1.
Administrative divisions of New York (state)
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The administrative divisions of New York are the various units of government that provide local government services in the state of New York. The state is divided into counties, cities, towns, and villages, each such government is granted varying home rule powers as provided by the New York Constitution. New York has various corporate entities that serve purposes that are also local governments, such as school. New York has 62 counties, which are subdivided into 932 towns and 62 cities, in total, the state has more than 3,400 active local governments and more than 4,200 taxing jurisdictions. They do so while adhering to the United States Constitution and the Constitution of the State of New York, articles VIII and IX of the state constitution establish the rights and responsibilities of the municipal governments. The New York State Constitution provides for democratically elected bodies for counties, cities, towns. These legislative bodies are granted the power to local laws as needed in order to provide services to their citizens. The county is the administrative division of New York. There are sixty-two counties in the state, five of the counties are boroughs of the city of New York and do not have functioning county governments. Such services generally include law enforcement and public safety, social and health services, every county outside of New York City has a county seat, which is the location of county government. Nineteen counties operate under county charters, while 38 operate under the provisions of the County Law. Although all counties have a certain latitude to govern themselves, charter counties are afforded greater home rule powers, sixteen counties are governed by a Board of Supervisors, composed of the supervisors of its constituent towns and cities. In most of counties, each supervisors vote is weighted in accordance with the towns population in order to abide by the U. S. Supreme Court mandate of one person. Other counties have legislative districts of equal population, which may cross municipal borders, most counties in New York do not use the term Board of Supervisors. 34 counties have a County Legislature, six counties have a Board of Legislators, the five counties, or boroughs, of New York City are governed by a 51-member City Council. In non-charter counties, the legislative body exercises executive power as well, many, but not all, charter counties have an elected executive who is independent of the legislature, the exact form of government is defined in the County Charter. In New York, each city is a highly autonomous incorporated area that, with the exceptions of New York City, cities in New York are classified by the U. S. Census Bureau as incorporated places. They provide almost all services to their residents and have the highest degree of home rule, also, villages are part of a town, with residents who pay taxes to and receive services from the town
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Rensselaer County, New York
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Rensselaer County /rɛnsəˈlɪər/ is a county in the state of New York, in the United States of America. As of the 2010 census, the population was 159,429, the county is named in honor of the family of Kiliaen van Rensselaer, the original Dutch owner of the land in the area. Rensselaer County is part of the Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area, the area that is now Rensselaer County was inhabited by the Algonquian-speaking Mohican Indian tribe at the time of European encounter. Kiliaen van Rensselaer, a Dutch jeweler and merchant, purchased the area in 1630, the land passed into English rule in 1664, the Dutch regained control in 1673, but the English took it back in 1674. Until 1776, the year of American independence, the county was under English or British control, the county was not organized as a legal entity until after the Revolution in 1791, when it was created from an area that was originally part of the very large Albany County. In 1807, in a county re-organization, the sections of Troy were set off as Towns. The two towns created were Brunswick and Grafton, a third town, Philipstown, was set off in 1806. In 1808 it was renamed Nassau after the duke of that area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 665 square miles, of which 652 square miles is land and 13 square miles is water. Rensselaer County is in the part of New York State. The eastern boundary of Rensselaer County runs along the New York–Vermont, the terrain runs from level and flat near the Hudson and then rises into the Rensselaer Plateau around Poestenkill and Sand Lake, then to the Taconic Mountains along the Massachusetts state line. The highest point is Berlin Mountain,2,818 feet above sea level, the lowest point is sea level at the Hudson. The Hoosic River, a tributary of the Hudson River, is in the part of the county. Depending on precise location within the county, road distance to New York City ranges between 132 miles and 178 miles. The population density was 233 people per square mile, there were 69,120 housing units at an average density of 109 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 88. 73% White,7. 14% Black or African American,0. 23% Native American,1. 71% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 89% from other races, and 1. 34% from two or more races. 5. 01% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 22. 3% were of Irish,14. 7% Italian,12. 8% German,7. 5% English,6. 2% French,5. 3% American and 2. 3% Puerto Rican ancestry according to Census 2010. 95. 4% spoke English and 2. 7% Spanish as their first language,27. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
3.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
4.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
5.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
7.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
8.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
11.
Area codes 518 and 838
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Area codes 518 and 838 are telephone area codes in eastern upstate New York. 518 was established as one of the area codes in 1947. It covers 24 counties and 1,200 ZIP codes and it has 493 landline and 100 wireless exchanges serviced by 47 carriers. It is the largest area code in size in New York, extending from the eastern Mohawk Valley to the Vermont border, the bulk of the area codes population is in the Capital District. Other major cities in the code are Glens Falls and Plattsburgh. 518 is the one of New Yorks original five NPAs that still has its original boundaries. Despite the presence of the Capital District and the proliferation of phones and pagers. By the spring of 2016, however,518 was on the verge of exhaustion, by the fall, however, it was anticipated that 518 would exhaust in the third quarter of 2017. An overlay area code,838, was approved, to be implemented in the fall of 2017. List of New York area codes List of NANP area codes North American Numbering Plan NANPA Area Code Map of New York List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload. com,518 Area Code
12.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
13.
Albany County, New York
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Albany County is a county in the state of New York, in the United States. Its northern border is formed by the Mohawk River, at its confluence with the Hudson River, as of the 2010 census, the population was 304,204. The county seat is Albany, the state capital, as originally established by the English government in the colonial era, Albany County had an indefinite amount of land, but has had an area of 530 square miles since March 3,1888. The county is named for the Duke of York and of Albany, Albany County constitutes the central core of the Capital District of New York State, which comprises the Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area. After England took control of New Netherland from the Dutch, Albany County was created on November 1,1683 by New York Governor Thomas Dongan, Livingston Manor was annexed to Albany County from Dutchess County in 1717. Albanys boundaries were defined more closely as various state statutes would add land to the county, Albany was established as a city in 1686 by Governor Dongan through the Dongan Charter after the English took over the colony. Schenectady to the west was given a patent with some rights in 1684. The Manor of Rensselaerswyck was created as a district within the county in 1772, the west district included all of what is now Albany County with the exception of what lands were in the city of Albany at that time. Though the Manor of Rensselaerswyck was the district in what is today Albany County. Pittstown in 1761, and Duanesburgh in 1764, were created as townships, but when districts were created in 1772, those townships were incorporated into new districts, Pittstown in Schaghticoke and Duanesburgh into the United Districts of Duanesburgh and Schoharie. Schenectady was made from a borough to a district in 1772 as well, other districts established in 1772 were Hoosick, Coxsackie, Cambridge, Saratoga, Halfmoon, Kinderhook, Kings, Claverack, Great Imboght, and the Manor of Livingston. In a census of 1697, there were 1,452 individuals living in Albany County, by the end of the war in 1698, the population had dropped to 1,482, but rebounded quickly and was at 2,273 by 1703. By 1723, it had increased to 6,501 and in 1731 to 8,573, in 1737, the inhabitants of Albany County would outnumber those of New York County by 17 people. In 1774, Albany County, with 42,706 people, was the largest county in colonial New York, according to the first Federal Census in 1790, Albany County reached 75,921 inhabitants and was still the largest county in the state. On March 7,1788, the state of New York divided the state into towns eliminating districts as administrative units by passing New York Laws of 1788. Albany County was one of the twelve counties created by the Province of New York on November 1,1683. At that time it included all of New York state north of Dutchess and Ulster counties, all of what is now Bennington County in Vermont, on May 27,1717, Albany County was adjusted to gain an indefinite amount of land from Dutchess County and other non-county lands. Lawrence watershed westward to the St. Lawrence River, implicitly setting the limit of Albany County
14.
