1.
Line D (Buenos Aires Underground)
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Line D of the Buenos Aires Underground runs from Catedral to Congreso de Tucumán. The D Line opened on 3 June 1937 and has expanded to the north several times. The line is currently 11 km long and has 16 stations, Line D was the second line to be built by the Hispanic-Argentine Company for Public Works and Finances, following the construction of Line C in 1934. Construction began in 1935 and the first part of the line was inaugurated in 1937, three years later, the section which brought the line to Plaza Italia in Palermo was completed, bringing the length of the line to 6.5 km. The line was not properly extended until 1993 when it was extended to Ministro Caranza, over the decades it has been discussed numerous times whether to extend the line out to the limits of the city proper. The last of these proposals came forward in 2002 which would have seen an additional two added to the line. However, this was abandoned since the line was already at full capacity after the opening of Congreso de Tucumán station. Line D is the line in the network which will not be extended as part of the most recent expansion plan. Until the privatisation of the underground in the 1990s, Line D was identified by the red colour, Line D carries out cultural activities on stations Juramento, Congreso de Tucumán and Olleros. The lending of the facilities is free for the museum. Line D was originally served by Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel rolling stock, in 1999, cars from the Nagoya Municipal Subway were purchased second hand from Japan and incorporated into the line. More 100 Series cars continued to be purchased in that decade up until 2009, the remaining Nagoya cars were moved to Line C in 2007 and replaced with the 100 Series cars and with Fiat-Materfer cars. In September 2015, at a conference in Brazil, the head of SBASE gave a presentation in which the number of new cars to be purchased for the line was 84 instead of 30. By 2016, the figure had been fixed at 60 new cars. Subterráneos de Buenos Aires Metrovías S. A. Subte Operator Subterráneos de Buenos Aires, D Line System map
2.
Alstom
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A merger with parts of the General Electric Company plc formed GEC-Alstom in 1989, the company became Alstom in 1998. In 2014, Alstom and General Electric announced that a US$17 billion bid for the power and grid divisions had been made. The GE acquisition deal for the power and grid division was accepted by EU and US anticompetition authorities in mid 2015, in 1932, Alsthom expanded into transportation by acquiring Constructions Electriques de France, Tarbes, a manufacturer of electric locomotives as well as electrical and hydraulic equipment. In 1969, Compagnie Générale dElectricité became the majority shareholder of Alsthom, in 1976, Alsthom merged with Chantiers de lAtlantique, becoming Alsthom Atlantique. Thus, the business expanded into marine, the next year, it constructed the first 1300 MW generator set for the Paluel power station, setting a world record with an output of 1500 MW. In 1978, Alsthom delivered its first TGV to SNCF, the TGV went on to break world rail speed records in 1981 and in 1990. It also set the endurance record for high-speed train lines in 2001. In 1986, Alsthom Belfort received an order from EDF for the largest gas turbine in the world, in 1988–89, holding company CGEE Alstom acquired ACEC Energie and ACEC Automatisme from the dissolution of Belgian electrical engineering company ACEC SA. Alstom acquired 100% of ACECs transport division, renaming it ACEC Transport, in 1991, Alstoms parent company CGE was renamed Alcatel Alsthom Compagnie Générale dElectricité, or Alcatel Alsthom for short. In 1994, GEC Alsthom acquired the vehicle manufacturer Linke-Hofmann-Busch from Salzgitter AG. In 1995, the acquired the remaining shares in the steam turbine manufacturer MAN Energie. In early 1998, GEC Alsthom acquired the electrical contractor Cegelec, in 1998, GEC-Alsthom bought Italian firm SASIB SpAs rail signalling subsidiary Sasib Railways, which included the former General Railway Signal. In June 1998, GEC Alsthom was listed on the Paris Stock Exchange, GEC, at the same time, the company name was changed to Alstom. In 1999, Alstoms energy division merged with ABB in a 50–50 joint company known as ABB Alstom Power, Alstom also bought Canadas Télécité, a passenger information and security solutions company, and sold its heavy-duty gas turbine business to General Electric. The next year, it bought out ABBs share in ABB Alstom Power, in 2000, Alstom sold its diesel engine businesses to MAN Group. It also acquired a 51% stake in Fiat Ferroviaria, the Italian rail manufacturer, in April 2003, Alstom sold its industrial turbine business to Siemens for €1.1 billion. By 2003, Alstom was facing a crisis due to poor sales and over $5 billion of debt liabilities. Alstoms share price had dropped 90% over two years, in 2004, the French state took a 21% stake in Alstom and received an EU-approved French government bailout worth €2.5 billion
3.
