1.
Gas
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Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. A pure gas may be made up of atoms, elemental molecules made from one type of atom. A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air, what distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer, the interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image. One type of commonly known gas is steam, the gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention, high-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these states of matter see list of states of matter. The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at temperature and pressure, are hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. These gases, when grouped together with the noble gases. Alternatively they are known as molecular gases to distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds. The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J. B. van Helmont, according to Paracelsuss terminology, chaos meant something like ultra-rarefied water. An alternative story is that Van Helmonts word is corrupted from gahst and these four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law. Gas particles are separated from one another, and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another, transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion, the drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior
2.
Soft drink
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A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
3.
Mudpot
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A mudpot — or mud pool — is a sort of acidic hot spring, or fumarole, with limited water. It usually takes the form of a pool of bubbling mud, the acid and microorganisms decompose surrounding rock into clay and mud. The mud of a mudpot takes the form of a viscous, often bubbling, as the boiling mud is often squirted over the brims of the mudpot, a sort of mini-volcano of mud starts to build up, sometimes reaching heights of 3–5 feet. Although mudpots are often called mud volcanoes, true mud volcanoes are very different in nature, the mud of a mudpot is generally of white to greyish color, but is sometimes stained with reddish or pink spots from iron compounds. When the slurry is particularly colorful, the feature may be referred to as a paint pot, Mudpots form in high-temperature geothermal areas where water is in short supply. The little water that is available rises to the surface at a spot where the soil is rich in volcanic ash, clay, the thickness of the mud usually changes along with seasonal changes in the water table. The geothermal areas of Yellowstone National Park contain several examples of both mudpots and paint pots, as do some areas of Iceland and New Zealand. Several locations in and around the Salton Sea in California are also home to active mudpots, Mudpots at Yellowstone National Park official site Mudpots photo gallery at Yellowstone NP official site
4.
Tar pit
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A tar pit, or more accurately an asphalt pit or asphalt lake, is the result of a type of petroleum seep where subterranean bitumen leaks to the surface, creating a large area of natural asphalt. This happens because, after the material reaches the surface, its lighter components vaporize, over a million fossils have been found in tar pits around the globe. For other rich deposits, fossilized where they occurred, see Lagerstätten, living bacteria have been found in the La Brea Tar Pits. These organisms have shown to be strains of previously discovered bacteria. They have been able to survive and thrive in an environment with little water, scientists started looking for the bacteria when they noticed bubbles of methane coming out of the tar pits. Other microorganisms have been living in microliter-sized droplets of water recovered from Pitch Lake in Trinidad. Helaeomyia petrolei, the fly, spends its larval stage within the tar pit. Formerly Lake Asphaltitis for the Dead Sea
5.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
6.
Marangoni effect
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The Marangoni effect is the mass transfer along an interface between two fluids due to surface tension gradient. In the case of temperature dependence, this phenomenon may be called thermo-capillary convection and this phenomenon was first identified in the so-called tears of wine by physicist James Thomson in 1855. The general effect is named after Italian physicist Carlo Marangoni, who studied it for his dissertation at the University of Pavia. A complete theoretical treatment of the subject was given by J. Willard Gibbs in his work On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, the surface tension gradient can be caused by concentration gradient or by a temperature gradient. As an example, wine may exhibit an effect called tears. The effect is a consequence of the fact that alcohol has a surface tension than water. If alcohol is mixed with water inhomogeneously, a region with a concentration of alcohol will pull on the surrounding fluid more strongly than a region with a higher alcohol concentration. The result is that the liquid tends to flow away from regions with higher alcohol concentration—along the tension gradient. This can also be demonstrated by spreading a thin film of water on a smooth surface. The liquid will rush out of the region where the drop of alcohol fell, the Marangoni number, a dimensionless value, can be used to characterize the relative effects of surface tension and viscous forces. Many experiments have been conducted under microgravity conditions aboard sounding rockets to observe the Marangoni effect without the influence of gravity and this is due to the very weak Marangoni effect within a mixture of almost identical surface tensions which is normally masked by the fluids inertia due to gravity. A familiar example is in soap films, the Marangoni effect stabilizes soap films, another instance of the Marangoni effect appears in the behavior of convection cells, the so-called Bénard cells. One important application of the Marangoni effect is the use for drying silicon wafers after a wet processing step during the manufacture of integrated circuits, liquid spots left on the wafer surface can cause oxidation that damages components on the wafer. A similar phenomenon has been utilized to self-assemble nanoparticles into ordered arrays. An alcohol containing nanoparticles is spread on the substrate, followed by blowing the substrate with an air flow. The alcohol is evaporated under the flow, simultaneously, water condenses and forms microdroplets on the substrate. Meanwhile, the nanoparticles in alcohol are transferred into the microdroplets, the Marangoni effect is also important to the fields of welding, crystal growth and electron beam melting of metals
7.