Manor of Rensselaerswyck
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The estate was originally deeded by the Dutch West India Company in 1630 to Kiliaen van Rensselaer, a Dutch merchant and one of the companys original directors. Rensselaerswyck extended for miles on side of the Hudson River near present-day Albany. It included most of what are now the present New York counties of Albany and Rensselaer, as well as parts of Columbia, under the terms of the patroonship, the patroon had nearly total jurisdictional authority, establishing civil and criminal law, villages, a church. Tenant farmers were allowed to work on the land, but had to pay rent to the owners, in addition, the Rensselaers harvested timber from the property. The patroonship was maintained intact by Rensselaer descendants for more than two centuries and it was split up after the death of its last patroon, Stephen van Rensselaer III in 1839. At his death, van Rensselaers land holdings made him the tenth-richest American in history to date, the manor was split between Stephen IIIs sons, Stephen IV and William. Tenant farmers began protesting the feudal system and their anti-rent movement was eventually successful, Stephen IV and William sold off most of their land, ending the patroonship in the 1840s. For length of operations, it was the most successful patroonship established under the West India Company system and this established a Dutch presence in the area, formally called New Netherland. In June 1620, the Dutch West India Company was established by the States-General, in 1630, the managers of the West India Company, in order to attract capitalists to the colony, offered certain exclusive privileges to the members of the company. The only restriction was that the colony had to be outside the island of Manhattan, to meet such cases, the West India Company adopted the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions for the agricultural colonization of its American province. The chief features of this charter stated that lands for each colony could extend 16 miles in length if confined to one side of a river or 8 miles if both sides were occupied. Additionally, the lands could extend into the countryside and even be enlarged if more immigrants were to settle there, each patroon would have the chief command within their respective patroonship, having the sole rights to fish and hunt. If a city were to be founded within its boundaries, the patroon would have the power and authority to establish officers, each patroonship was free of taxes and tariffs for ten years following its founding. Colonists of a patroonship were limited by the West India Company in some instances, for example, fur trading was illegal for colonists, it was reserved as a Company monopoly. But, patroonships had the right to trade anywhere from Newfoundland to Florida, each patroon was required to satisfy the Indians of that place for the land, implying that the land must be bought from the local Indians, and not just taken. Additionally, the Company agreed to all colonists, whether free or in service, from all aggressors. For longer time than it shall see fit, Kiliaen van Rensselaer, a pearl and diamond merchant of Amsterdam, was one of the original directors of the West India Company and one of the first to take advantage of the new settlement charter. This took place even before the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions was ratified, on April 8,1630, a representative for van Rensselaer purchased a large tract of land from its American Indian owners adjacent to Fort Orange, on the west side of the Hudson River
15.
Troy, New York
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Troy is a city in the U. S. State of New York and the seat of Rensselaer County. The city is located on the edge of Rensselaer County. Troy has close ties to the cities of Albany and Schenectady. The city is one of the three centers for the Albany Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of 1,170,483. At the 2010 census, the population of Troy was 50,129, troja est, which means Ilium was, Troy is. Before European arrival, the area was settled by the Mahican Indian tribe, the Dutch began settling in the mid 17th century, the patroon Kiliaen van Rensselaer called the area Pafraets Dael, after his mother. Control of New York passed to the English in 1664 and in 1707 Derick Van der Heyden purchased a farm near todays downtown area, in 1771, Abraham Lansing had his farm in todays Lansingburgh laid out into lots. Responding to Lansings success to the north, in 1787, Van der Heydens grandson Jacob had his extensive holdings surveyed and laid out into lots as well, in 1789, Troy got its current name after a vote of the people. In 1791, Troy was incorporated as a town and extended east across the county to the Vermont line, in 1796, Troy became a village and in 1816 it became a city. Lansingburgh, to the north, became part of Troy in 1900, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Mohican Indians had a number of settlements along the Hudson River near the confluence with the Mohawk River. The land comprising the Poesten Kill and Wynants Kill areas were owned by two Mohican groups, the land around the Poesten Kill was owned by Skiwias and was called Panhooseck. The area around the Wynants Kill, was known as Paanpack, was owned by Peyhaunet, the land between the creeks, which makes up most of downtown and South Troy, was owned by Annape. South of the Wynants Kill and into present-day North Greenbush, the land was owned by Pachquolapiet and these parcels of land were sold to the Dutch between 1630 and 1657 and each purchase was overseen and signed by Skiwias, the sachem at the time. In total, more than 75 individual Mohicans were involved in deed signings in the 17th century, the site of the city was a part of Rensselaerswyck, a patroonship created by Kiliaen van Rensselaer. Dirck Van der Heyden was one of the first settlers, in 1707, he purchased a farm of 65 acres which in 1787 was laid out as a village. One skeleton was female and Caucasian with an iron ring, the other was Native-American and male. The name Troy was adopted in 1789 before which it had known as Ashleys Ferry. The township included Brunswick and Grafton, Troy became a village in 1801 and was chartered as a city in 1816
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Schaghticoke (town), New York
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Schaghticoke /ˈskætᵻkoʊk/ SKAT-ə-kohk is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. The population was 7,679 at the 2010 census and it was named for the Schaghticoke, a Native American tribe formed in the seventeenth century from an amalgamation of remnant peoples of eastern New York and New England. The tribe has one of the oldest reservations in the United States, located in what is now Litchfield County and it has been recognized by the state of Connecticut but has not yet achieved federal recognition. The town is on the border of the county, north of Troy. The town contains a village, also called Schaghticoke, and part of the village of Valley Falls and this tree symbolized the friendship between the English and the Dutch, and the Schaghticoke Indians. The Indians were Mohican refugees from New England welcomed to Schaghticoke because they agreed to protect the English from the French. Until the Revolutionary War, Schaghticoke was part of the colony of New York with most of its citizens governed by the city of Albany, originally, Schaghticoke was a dangerous place to live because they were frequently raided by the Indians and Tories. This led to the settlement of the Schaghticoke land. Once the land was fully settled it was a part of Albany County, after the revolution many immigrants came from England and Ireland to settle in Schaghticoke. The town flourished near the water powered mills created in the town on the Hoosic River, there were many farmers residing in Schaghticoke who made crops for local industries. The Knickerbocker Mansion was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, today Schaghticoke still has a strong agriculture presence. However, it is becoming more residential, political and becoming plagued by economic issues. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 51.9 square miles. The north town line is the border of Washington County, the Hoosic River flows through the town to the Hudson River at the west town line. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,456 people,2,714 households, the population density was 149.4 people per square mile. There were 2,823 housing units at a density of 56.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 57% White,1. 26% Black or African American,0. 17% Native American,0. 36% Asian,0. 13% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 66% of the population. 17. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.12
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Pittstown, New York
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Pittstown is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. The population was 5,735 at the 2010 census and it is in the northern part of the county. A small part of the town line is Rensselaer Countys border with Washington County. Moving west, the Hoosic River defines the northwestern line to the crux of its border with the town of Schaghticoke. The towns of Brunswick and Grafton border to the southwest and southeast, respectively, the town is one of the original towns in the county and was created in 1788 from a patent dated 1761. The Coletti–Rowland–Agan Farmstead, Howard–Odmin–Sherman Farmstead, and Tomhannock Methodist Episcopal Church are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, New York State Route 67 runs along the Hoosic River, which defines the northeast town line. In western Pittstown, a body of water, the Tomhannock Reservoir. The Pittstown State Forest is in the southeast corner of the town, where New York State Route 7 runs along the northern edge of the Rensselaer Plateau. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 64.8 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,644 people,1,993 households, the population density was 91.4 people per square mile. There were 2,142 housing units at a density of 34.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 84% White,0. 48% African American,0. 44% Native American,0. 30% Asian,0. 16% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 66% of the population. 17. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.20. In the town, the population was out with 28. 8% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,30. 5% from 25 to 44,23. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.4 males, the median income for a household in the town was $49,968, and the median income for a family was $52,194. Males had an income of $35,173 versus $28,720 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,578, about 4. 3% of families and 6. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 7% of those under age 18 and 9. 2% of those age 65 or over
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Grafton, New York