Alstom Metropolis
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Alstom Metropolis is a metro trainset by Alstom. Amsterdam ordered 23 Metropolis trains, the first one came into operation June 2013, Xiamen also ordered some Metropolis trainsets for the Xiamen Metro. Trains can be run in configurations of 2 to 10 cars using manned or unmanned operations, some New York City Subway cars use technology from the Metropolis family, such as the Alstom ONIX traction motors in the R142 and R160A/B, but are not classified as Metropolis trainsets. Glass used for the windows on the cars are produced by Sekurit Saint-Gobain and is called Climavit and it is claimed to reduce noise level in the cars by 5 decibels. It is also double-glazed to provide comfort for passengers in the cars, glass used on the doors of the cars are produced by Starglass
4.
Buenos Aires Underground
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The Buenos Aires Underground, locally known as Subte, is a mass transit metro system that serves the area of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Currently, the underground networks six lines—A, B, C, D, E, the network is complemented by the 7.4 km long Premetro line, and the 26 km long Urquiza suburban line, with 17 more stations in total. As of 2015, the underground also has 4 closed stations, over a million passengers use the network, which also provides connections with the citys extensive commuter rail and bus rapid transport networks. The network expanded rapidly during the decades of the 20th century, by 1944 its main routes were completed. The pace of expansion fell sharply after the Second World War, in the late 1990s expansion resumed at a quicker pace, and four new lines were planned for the network. Despite this, the expansion has been largely exceeded by the transportation needs of the city and is said to be overcrowded. The entire network was nationalised in 1939, remaining in state hands, the Subte opened in 1913, becoming the 13th underground system in the world, as well as the first in Latin America, the Southern Hemisphere and the Hispanophone, followed by the Madrid Metro in 1919. The network was built and operated by three separate private companies and later nationalised in 1939. In 1952 it was absorbed by a state administration, in 1963 it became the property of a newly founded company. All the Underground lines, along with the Urquiza Line and Premetro were offered as 20-year concessions to interested private parties, by 1995, Metrovías took over the Subte under a $395 million plan. In this context, the first proposals for the building of a system were made, along with requests for government grants, first, in 1886. However, the Ministry of Interior denied the city administration the power to license building in the subsoil and for this reason. The first Underground line was opened on 1 December 1913 and was built by the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company and that line was made up of one of the existing sections of Line A, linking the stations of Plaza de Mayo and Plaza Miserere. 170,000 passengers took part in the lines first trip, on 1 April 1914 the line was to expand to Río de Janeiro station and on 1 July was extended to Primera Junta Station. In 1912 the Lacroze Hermanos company won a concession to build another Underground line, the company was a competitor to the Anglo-Argentine company, operating tramways in Buenos Aires as well as the Buenos Aires Central Railway, which later became part of the Urquiza Line. Construction began in 1927 and this line became Line B when it was inaugurated on 17 October 1930, during 17–18 December 380,000 passengers travelled on the lines then 32 cars. By this point, the AATC had only built 48 metres of what is today Line C, in 1933 a third company, the Hispano-Argentina Company of Public Works and Finances began construction of the other Underground lines. Line Cs first section, Constitución railway station-Diagonal Norte, was inaugurated on 9 November 1934 by Agustín P. Justo, then President of Argentina
5.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
6.
Standard gauge
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The standard gauge is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are this gauge, all high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, are standard gauge. The distance between the edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, as railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a gauge of 1435 mm. In North East England, some lines in colliery areas were 4 ft 8 in. All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846, parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the half of the 19th century, Britain. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent, notably, all the 5 ft broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States, snopes categorized this legend as false, but commented that. It is perhaps more fairly labelled as True, but for trivial, the historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Others were 4 ft 4 in or 4 ft 7 1⁄2 in, the English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, the Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge. Stephensons Stockton and Darlington railway was primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge, George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in, Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in
7.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
8.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
9.