Nucleation
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Nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or a new structure via self-assembly or self-organization. Nucleation is typically defined to be the process that determines how long an observer has to wait before the new phase or self-organized structure appears, nucleation is often found to be very sensitive to impurities in the system. Because of this, it is important to distinguish between heterogeneous nucleation and homogeneous nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation occurs at sites on surfaces in the system. Homogeneous nucleation occurs away from a surface, nucleation is usually a stochastic process, so even in two identical systems nucleation will occur at different times. This behaviour is similar to radioactive decay, a common mechanism is illustrated in the animation to the right. This shows nucleation of a new phase in an existing phase and this nucleus of the red phase then grows and converts the system to this phase. The standard theory that describes this behaviour for the nucleation of a new phase is called classical nucleation theory. This is seen for example in the nucleation of ice in supercooled water droplets. The decay rate of the exponential gives the nucleation rate, classical nucleation theory is a widely used approximate theory for estimating these rates, and how they vary with variables such as temperature. It correctly predicts that the time you have to wait for nucleation decreases extremely rapidly when supersaturated and it is not just new phases such as liquids and crystals that form via nucleation followed by growth. The self-assembly process that forms objects like the amyloid aggregates associated with Alzheimers disease also starts with nucleation, energy consuming self-organising systems such as the microtubules in cells also show nucleation and growth. Clouds form when wet air cools and many small water droplets nucleate from the supersaturated air, the amount of water vapor that air can carry decreases with lower temperatures. The excess vapor begins to nucleate and to small water droplets which form a cloud. Nucleation of the droplets of water is heterogeneous, occurring on particles referred to as cloud condensation nuclei. Cloud seeding is the process of adding artificial condensation nuclei to quicken the formation of clouds, nucleation is the first step in crystallisation, so it determines if a crystal can form. Frequently crystals do not form even when they are thermodynamically the favored state, for example, small droplets of very pure water can remain liquid down to below -30 °C although ice is the stable state below 0 °C. Bubbles of carbon dioxide nucleate shortly after the pressure is released from a container of carbonated liquid, nucleation often occurs more easily at a pre-existing interface, as happens on boiling chips and on string used to make rock candy
8.
Water vapor
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Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor, is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere, water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible, under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds, use of water vapor, as steam, has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution. Likewise the detection of water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems. Water vapor is significant in that it can be evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects. Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface and diffuses into a surrounding gas, each individual water molecule which transitions between a more associated and a less associated state does so through the absorption or release of kinetic energy. The aggregate measurement of kinetic energy transfer is defined as thermal energy. Liquid water that becomes water vapor takes a parcel of heat with it, the amount of water vapor in the air determines how fast each molecule will return to the surface. When a net evaporation occurs, the body of water will undergo a net cooling directly related to the loss of water, in the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized pan open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world, the US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The measurements range from under 30 to over 120 inches per year, formulas can be used for calculating the rate of evaporation from a water surface such as a swimming pool. In some countries, the evaporation rate far exceeds the precipitation rate, evaporative cooling is restricted by atmospheric conditions. Humidity is the amount of vapor in the air. The vapor content of air is measured with devices known as hygrometers, the measurements are usually expressed as specific humidity or percent relative humidity. This condition is referred to as complete saturation. Humidity ranges from 0 gram per cubic metre in dry air to 30 grams per cubic metre when the vapor is saturated at 30 °C, another form of evaporation is sublimation, by which water molecules become gaseous directly, leaving the surface of ice without first becoming liquid water. Sublimation accounts for the slow disappearance of ice and snow at temperatures too low to cause melting
9.
Atmosphere of Earth
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The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earths gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention. By volume, dry air contains 78. 09% nitrogen,20. 95% oxygen,0. 93% argon,0. 04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains an amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5. 15×1018 kg, the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, or 1. 57% of Earths radius, is used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km, several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition. The study of Earths atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science, early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann. The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earths atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor accounts for roughly 0. 25% of the atmosphere by mass. The remaining gases are often referred to as gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide. Filtered air includes trace amounts of other chemical compounds. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine, fluorine compounds, sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere, however, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions. In this way, Earths atmosphere can be divided into five main layers, excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km where it merges into the solar wind. This layer is composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another, thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind, the exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible