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Grafton is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. The population was 2,130 at the 2010 census and it is believed that the town received its name from Grafton, Vermont, from where the first town supervisor, Nathaniel Dumbleton, was originally from. The town is a town near the north-central part of the county. NY Route 2 passes across the town, Grafton is notable for having a Peace Pagoda, built by Nipponzan Myohoji buddhist order in 1993. The town of Grafton was originally a part of the Manor of Rensselaerswyck, the first settlements are not clear from the ca. As part of Rennesselaerswyck, the first inhabitants were renters of that estate, the question of the first settlement of Grafton has never been settled. The names of the first white men who built new homes in the wilderness, in all probability, however, the town was the last in Rensselaer County to be settled. Grafton was formed from the towns of Troy and Petersburgh on March 20,1807, Abel Owen is generally believed to have been the first man to enter the rather unattractive mountain wilderness and build himself a home. Owen was not long without neighbors, if indeed there were not one or more located in that vicinity when he built his log house. There is nothing to show when Mr. Owen moved to Grafton, possibly it was several years later, during that war or at its close. Abel Owen is recorded as a Revolutionary soldier, so that the preponderance of opinion is that no settlements were made in the town until the years of the war or later. Perhaps those who locacted there in the years mentioned accompanied Owen, about 1786 the latter had at least two or three neighbors, families names Coon and Demmon being early lessees of the patroons lands. About 1796 Abel own sold his farm to Lemuel Steward and removed with his family to Onondaga County, the first town meeting was held soon after the organization, on the first Tuesday of April,1807 at the house of Nathan Hakes. Two taverns are mentioned by authorities as the earliest in town. One was located at East Grafton and was built and maintained by Thomas Scriven, the tavern of S. McChesney was opened about the year 1800. The Grafton House was built about 1838 by Stephen Van Rensselaer and it was the most pretentious affair in the town and for many years one of the most prominent taverns in the central part of the county. About the year 1800 Josiah Litchfield opened a store at Quackenkill. S. McChesney, in addition to his tavern, also kept a store at Quackenkill
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Poestenkill, New York
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Poestenkill is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. The population was 4,530 at the 2010 census, the town is named after the Poesten Kill, an important stream in the area. The words poesten kil are traditionally supposed to signify foaming water or foaming creek in Dutch, while kil indeed means water or creek in Dutch, Dutch dictionaries do not support the claim of poest as foam. Among the earliest settlers in the town was Archelaus Lynd and he leased 300 acres of land from the Van Rensselaers and made his first clearing in the area of Hillside Cemetery, which was known as The Lynd Cemetery until about 1900. The Whyland and Ives families were early settlers. The town is southeast of Troy and is located in the county. The area was first settled around 1770, and the town of Poestenkill was created from part of the Town of Sand Lake on March 2,1848, when the American Revolutionary War broke out, six men served from the area. One, named Benjamin Cotterel, is said to have carried the first wheelbarrow of earth to Bunker Hill, the first school in the area was established in or soon after 1788 on land set aside for that purpose by Stephen Van Rensselaer III. Five men from Poestenkill served in the War of 1812, all joining the Eddy expedition, the first regular church in Poestenkill was the First Baptist church, organized in 1814 and located in East Poestenkill. Future president James A. Garfield considered a job as school principal in Poestenkill in 1856. Poestenkill celebrated its sesquicentennial in 1998, with events including a Revolutionary War reenactment, antique car show, a parade. A postcard was produced for the town at the time. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 32.6 square miles. The eastern and central portions of the town are part of the Rensselaer Plateau, the town is serviced in part by Brunswick Central School District and by Averill Park Central School District. As of the census of 2000, there were 4,054 people,1,527 households, the population density was 124.9 people per square mile. There were 1,628 housing units at a density of 50.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 35% White,0. 17% Blacks and or African American,0. 30% Native American,0. 35% Asian,0. 27% from other races, and 0. 57% from two or more races. Latino or Latino of any race were 0. 67% of the population,20. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
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North Greenbush, New York
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North Greenbush is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. North Greenbush is located in the part of the county. The population was 12,075 at the 2010 census, the town has three main hamlets, Wynantskill in the northwestern corner, Defreestville in the southern portion of the town, and Snyders Lake which occupies the majority of the towns east end. Both have strong identities and hinder efforts by the town to have a centralized identity. Also hindering a unified town image is that North Greenbush consists of parts of four different school districts, only one of which carries the towns name, North Greenbush was created on February 23,1855 from the town of Greenbush at the same time as the town of Clinton. At this time North Greenbush occupied more than what it today, it also covered what is now the northern section of the city of Rensselaer. The earliest settlers, in the early 1620s settled in Bath, some settlement in what is today North Greenbush may have occurred in the 17th century as well, but most significant early settlement occurred just prior to the US Revolutionary War. Early settlements in the town were at Bath, Wynantskill, in 1874 Bath became incorporated as a village, and in 1902 it was annexed to Rensselaer. De Freest and family who owned a tavern there, Defreestville and Wynantskill continue to be important hamlets in the town. Snyders Lake would in the 20th century also become an important community, Snyders Lake was developed as summer residences and continues to lack a central business district. In 1931 the road between Troy and East Greenbush was widened and the right-of-way straightened as US Route 4, the older, narrower, winding residential parts of the road were bypassed and is todays Bloomingrove Drive. Starting in the 1940s and 50s suburban growth along Route 4 would begin to displace farms and this suburban growth would be encouraged by the construction of Interstate 90 and the Patroon Island Bridge in the 1960s making North Greenbush an easy commute to Albany. I-90 would not have an exit to North Greenbush until 1996 though. In the 1970s Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute began developing the RPI Tech Park on Route 4 as a business incubator, today it has over 1,000,000 square feet of office space. A connector highway will eventually also go from Exit 8 parallel to US4 north through the RPI Tech Park, not all suburban growth has been well received in the town however. In the late 1990s the RPI Tech Park became the focus of regional, the RPI Tech Park site originally met little opposition from the town. But as time progressed opposition grew in response to concerns about impacts on traffic. Another instance of NIMBY opposition to development occurred after the construction of I-90s Exit 8 when that location became well-primed for commercial development, local developer Frank Nigro with Nigro Company proposed a high-end shopping center for the north-east corner of the intersection of routes 4 and 43
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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Urban sprawl
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In addition to describing a particular form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. In Continental Europe the term peri-urbanisation is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl only with the number of residential units per acre in a given area. But others associate it with decentralization, discontinuity, segregation of uses, the term urban sprawl is highly politicized, and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation, and intensifying segregation and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas, due to the pejorative meaning of the term, few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has become a cry for managing urban growth. Definitions of sprawl vary, researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision and he argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method. He proposed using accessibility and functional space as indicators. Ewings approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl is defined by negative characteristics, what constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term. The following characteristics are associated with sprawl, This refers to a situation where commercial, residential, institutional and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure. The degree to which different land uses are mixed together is used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject. Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and car-dependent communities, spatial mismatch is related to job sprawl and economic environmental justice. Job sprawl has been documented and measured in various ways and it has been shown to be a growing trend in Americas metropolitan areas. The Brookings Institution has published articles on the topic. In 2005, author Michael Stoll defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5-mile radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 U. S. Census data. These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35-mile radius around the CBD,3 miles or less,3 to 10 miles and this compares to the year 1998 -23. 3%,34. 2%, and 42. 5% in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings, Sprawl is often characterized as consisting of low-density development
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New York State Route 7
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New York State Route 7 is a 180-mile state highway in New York in the United States. The highway runs from Pennsylvania Route 29 at the Pennsylvania state line south of Binghamton to Vermont Route 9 the Vermont state line east of Hoosick, most of the road runs along the Susquehanna Valley, closely paralleling Interstate 88 throughout that roads length. Portions of the route near the cities of Binghamton, Schenectady. NY7 begins at the Pennsylvania state line south of Corbettsville, like PA29 to the south, NY7 follows Snake Creek north to Corbettsville, where it meets NY 7A on the banks of the Susquehanna River. From Corbettsville northward, NY7 becomes the highway, following the river through Conklin to eastern Binghamton. The route continues west into downtown along Conklin Avenue, then north on Tompkins Avenue to traverse the Susquehanna River. On the opposite bank, NY7 intersects US11 and becomes Brandywine Avenue, after three blocks, NY7 merges with NY363, a limited-access highway. While NY363 terminates at the merge, NY7 follows the right-of-way of NY363 northward, connecting to the concurrent routes of I-81, immediately north of Binghamton in Port Dickinson, NY7 merges with I-88 across the Chenango River from the western terminus of I-88 at I-81. I-88 and NY7 continue to the northeast along the Chenango River through Chenango Bridge, NY7 is signed north-south from the PA line to I-88 near Binghamton, while the remainder of the route is signed east-west. East of NY235, NY7 rejoins the Susquehanna River, west of the city, NY7 meets NY23 and joins the route into the heart of Oneonta. Near the eastern edge of the city, NY23 breaks from NY7 while NY7 continues onward in the shadow of I-88 and the Susquehanna River. To the northeast in Colliersville, the Susquehanna separates from NY7 and is joined by NY28 while NY7 continues along the path of Schenevus Creek. Both I-88 and NY7 head northeast along the creek through numerous communities to Richmondville, NY10 turns east onto NY7, forming an overlap along the creek to Cobleskill before separating from NY7 in the center of the village at an intersection with NY145. NY145 then overlaps NY7 east out of the village before separating midway between Cobleskill and Schoharie near Howe Caverns, North of Schoharie, NY7 briefly overlaps NY 30A across Schoharie Creek before intersecting NY30 west of the Schoharie-Schenectady County line. In Duanesburg, southwest of Schenectady, NY7 intersects US20, NY7, however, passes over the Thruway with no connection and heads east into Rotterdam as Duanesburg Road. In the center of the community, NY7 turns east onto Curry Road, NY7 merges with I-890 northward for two exits before exiting onto the Crosstown Arterial. At the end of the arterial in eastern Schenectady, NY7 becomes the at-grade Troy–Schenectady Road as it heads along the bank of the Mohawk River into Albany County. Shortly after entering the county and the Town of Colonie, NY7 leaves the river, soon after passing the Albany International Airport and prior to entering the center of Latham, NY7 meets I-87 at exit 6
