish-Americans, Italian-Americans. Much as it is today, it was a working-class neighborhood, a significant portion of Flatbush residents closely followed the Brooklyn Dodgers, which at the time were not only the team of Brooklyn but also of Flatbush in particular. Dodgers centerfielder Duke Snider was known as “the Duke of Flatbush”, by 1958, however, the Dodgers left Brooklyn, and Ebbets Field eventually was torn down. Due to shifting boundaries, Ebbets Field today technically would be in Crown Heights. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Flatbush experienced a shift in demographics as it went from being a mostly Irish, Italian, while most sections of Flatbush were working class before the demographic shift, there were a few affluent areas. Prospect Park South had a number of more affluent homeowners
43.
Ebbets Field
–
Ebbets Field was a Major League Baseball stadium in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, New York City. It is known mainly as the home of the Brooklyn Dodgers baseball team of the National League, from 1913 to 1957, Ebbets Field was demolished in 1960 and replaced by apartment buildings. Ebbets Field was bounded by Bedford Avenue on the east, Sullivan Place on the South, Cedar Street on the west, and Montgomery Street on the north. The land included the site of a garbage dump called Pigtown, because of the pigs that once ate their fill there and the stench that filled the air. Construction began on March 4,1912, and the cornerstone, a piece of Connecticut granite that held newspapers, pictures of players, cards, telegrams. At the cornerstone laying ceremony, Ebbets said that the ballpark was going to be ready for play on September 1, when the park was opened, it was discovered that the flag, keys to the bleachers, and a press box had all been forgotten. The press box level was not added until 1929, the seating area was initially a double deck from past third base, around home plate, and all the way down the right side. There was an open, concrete bleacher stand extending the rest of the way down the base side to the outer wall. The right field wall was high due to the short foul line necessitated by the street immediately beyond it. The ballpark was built on a piece of ground. The right field wall made up the difference, as the right corner was above street level. The left field corner was below street level, and there was an incline or terrace running along the field wall. Ebbets Field was the scene of early successes, as the Robins. The seating area was expanded in the 1920s, a time for baseball when many ballparks were expanded. By the 1940s, a big scoreboard had been installed in right field, however, additional rows of seating across left field reduced that area by about 15 feet, to the delight of right-handed sluggers. The parks first night game was played on June 15,1938, johnny Vander Meer of the visiting Cincinnati Reds pitched his second consecutive no-hitter in that game, a feat that has never been duplicated in Major League Baseball. It was also in 1938 that Hilda Chester, one of the earlier sports superfans became a regular attendee when Larry MacPhail brought Ladies Days to Ebbets Field, after the early successes of the Dodgers, the team slid into hard times. The Dodgers won pennants in 1941,1947,1949,1952,1953,1955 and 1956, Ebbets Field also hosted the 1949 Major League Baseball All-Star Game
44.
New York Giants
–
The New York Giants are a professional American football team based in the New York metropolitan area. The Giants compete in the National Football League as a club of the leagues National Football Conference East division. The team plays its games at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The Giants hold their training camp at the Quest Diagnostics Training Center at the Meadowlands Sports Complex. The Giants were one of five teams that joined the NFL in 1925 and their championship tally is surpassed only by the Green Bay Packers and Chicago Bears. Throughout their history, the Giants have featured 28 Hall of Fame players, including NFL Most Valuable Player award winners Mel Hein, Frank Gifford, Y. A. Tittle, and Lawrence Taylor. The teams heated rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries, dating all the way back to 1933, the Giants played their first game as an away game against All New Britain in New Britain, Connecticut, on October 4,1925. They defeated New Britain 26–0 in front of a crowd of 10,000, the Giants were successful in their first season, finishing with an 8–4 record. In its third season, the finished with the best record in the league at 11–1–1 and was awarded the NFL title. In 1930, there were many who questioned the quality of the professional game. In December 1930, the Giants played a team of Notre Dame All Stars at the Polo Grounds to raise money for the unemployed of New York City and it was also an opportunity to establish the skill and prestige of the pro game. Knute Rockne reassembled his Four Horsemen along with the stars of his 1924 Championship squad and told them to score early, Rockne, like much of the public, thought little of pro football and expected an easy win. But from the beginning it was a one-way contest, with Friedman running for two Giant touchdowns and Hap Moran passing for another, when it was all over, Coach Rockne told his team, That was the greatest football machine I ever saw. I am glad none of you got hurt, the game raised $100,000 for the homeless, and is often credited with establishing the legitimacy of the professional game for those who were critical. It also was the last game the legendary Rockne ever coached, in a 14-year span from 1933 to 1947, the Giants qualified to play in the NFL championship game 8 times, winning twice. During this period the Giants were led by Hall of Fame coach Steve Owen, the period also featured the 1944 Giants, which are ranked as the #1 defensive team in NFL history. a truly awesome unit. They gave up only 7.5 points per game and shut out five of their 10 opponents, though they lost 14-7 to the Green Bay Packers in the 1944 NFL Championship Game. The famous Sneakers Game was played in this era where the Giants defeated the Chicago Bears on an icy field in the 1934 NFL Championship Game, the Giants played the Detroit Lions to a scoreless tie on November 7,1943