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New York State Route 2
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New York State Route 2 is a state highway in the Capital District of New York in the United States. It extends for 30.89 miles from an interchange with Interstate 87 and NY7 in the town of Colonie to the Massachusetts state line in Petersburgh, where it continues to Boston as Massachusetts Route 2. The route passes through the cities of Watervliet and Troy, where it connects to NY32 and U. S. Route 4, in Grafton, located midway between Troy and Massachusetts, NY2 serves Grafton Lakes State Park. Most of the route was designated as part of an unsigned legislative route in the 1910s. In 1924, the portion of modern NY2 between the hamlet of Latham and downtown Troy became part of NY9, the rest of the highway was designated as NY96 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. NY96 was renumbered to NY2 in the early 1940s, from the 1940s to 1970, NY2 continued south along the Hudson River from Troy to Albany. It was extended to Latham in 1985, replacing a section of NY7 that had been realigned onto a new freeway to the north. NY2 begins at I-87 exit 6 in the hamlet of Latham, the route proceeds east on Troy–Schenectady Road, a four-lane boulevard in the town of Colonie. Passing south of the Latham Farms Shopping Center, and soon north of the Latham Circle Mall, the route enters Latham Circle, where it connects to US9. Instead of directly intersecting US9, NY2 meets a series of leading to and from the road while US9 itself crosses under the circle. East of US9, NY2 runs southeast through Colonie, serving residential neighborhoods and a short commercialized stretch on its way into the city of Watervliet. Two blocks into the city, maintenance of the shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to the city highway department. The highway initially serves three blocks of homes before entering a commercial district at a junction with 12th Avenue. From here, the crosses a Canadian Pacific Railway line as it approaches downtown Watervliet. Past NY32, NY2 crosses over I-787 and the Hudson River on the Congress Street Bridge, just east of the bridge, the route enters a partial interchange with Front Street and splits into a one-way pair along Congress Street and Ferry Street, both two lanes wide. The couplet takes the route through the Central Troy Historic District, Ferry Street returns to surface level at 3rd Street, where NY2 meets the southbound half of US4, which is also routed along a one-way pair through the city. A junction with US4 northbound follows two blocks to the east at 4th Street, while most of NY2 westbound is city-maintained in Troy, NY2 eastbound is a state road up through its intersection with 5th Avenue. After 5th Avenue, the highway leaves downtown Troy and begins to climb the hills overlooking the city, near the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Ferry and Congress streets merge to form a single two-lane road carrying the Congress Street name
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Capital District, New York
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The Capital District, also known as the Capital Region, refers to the metropolitan area surrounding Albany, the capital of the U. S. state of New York. With a population of 1,170,483, the Capital District is the fourth largest metropolitan region in the state, companies that have headquarters in Albany include CommerceHub and the Environment One Corporation. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. The Capital District was first settled by the Dutch in the early 17th century, Albany has been the permanent capital of the state of New York since 1797. The Capital District is notable for historical events that predate the independence of the United States, including the Albany Plan of Union. The term Capital District is commonly used to refer to the due to its location surrounding the state capital. This is similar to other districts throughout the world, all of which are associated with a respective capital city. Later, Schenectady was added to this district as well, the Capital District Recreation League, formed in 1816, proposed a Capital District Park to be roughly 8 miles from Albany, Cohoes, Rensselaer, Schenectady, Troy, and Watervliet. The location proposed was the area of the Shaker settlement, the park was never created, though in 1928 the location was used for Albany International Airport for the same reason of its central location to those suburbs. Capitaland, Metroland, and Tech Valley are nicknames sometimes used to refer to the Capital District, permanent European claims and settlement began in 1609 when Henry Hudson sailed north up the Hudson River in the name of the Dutch. During the same year, Samuel Champlain explored south down Lake Champlain, conflict soon ensued between the French and Dutch for control of the fur trade and both made alliances with different Native American tribes. In 1630, Kiliaen van Rensselaer founded the Manor of Rensselaerswyck, a Dutch patroonship in the area, in 1664 the English successfully conquered the Dutch while rivalry with the French continued. Through the Dongan Charter, Governor Thomas Dongan granted Albany the right to purchase 500 acres in Schaahtecogue and 1,000 acres at Tionnondoroge, arent van Curler founded Schenectady in 1662, Fort Saratoga was built at present-day Schuylerville in 1691, and Greenbush was settled in the 1620s. South of Albany, settlement occurred quickly at first, but slowed as growth on the frontier pushed people north and west of Albany and it was chartered as a city in 1785, becoming only the third city in the state. The French and Indian War saw several battles in the Capital District. In the end, the French were defeated, freeing the land for settlement to the west. During the American Revolution the area saw fighting and Fort Ticonderoga experienced notable action. The Battle of Saratoga, which place in the present-day town of Stillwater, is considered the turning point of the war
26.
Kirsten Gillibrand
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Kirsten Elizabeth Gillibrand is an American politician and the junior United States Senator from New York, in office since 2009. Previously, she served in the United States House of Representatives and she is a member of the Democratic Party. In December 2008, President-elect Barack Obama nominated Hillary Clinton as Secretary of State, after two months and many potential names considered, Governor David Paterson appointed Gillibrand to fill the seat. Gillibrand was required to run in an election in 2010. She was re-elected to a full term in 2012 with 72% of the vote. Kirsten Gillibrand was born in Albany, New York, on December 9,1966, both her parents are attorneys, and her father has also worked as a lobbyist. Her parents divorced in the late 1980s, Gillibrand has an older brother, Douglas Rutnik, and a younger sister, Erin Rutnik Tschantret. She has English, Austrian, Scottish, German, and Irish ancestry, during her childhood and college years, Gillibrand used the nickname Tina. She began using her name of Kirsten a few years after law school. In 1984 she graduated from Emma Willard School, a high school in Troy, New York. Gillibrand majored in Asian Studies, studying in both Beijing and Taiwan, while in Beijing, she studied and lived with Connie Britton. Gillibrand graduated magna cum laude in 1988, while at Dartmouth, she was a member of the Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority. During college, Gillibrand interned at Republican U. S, Gillibrand received her J. D. from UCLA School of Law and passed the bar exam in 1991. In 1991, Gillibrand joined the Manhattan-based law firm of Davis Polk & Wardwell as an associate, in 1992, she took a leave from Davis Polk to serve as a law clerk to Judge Roger Miner on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in Albany. She became an associate while working on Philip Morris litigation. While working at Davis Polk, Gillibrand became involved in—and later the leader of—the Womens Leadership Forum and it was such a challenge to the women in the room. And it really hit me, Shes talking to me, following her time at Davis Polk, Gillibrand served as Special Counsel to Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Andrew Cuomo during the last year of the Clinton administration. Gillibrand worked on HUDs Labor Initiative and its New Markets Initiative, as well as on TAPs Young Leaders of the American Democracy, and strengthening Davis–Bacon Act enforcement
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Border
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Borders are geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions, such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities. Some borders—such as an internal administrative border, or inter-state borders within the Schengen Area—are often open. Other borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed only at designated border checkpoints. Mostly contentious, borders may even foster the setting up of buffer zones, a difference has also been established in academic scholarship between border and frontier, the latter denoting a state of mind rather than state boundaries. In the past, many borders were not clearly defined lines, instead there were often intervening areas often claimed, a special case in recent times was the neutral zones that were set up along parts of Saudi Arabias borders with Kuwait and Iraq. In modern times, marchlands have been replaced by clearly defined and demarcated borders, for the purposes of border control, airports and seaports are also classed as borders. Most countries have some form of control to regulate or limit the movement of people, animals. Some borders require presentation of legal paperwork like passports and visas, or other identity documents, moving goods across a border often requires the payment of excise tax, often collected by customs officials. Animals moving across borders may need to go into quarantine to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders, moving goods, animals, or people illegally across a border, without declaring them or seeking permission, or deliberately evading official inspection, constitutes smuggling. Controls on car liability insurance validity and other formalities may also take place, in places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures. But some borders are merely signposted and this is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border. Borders may even be unmarked, typically in remote or forested regions. The frontiers were particularly porous for the movement of migrants. A border may have been, Agreed by the countries on both sides Imposed by the country on one side Imposed by third parties, e. g, in addition, a border may be a de facto military ceasefire line. Political borders are imposed on the world through human agency, political borders are often classified by whether or not they follow conspicuous physical features on the earth. Natural borders are geographical features that present natural obstacles to communication, existing political borders are often a formalization of these historical, natural obstacles. Some geographical features that often constitute natural borders are, Oceans, oceans create very costly natural borders, very few nation-states span more than one continent
28.
Hoosick, New York
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Hoosick is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. The population was 6,924 at the 2010 census and it was named from the Hoosic River. The Town of Hoosick is in the northeast corner of Rensselaer county, the town of Hoosick was organized in 1788, in Albany County, three years before the creation of Rensselaer County in 1791. The region was formerly the District of Hoosick and previous to that the Hoosick Patent, the Battle of Bennington of the American Revolution was fought northeast of Hoosick, on a farm owned by John Green, in the community of Walloomsac. Among the notable natives of Hoosick are, Chester Arthur, US President lived in Hoosick for a period of time, bob Eberly and Ray Eberle Romulus Whitaker, Indian herpetologist. Simon Fraser - Born in Mapletown, town of Hoosick and he was an explorer who charted much of what is now British Columbia. A river, mountain, and Simon Fraser University there are named after him, joshua Furnas, Athlete, Entrepreneur, Advocate Eugene Goossen, art critic and historian, and his wife Patricia Johanson, noted environmental sculptor, in Buskirk hamlet. Harriet Hoctor - Dancer Jenny Holzer, famous post-modern installation artist, phipps W. Lake, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly, was born in Hoosick. Grandma Moses - Famous painter whose work was first discovered in a Hoosick Falls drugstore in 1938, is buried in Hoosick, John Palmer, who served two non-consecutive terms in the United States Congress. William David Thomas, member of the U. S. House of Representatives, pharmacist and owner of the Thomas Pharmacy in Hoosick Falls where Grandma Moses paintings were discovered. Buried at Maplegrove Cemetery in the village, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 63.2 square miles, of which,63.0 square miles of it is land and 0.1 square miles of it is water. The north town line is the boundary of Washington County, New York, the Hoosic River is an important waterway in the town. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,759 people,2,620 households, the population density was 107.3 people per square mile. There were 2,892 housing units at a density of 45.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 96% White,0. 49% African American,0. 30% Native American,0. 38% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 34% from other races, and 0. 50% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 84% of the population,25. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the family size was 3.06. In the town, the population was out with 25. 9% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,28. 0% from 25 to 44,22. 3% from 45 to 64
29.
Bennington, Vermont
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Bennington is a town in Bennington County, Vermont, in the United States. It is one of two towns of the county, the other being Manchester. The population is 15,431, as of 2014 US Census estimates, the town is home to the Bennington Battle Monument, which is the tallest human-made structure in the state of Vermont. The town has access to natural resources and waterpower. The town is recognized nationally for its pottery, iron. First of the New Hampshire Grants, Bennington was chartered on January 3,1749, by Colonial Governor Benning Wentworth and it was granted to William Williams and 61 others, mostly from Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The town was first settled in 1761 by four families from Hardwick and they were led by Capt. Samuel Robinson, who camped in the river valley on his return from the French and Indian War. There are three districts within the town today, Old Bennington, Downtown Bennington and North Bennington. Of these, Old Bennington is the settlement, dating back to 1761 when Congregational Separatists arrived from Connecticut and from Amherst and Hardwick. In the early 1800s, Downtown Bennington started developing, and by 1854 the countys population had reached 18,589, the town is known in particular for the Battle of Bennington, which took place during the Revolutionary War. Although the battle took place approximately 12 miles to the west in what is now the state of New York, an ammunition storage building located in Bennington was an important strategic target. On August 16,1777, Gen. John Starks 1, 500-strong New Hampshire Militia defeated 800 German mercenaries, local Loyalists, in 1891, the Bennington Battle Monument was opened. The monument is a 306-foot-high stone obelisk that is the tallest human-made structure in Vermont and it is a popular tourist attraction. Bennington is located in southwestern Bennington County at 42°53′28″N 73°12′29″W, to the west is New York State, Pownal, Vermont is to the south, Shaftsbury, Vermont is to the north and Woodford, Vermont is to the east. Due to its location in the southernmost portion of Vermont, it is closer to the capital cities of Albany, Hartford. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 42.5 square miles, of which 42.2 square miles are land and 0.27 square miles. Bennington is drained by the Walloomsac River and its tributaries, flowing to the Hoosic, the town is located along the western edge of the Green Mountains, including Bald Mountain, which occupies the northeastern edge of town. In the southwest part of town is 2, 350-foot Mount Anthony, Bennington experiences a humid continental climate with cold, snowy winters and warm to hot, humid summers
30.
Williamstown, Massachusetts
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Williamstown is a town in Berkshire County, in the northwest corner of Massachusetts, United States. It shares a border with Vermont to the north and New York to the west and it is part of the Pittsfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 7,754 at the 2010 census, a college town, it is home to Williams College, the Clark Art Institute and the Tony-awarded Williamstown Theatre Festival, which runs every July and August. Originally called West Hoosac, the area was first settled in 1749, prior to this time its position along the Mohawk Trail made it ideal Mohican hunting grounds. Its strategic location bordering Dutch colonies in New York led to its settlement, fort West Hoosac, the westernmost blockhouse and stockade in Massachusetts, was built in 1756. The town was incorporated in 1765 as Williamstown according to the will of Col. Ephraim Williams and he bequeathed a significant sum to the town on the condition that it were named after him and started a free school. In 1791, the opened, but only lasted a short time as a free school before becoming Williams College in 1793. The primary industry was agriculture, particularly dairy farming, sheep herding, sawmills and gristmills operated by water power at the streams. With the Industrial Revolution larger mills were added, including the Walley Mill and Williamstown Manufacturing Company, with the opening of the railroad, tourists arrived. Several inns and hotels were established, including the Idlewild Hotel, in the late 1930s and 1940s, E. Parmelee Prentice and his wife Alta, the daughter of John D. Rockefeller, created Mount Hope Farm. With a mansion designed by James Gamble Rogers, it was one of the experimental farms in the country. Today, it belongs to Williams College, which remains the largest employer in town. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 46.9 square miles, of which 46.8 square miles is land and 0.12 square miles. Located in the Berkshires, Williamstown is drained by the Hoosic River, Williamstown is the northwesternmost town in Massachusetts. The town is bordered on the north by Pownal, Vermont, on the east by Clarksburg, North Adams and Adams, on the south by New Ashford and Hancock, the town proper lies southwest of the confluence of the Green River and the Hoosic River. To the west, the Taconic Range lines the N. Y. state border and is where Taconic Trail State Park is located, the highest point in town is at 3,320 feet above sea level, just 0.2 miles west of the summit of Greylock. The Appalachian Trail skirts the town twice, near the southeast corner of town, to the northeast, Pine Cobble lies along the Clarksburg town line, and to the north lies the Green Mountain National Forest in Vermont. U. S. Route 7 passes from north to south through the town, crossing into Vermont to the north and New Ashford to the south
31.
German Palatines
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The German Palatines were early 18th century emigrants from the Middle Rhine region of the Holy Roman Empire, including a minority from the Palatinate which gave its name to the entire group. The Poor Palatines were some 13,000 Germans who migrated to England between May and November 1709 and their arrival in England, and the inability of the British Government to integrate them, caused a highly politicized debate over the merits of immigration. The English tried to settle them in England, Ireland and the Colonies, the Palatine settlements did not prove to be viable in the long term, except for those settled in County Limerick and County Wexford in Ireland and in the colony of New York in British North America. In Ireland, less than 200 families remained after the settlement in 1709. Nevertheless, they maintained their distinctive culture until well into the nineteenth century, the largest concentration of descendants of Irish Palatine residents lives around Rathkeale, Co Limerick. The English transported nearly 3,000 German Palatines in ten ships to New York in 1710, many of them were first assigned to work camps along the Hudson River to work off their passage. Close to 850 families settled in the Hudson River Valley, primarily in what are now Germantown and Saugerties, later additional Palatine Germans settled along the Mohawk River for several miles, founding towns such as Palatine Bridge, and in the Schoharie Valley. Throughout the Nine Years War and the War of Spanish Succession, the migrants came principally from regions comprising the modern German states of Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse, and northern areas of Baden-Württemberg along the lower Neckar. During the so-called Kleinstaaterei period when this occurred, the Middle Rhine region was a patchwork of secular. What triggered the mass emigration in 1709 of mostly impoverished people to England was the Crowns promise of land in the American Colonies. Parliament discovered in 1711 that several “agents” working on behalf of the Colony of Carolina had promised the peasants around Frankfurt free passage to the plantations. Spurred by the success of several dozen families the year before, thousands of German families headed down the Rhine to England, the first boats packed with refugees began arriving in early May 1709. The first 900 people were given housing, food and supplies by a number of wealthy Englishmen, throughout the summer, ships unloaded thousands of refugees, and almost immediately their numbers overwhelmed the initial attempts to provide for them. By summer, most of the Poor Palatines were settled in Army tents in the fields of Blackheath, a Committee dedicated to coordinating their settlement and dispersal sought ideas for their employment. During the reign of Queen Anne, political polarization increased, immigration and asylum had long been debated, from coffee-houses to the floor of Parliament, and the Poor Palatines were inevitably brought into the political crossfire. For the Whigs, who controlled Parliament, these provided an opportunity to increase Britain’s workforce. Only two months before the German influx, Parliament had enacted the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708, the rationale was the belief that an increased population created more wealth, and that Britain’s prosperity could increase with the accommodation of certain foreigners. Britain had already benefited from French Huguenot refugees, as well as the Dutch exiles, louis XIV of France had become infamous for the persecution of Protestants within his realm
32.
Livingston Manor
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This article contains information related to Livingston Manor, the 18th century New York estate. Livingston Manor, New York is a town in Sullivan County, the Livingston Manor Historic District is located in Highland Park, New Jersey. Livingston Manor was a 160,000 acre tract of land granted, in present day New York and New Jersey, the original patent was obtained in July 1686. This tract embraced a portion of what is now Columbia County. The lords of the manor were, Robert Livingston the Elder, although an English-deeded tract, some sources list Livingston Manor with the patroonships of New Netherland. A portion of the estate is held by the family. The town of Livingston, New York occupies part of the original tract, the original Livingston Manor encompasses the present day towns of Livingston, Germantown, Clermont, Taghkanic, Gallatin, Copake, and Ancram, located in Columbia County New York. In 1750, Robert Livingston, the lord, bought 95,000 acres in the area shortly after becoming the third Lord of the Manor of Livingston Manor. Most of the land would be sold or leased by 1780, roberts third son John Robert Livingston deeded 8,441 acres to his nephew Dr. Edward R. Livingston in 1822 around area then called Purvis, New York. In 1882, Purvis was renamed Livingston Manor, a Greek Revival mansion built by descendents Robert and Louisa Livingston around 1843 stands on the property and is now known as Livingston Homestead. At the turn of the 20th century, the property was developed as a streetcar suburb, the house and the district are listed on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places. Notes Sources Raken. com, Manor Lords CooperativeIndividualism. org, Dutch Patroons
33.
Queen Anne's War
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The War of the Spanish Succession was primarily fought in Europe. In addition to the two combatants, the war also involved numerous Native American tribes allied with each nation, and Spain. It was also known as the Third Indian War or in French as the Second Intercolonial War, the English colonies of New England fought with French and Native American forces based in Acadia and Canada. Quebec City was repeatedly targeted by British expeditions, and the Acadian capital Port Royal was taken in 1710, the French and Wabanaki Confederacy sought to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Toward this end, they executed raids against targets in Massachusetts, on Newfoundland, English colonists based at St. Johns disputed control of the island with the French based at Plaisance. Most of the conflict consisted of destructive raids against the other sides settlements. The French successfully captured St. Johns in 1709, but the British quickly reoccupied it after the French abandoned it, following a preliminary peace in 1712, the Treaty of Utrecht ended the war in 1713. It resulted in the French cession of claims to the territories of Hudson Bay, Acadia, some of its terms were ambiguous, and concerns of various Native American tribes were not included in the treaty, setting the stage for future conflicts. In 1701, following the death in late 1700 of King Charles II, although the war was at first restricted to a few powers in Europe, in May 1702 it widened when England declared war on Spain and France. The hostilities in North America were further encouraged by existing frictions along the frontier areas separating the colonies of these powers, the total population of the English colonies at the time has been estimated at 250,000, with Virginia and New England dominating. The population centers of these colonies were concentrated along the coast, with small settlements inland, most European colonists knew very little of the interior of the continent, to the west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes. This area was dominated by tribes, although French and English traders had penetrated the area. Spanish missionaries in La Florida had established a network of missions to convert the inhabitants to Roman Catholicism. The Spanish population was small, and the native population they ministered to has been estimated to number 20,000. French explorers had located the mouth of the Mississippi River, near which they established a colonial presence in 1699 at Fort Maurepas. From there they began to trade routes into the interior, establishing friendly relations with the Choctaw. All of these populations had suffered to some degree from the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases like smallpox by early explorers and traders, France and Spain, allies in this conflict, had been on opposite sides of the recently ended Nine Years War. To the north, the conflict held a strong component in addition to territorial disputes
34.
Quebec Expedition
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The Quebec Expedition, or the Walker Expedition to Quebec, was a British attempt to attack Quebec in 1711 in Queen Annes War, the North American theatre of the War of Spanish Succession. It failed when seven transports and one storeship were wrecked and some 850 soldiers drowned in one of the worst naval disasters in British history. The expedition was planned by the administration of Robert Harley, chief minister of the crown, Harley decided to mount the expedition as part of a major shift in British military policy, emphasizing strength at sea. The expeditions leaders, Admiral Hovenden Walker and Brigadier-General John Hill, were chosen for their politics and connections to the crown, despite the secrecy, French agents were able to discover British intentions and warn authorities in Quebec. Admiral Walker also had difficulty acquiring experienced pilots and accurate charts for navigating the waters of the lower Saint Lawrence River, following the disaster, Walker abandoned the expeditions objectives and returned to England. Although the expedition was a failure, Harley continued to implement his blue water policy, in 1710, late in the War of Spanish Succession, a mixed force of British regulars and American colonists captured the French fort at Port Royal on the northwestern coast of Acadia. The British government was in turmoil, and in August 1710. Queen Anne replaced him with Robert Harley, an opponent of the Duke of Marlborough. Harley wanted to change Britains military strategy, implementing a water policy that emphasized strength at sea. He also sought to blunt Marlboroughs continuing influence with a victory of his own devising, Harley therefore authorised expeditions by land and sea to capture Quebec, but fell ill, so most of the work of organisation was done by his Secretary of State, Henry St. John. Rear Admiral of the White Sir Hovenden Walker was given command of the expedition. St. John probably chose Hill to curry favour at court, the duchess of Marlborough, presumably echoing the opinions of her husband, wrote of Hill that he was no good as a soldier. Five regiments from Marlboroughs force in Flanders were added to two from Britain to build a force of some 5,000 land troops and this force sailed from ports in southern England in April and May 1711. Francis Nicholson arrived in Boston in early June 1711 with news and details of the plans. The provincial forces that were to go with Walkers expedition were led by Samuel Vetch and they consisted of 1,500 men, most from Massachusetts, with smaller contingents from New Hampshire and Rhode Island. The fleet arrived in Boston on 24 June, and the troops were disembarked onto Noddles Island, the size of the force was, according to historian Samuel Adams Drake, the most formidable that had ever crossed the Atlantic under the English flag. Since the fleet had left with insufficient supplies, its organizers expected it to be fully provisioned in Boston, but as the number of soldiers and sailors outnumbered the population of Boston, this proved a daunting task. Laws were passed to prevent merchants from price-gouging, and sufficient provisions were eventually acquired, during the expeditions sojourn in Boston, Walker attempted to enlist pilots experienced in navigating the Saint Lawrence River
35.
Pieter Schuyler
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Pieter Schuyler was the first mayor of Albany, New York. Pieter Schuyler was born in 1657 in Beverwyck, New Netherland and his father was a Dutch born landowner who was the progenitor of the American Schuyler family. The many Schuyler children established the name and homes, including the Schuyler Mansion in Albany. They were closely related with the great family patroons of New York, in March 1685, Governor Dongan appointed Pieter Schuyler lieutenant of cavalry in the Albany militia. He later attained the rank of Major, and then Colonel, in 1690, during King Williams War, Schuylers younger brother led an attack on La Prairie, Quebec. Colonel Schuyler led an attack the following year. In April 1685, he was appointed Judge of the Court of Oyer and Terminer, on July 22,1686, Albany was incorporated as a city and Pieter Schuyler was named its first mayor, serving for eight years. As mayor, Schuyler was also chairman of the Board of the Commissioners for Indian Affairs, from 1692, Schuyler was a member of the executive council, which was the unelected upper house of New Yorks colonial legislature. He was the first man from Albany to be appointed to the council, when Lord Lovelace died in May 1709, the lieutenant governor, Richard Ingoldesby, was absent. Ingoldesby was again absent later in the month, with Schuyler taking over as governor for another period of less than a week. In July 1719, when Robert Hunter had his commission as governor revoked, Schuyler was still the most senior member of the executive council, the new governor, William Burnet, did not take office until September 1720. Burnet removed Schuyler from the council in 1721, along with another councillor, Adolphus Philipse. His first wife was Engeltie Van Schaick, together, they had, Margarita Schuyler, who married Robert Livingston the Younger Philip Schuyler, who died young. Hendricks wife and Marias sister-in-law, Catherina Van Brugh, was the sister of the 6th Mayor of Albany Pieter Van Brugh, together, Pieter and Maria Van Rensselaer had, Gertruj Schuyler, who married Johannes Lansing. Philip Schuyler, who married Margarita Schyuler, Pieter Schuyler, a twin of Jeremiah who married Catherine Groesbeck. Jeremiah Schuyler, a twin of Pieter who married Susanna Bayeux, Schuyler died on February 19,1724, aged 66, in Albany. Pieter Schuyler third sons granddaughter married Col. Philip Kiliaen van Rensselaer of Cherry Hill in Albany and his grand-niece, Philip Schuylers sister, married Dr. John Cochran, the Director General of the Military Hospitals of the Continental Army, and were the grandparents of U. S. His great-grandchildren included Richard Livingston and Col. James Livingston, Catherine and Goose were the children of Albany mayor Sybrant Van Schaick
36.
Dummer's War
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The root cause of the conflict on the Maine frontier was over the border between Acadia and New England, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Complicating matters further, on the Nova Scotia frontier, the Treaty of Utrecht that ended Queen Annes War had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki Confederacy. While the Abenaki signed the Treaty of Portsmouth, none had been consulted about British ownership of Nova Scotia, the war began on two fronts as a result of the expansion of New England settlements along the coast of Maine, and at Canso, Nova Scotia. The New Englanders were led primarily by Lt, Governor of Massachusetts William Dummer, Lt. Governor of Nova Scotia John Doucett and Captain John Lovewell, the Wabanaki Confederacy and other native tribes were led primarily by Father Sébastien Rale, Chief Gray Lock and Chief Paugus. In present-day New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the treaty that ended Father Rales war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mikmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power, in this case Britain, French Acadia was ceded to Great Britain, although its borders were disputed. The area disputed by the European powers consisted of land between the Kennebec River and the Isthmus of Chignecto, Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Over the next year other Abenaki tribal leaders signed the treaty. Following the peace, New England settlements expanded eastward of the Kennebec River, the establishment of a permanent British fishing settlement at Canso was a particular sore spot with the local Mikmaq, and they protested through raids on British fishermen and settlements. In response to Wabanaki hostilities toward the expansion, the governor of Nova Scotia, Richard Philipps, Georges Fort at Thomaston, and Fort Richmond at Richmond. The Kennebec sachem Wiwurna objected not only to the establishment of settlements on their lands, Shute, who often rudely interrupted Wiwurna, bluntly reasserted British claims to the territory. This ambiguous response, and the treaty that was ultimately agreed, over the next several years settlers continued to encroach on Wabanaki lands east of the Kennebec River, the Wabanakis responded by raiding livestock. Shute protested the presence of the French Jesuit priest Sebastian Rale, the Wabanaki responded in July 1721 with a refusal, and a demand that hostages be released in exchange for a delivery of furs made in restitution for their raiding. Shute dismissed the letter as insolent and menacing, and sent militia forces to Arrowsic and he also asserted, based on Rales influence, that the Wabanaki claims were part of a French intrigue to further French claims to the disputed areas. Following up on his belief that the French were behind Wabanaki claims, under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook of Thomaston, the New England militia were unsuccessful in capturing Father Rale, but they plundered the church and Rales cabin. While most of the tribe was hunting, Westbrooks 300 soldiers surrounded Norridgewock to capture Rale. Found among the possessions, however, was his strongbox
37.
Patroon
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In the United States, a patroon was a landholder with manorial rights to large tracts of land in the 17th century Dutch colony of New Netherland on the east coast of North America. Through the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions of 1629, the Dutch West India Company first started to grant this title and these inducements to foster colonization and settlement are the basis for the patroon system. In 1775, at the outbreak of the American Revolution, primogeniture and feudal tenure were abolished and thus patroons and manors evolved into simply large estates subject to division and leases. The deeded tracts were called patroonships and could span 16 miles in length on one side of a major river, in 1640 the charter was revised to cut new plot sizes in half, and to allow any Dutch American in good standing to purchase an estate. The title of patroon came with powerful rights and privileges, a patroon could create civil and criminal courts, appoint local officials and hold land in perpetuity. As tenants working for the patroon, these first settlers were relieved of the duty of public taxes for ten years, a patroonship sometimes had its own village and other infrastructure, including churches. After the English takeover of New Netherland in 1664, the system continued with the granting of large tracts known as manors, the largest and most successful patroonship in New Netherland was the Manor of Rensselaerswijck, established by Kiliaen van Rensselaer. Rensselaerswijck covered almost all of present-day Albany and Rensselaer counties and parts of present-day Columbia, Manor of Rensselaerswyck and Lower Manor at Claverack. Zwaanendael - Samuel Blommaert and Samuel Godyn, abandoned after being decimated by indigenous population, pavonia - Michael Reyniersz Pauw, re-sold to the West India Company becoming a company-managed holding. Staaten Eylandt - Cornelis Melyn, mired in conflict with Raritan tribe, achter Col, aborted at the outset of Kiefts War. Colen Donck - Adriaen van der Donck Bronx - Jonas Bronck Vriessendael - David Pietersen de Vries Bentley Manor - Christopher Billopp, ethnic Dutch, who were still a substantial part of the population, resented the change and moved mostly toward the cause of the Independence movement. After the war, the newly recognized New York State government refused to overturn the law, Rensselaerswijck was dismantled in the early 19th century after its last sole proprietor died. Two sons split the property and, after tenant farmers gained the right to refuse to pay rent, the land was organized as different counties and towns in New Yorks Capital District
38.
Divine Service (Lutheran)
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The Divine Service is a title given to the Eucharistic liturgy as used in the various Lutheran churches. It has its roots in the pre-Tridentine Mass as revised by Martin Luther in his Formula missae of 1523 and it was further developed through the Kirchenordnungen of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that followed in Luthers tradition. The term Divine Service is popularly used among the more conservative Lutheran churches and organizations of the United States, in the more progressive denominations, such as The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the terms Holy Communion or the Eucharist are much more commonly used. In the parts of North American Lutheranism that use it, the term Divine Service supplants more usual English-speaking Lutheran names for the Mass, the term is a calque of the German word Gottesdienst, the standard German word for worship. As in the English phrase service of God, the genitive in Gottesdienst is arguably ambiguous and it can be read as an objective genitive or a subjective genitive. While the objective genitive is etymologically more plausible, Lutheran writers frequently highlight the ambiguity, the Lutheran liturgy currently used in the United States traces its development back to the work of Beale M. Schmucker, George Wenner and Edward Horn. Their work took place in the context of a wider North American confessional revival, between 1876 and 1883, various Lutheran synods expressed an interest in creating a common worship service. This led to the creation of a Joint Committee in 1884 which included representatives of the General Synod and General Council and this committee appointed Schmucker, Wenner and Horn who began their work in April 1884. In 1887, the three men presented their final draft to the Joint Committee and this final draft used the King James Version language and Anglican translations of the Kyrie, Gloria, Creeds, Prefaces, Lord’s Prayer, and Collects. It also included the Nunc Dimittis as an option, during this hymn, the pastor and those assisting him process into the sanctuary from the narthex. The Invocation begins the Divine Service, for the Invocation and the Preparatory Service, the pastor is to stand at the foot of the altar steps, advancing to the altar at the Introit. He speaks the Trinitarian formula, as the Sign of the Cross is made by all, the Confession follows In the Confession, we kneel humbly before our God, acknowledging our sin and seeking purification of our Spirit. In the Declaration of Grace that follows, we receive from God Himself the assurance of Gods mercy and grace that enables us to focus on our loving God. Both the congregation and the pastor kneel as the following is said, Pastor, If we say we have no sin, we ourselves. Congregation, But if we confess our sins, God who is faithful and just will forgive our sins, Pastor, Let us then confess our sins to God our Father. All, Most merciful God, we confess that we are by nature sinful and we have sinned against you in thought, word, and deed, by what we have done and by what we have left undone. We have not loved You with our whole heart, we have not loved our neighbors as ourselves and we justly deserve Your present and eternal punishment. For the sake of Your Son, Jesus Christ, have mercy on us, forgive us, renew us, and lead us, so that we may delight in Your will and walk in Your ways to the glory of your Holy Name
39.
Battle of the Plains of Abraham
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The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec, was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years War. The culmination of a siege by the British, the battle lasted about 15 minutes. In the wake of the battle, the French evacuated the city, their military force in Canada. France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, the decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the Annus Mirabilis in Great Britain. As the Seven Years War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759, in 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon, the British took Louisbourg in August, causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands, and opening the sea route to attack Quebec. Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the month, costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign. When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British, French leadership, specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm, were unsettled by the British successes. However, Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared an attack for 1759. James Wolfe expected to lead 12,000 men, but was greeted by only approximately 7,000 regular troops,400 officers, Wolfes troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders. In preparation for the approach to Quebec, James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river. Cooks ship was one of the first ships up the river, sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up, eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île dOrléans on 28 June. Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership, the professional French troops, prior to the arrival of the British, a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies. Those supplies, along with 500 reinforcements, were likely behind the lengthened siege, in addition, a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous. On 31 July, the first serious attempt by Wolfes troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport, approximately 3,500 troops, supported by a heavy bombardment, attempted to land, but were caught under fire in the river shallows. Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack, Wolfe, I assure you, will make no progress… He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers. He predicted another attack would come within days, others in the French camp felt the campaign was over. For the remainder of the summer, Wolfes focus changed, possibly due to frustration with Montcalms tactics and his troops, along with American Rangers, attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence. An estimated 1,400 stone houses and manors were destroyed, the effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalms army out of its fortifications, but was unsuccessful
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Manorialism
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Manorialism was an essential element of feudal society. It was the principle of rural economy that originated in the Roman villa system of the Late Roman Empire. It was slowly replaced by the advent of a market economy. These obligations could be payable in several ways, in labor, in kind, or, on rare occasions, in examining the origins of the monastic cloister, Walter Horn found that as a manorial entity the Carolingian monastery. Manorialism died slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape and it outlasted serfdom as it outlasted feudalism, primarily an economic organization, it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent, the last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II, in Quebec, the last feudal rents were paid in 1970 under the modified provisions of the Seigniorial Dues Abolition Act of 1935. The term is most often used with reference to medieval Western Europe, antecedents of the system can be traced to the rural economy of the later Roman Empire. With a declining birthrate and population, labor was the key factor of production, the workers of the land were on their way to becoming serfs. The legal status of adscripti, bound to the soil, contrasted with barbarian foederati, the process of rural self-sufficiency was given an abrupt boost in the eighth century, when normal trade in the Mediterranean Sea was disrupted. The lord held a court, governed by public law. Not all territorial seigneurs were secular, bishops and abbots also held lands that entailed similar obligations, by extension, the word manor is sometimes used in England to mean any home area or territory in which authority is held, often in a police or criminal context. In the generic plan of a manor from Shepherds Historical Atlas. As concerns for privacy increased in the 18th century, manor houses were located a farther distance from the village. In an agrarian society, the conditions of land tenure underlie all social or economic factors, there were two legal systems of pre-manorial landholding. One, the most common, was the system of holding land allodially in full outright ownership, the other was a use of precaria or benefices, in which land was held conditionally. To these two systems, the Carolingian monarchs added a third, the aprisio, which linked manorialism with feudalism and he solved this problem by allotting desert tracts of uncultivated land belonging to the royal fisc under direct control of the emperor. These holdings aprisio entailed specific conditions, the earliest specific aprisio grant that has been identified was at Fontjoncouse, near Narbonne
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Herman Melville
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Herman Melville was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period. His best known works include Typee, an account of his experiences in Polynesian life. His work was almost forgotten during his last thirty years and his writing draws on his experience at sea as a common sailor, exploration of literature and philosophy, and engagement in the contradictions of American society in a period of rapid change. Born in New York City as the child of a merchant in French dry goods, Melvilles formal education ended abruptly after his father died in 1832. Melville briefly became a schoolteacher before he took to sea in 1839 as a sailor on a merchant ship. In 1840 he signed aboard the whaler Acushnet for his first whaling voyage, after further adventures, he returned to Boston in 1844. His first book, Typee, a romanticized account of his life among Polynesians, became such a best-seller that he worked up a sequel. These successes encouraged him to marry Elizabeth Shaw, of a prominent Boston family and his first novel not based on his own experiences, Mardi, is a sea narrative that develops into a philosophical allegory, but was not well received. Redburn, a story of life on a merchant ship, and his 1850 expose of harsh life aboard a Man-of-War, White-Jacket yielded warmer reviews, Moby-Dick was another commercial failure, published to mixed reviews. Melvilles career as a popular author effectively ended with the reception of Pierre. His Revolutionary War novel Israel Potter appeared in 1855, from 1853 to 1856, Melville published short fiction in magazines, most notably Bartleby, the Scrivener, The Encantadas, and Benito Cereno. These and three stories were collected in 1856 as The Piazza Tales. In 1857, he voyaged to England, where he reunited with Hawthorne for the first time since 1852, the Confidence-Man, was the last prose work he published during his lifetime. He moved to New York to take a position as Customs Inspector, battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War was his poetic reflection on the moral questions of the Civil War. In 1867 his oldest child, Malcolm, died at home from a self-inflicted gunshot, Clarel, A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land, a metaphysical epic, appeared in 1876. In 1886, his son, Stanwix, died and Melville retired. Melvilles death from disease in 1891 subdued a reviving interest in his work. The 1919 centennial of his became the starting point of the Melville Revival
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War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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Joseph H. Allen
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Joseph H. Allen was an industrial businessman, an officer in the Civil War, and a town supervisor of Brunswick, New York. Allen was born in Alburg, Vermont, to parents of British descent, after several business ventures, he became successful in the auger and hoe business, selling mainly to the American South. He successfully ran for supervisor of the Town of Brunswick in 1856, at the beginning of the Civil War, his sales plummeted so he closed his business and enlisted in the Union Army. Allen was wounded multiple times during his service and ended his career at the rank of lieutenant colonel and he returned home to reopen his factory, which was instrumental to the industrial success of the hamlet of Eagle Mills in the mid to late 19th century. He died in 1884 at the age of 62, Allen was the son of John and Sarah Allen. His father was a native of Connecticut and of English origin and he left home when he was eight years old to carve out a fortune for himself, as Sylvester put it in his History of Rensselaer County, New York. He began work in a factory in Hamden, Connecticut, at an early age. At that time, he purchased a store, which he traded for horses in Vermont. He shipped his horses to the West Indies, but the ship was wrecked and his horses were lost, thus placing him badly in debt. However, he obtained credit, and again shipped a number of horses to the West Indies. Allen soon resumed his place in the factory in Connecticut, where he remained until September 1,1843. There he entered partnership with O. W. Edson in manufacturing augers. The partnership continued until the following January when Allen purchased his partner’s share, in January 1851, Allen purchased the Eagle flour mills, an historically important industrial building in the area, which eventually gave the hamlet of Eagle Mills its name. The factory had a history of failed business attempts. It was built in 1821 by Daniel Sheldon to mill flour using wheat supplied from Troy, after brief success, the business closed and the building sat idle. It was sold to James Bumstead who reopened the building as a feed mill, also unsuccessful, Catlin and Saxton abandoned the business and James McChesney sold the property to Groome and Shattuck, who began manufacturing monkey wrenches. The factory was located on the banks of the Poesten Kill. Allen had two new buildings erected and funneled creek water to them through tunnels in the bedrock underneath the buildings and he named his enterprise the Millville Manufacturing Company and converted the mill into an auger and bit factory
United States
New York
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This article incorporates text from History of Rensselaer Co., New York, by Nathaniel Bartlett Sylvester (1880), a publication now in the public domain.