Line A (Buenos Aires Underground)
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Line A is the oldest line of the Buenos Aires Underground. The line stretches 9.8 km from Plaza de Mayo and San Pedrito and runs all of the Avenida de Mayo and part of the Avenida Rivadavia. On the first day of service, it carried 220,000 passengers. Line A used the cars used at its inauguration for just under a century and these cars were built by Belgian company La Brugeoise starting in 1913 and were refurbished in 1927 when their wooden structure was modified for underground-only use. For this reason, Line A might also be considered the continents first light rail subway, the old wooden cars were removed in 2013, and replaced by modern cars. During the first decade of the 20th century in Buenos Aires, road traffic had sharply increased due to a growing population. In 1903 the city had 895,381 inhabitants and there were 4,791 horse-drawn carriages and 60 cars, while by 1913 there were 1,457,885 people, with 6,211 carriages and 7,438 automobiles. After a dispute, it was agreed that the Western Railway would the line for freight, thus, construction of the Anglo-Argentine Line began on 15 September 1911, with the German company Philipp Holzmann & Cia. as contractor. The total investment to build the line was m$n 17 million, m$n 3 million was invested in the excavation of the tunnel, m$n 7 million in construction, m$n 2.5 million in the initial 50 trains and m$n 2 million for the Polvorín Workshop. The Plaza de Mayo-Plaza Miserere section was inaugurated on 1 December 1913, on the following day it opened to the public, carrying 220,000 passengers. It was the first underground in South America, the Southern Hemisphere, each station had a length of 100 metres and had friezes of specific colours for easy identification. The construction of the Plaza Miserere station was performed by two companies, CTAA and FCO, at that time the station had two tracks for the railroad in the middle, and two pairs of lines for the underground, which were on the laterals. The outside southern track of the subway was eliminated in 1926, the route was extended to Río de Janeiro Station on 1 April 1914 and on 14 July of that year to Caballito, renamed Primera Junta in 1923. This 2 km route has been used since 1980 by Asociación Amigos del Tranvía to run the Buenos Aires Historical Tramway, in 1997 the Plaza Miserere station was declared a national historic monument. Over the years, most stations on the line have also declared part of the national patrimony of Argentina. Unlike other lines, the original stations preserve much of their original appearance, in the first expansion of the line since 1914, Puán and Carabobo stations were opened in December 2008. As part of the ceremony for the two stations Buenos Aires Mayor Mauricio Macri drove one of the La Brugeoise trains. That same year, the line was converted from 1100 volts to 1500 volts to match the rest of the network
10.
La Brugeoise cars (Buenos Aires Underground)
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La Brugeoise cars were Buenos Aires Underground Line A rolling stock since its inauguration in 1913 till 2013 when replaced by new Chinese stock. They were built by Belgian railway rolling stock manufacturer La Brugeoise, et Nicaise and they were originally designed to run both as metro and tramway cars, but they were refurbished in 1927 for underground use only. They were the oldest Underground rolling stock in service in the world as well as a tourist attraction. The La Brugeoise trains were designed to run using either 550 VDC - as surface tramways did until the system was eradicated in 1962- or 1,100 VDC in the tunnel. Traction is controlled through a 9-power run handle, known as the controller and its loose end is fitted with the dead mans switch, a button-shaped mechanism that allows the motorman to enable or cut current flow to the motors in normal conditions. This system was meant to serve as an emergency train stop, if anything should prevent the motorman from keeping this button pressed. In normal driving conditions, braking is achieved by means of a traditional air brake system. Because of their long life-span, La Brugeoise trains use custom-made brake shoes made of wood embedded with creosote for additional resistance. Friction between the wheels and the brake shoes releases a peculiar fragrance Line A is known for among porteños. If emergency brakes are engaged for more than 10 seconds, current flow to traction motors, the trains were equipped with mechanical ATS at the CTAAs workshops. Initially, train traffic in Line A was controlled using manually operated signalling, in the mid-1920s this system was automated by Siemens, including also the installation of mechanical ATS and traffic lights. By 2010, train stops are automatically controlled by digital signal system ATP developed and installed by Alstom, La Brugeoise trains were the first electric multiple units to run in Argentina. Commissioned by the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company Ltd. for their first underground line, thus, each car had a tramway-like platform on both ends used by passengers to board and leave the train when on surface. When on duty in the tunnel, passengers used the pair of sliding doors on each side of the car body, the CTAA bought 115 cars, all of them with the same technical characteristics but with two different car body layout. The first series cars -numbered 5 to 50-, together with four English Electric luxury cars -numbered 1 to 4 and forming a special train- and they arrived at Buenos Aires in mid-1913, in time to run preliminary tests. They had six wide windows per side with rolling curtains to protect passengers from sunlight when running on surface, the interior was entirely made of finely carved wood, lit with 38 solid bronze artifacts using incandescent light bulbs. Their seats, with capacity for two passengers, were upholstered in leather and arranged in two groups of two seats facing each other. On both sides of each sliding door, a seat was placed longitudinally to allow for room for standing passengers to travel comfortably
11.
Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel
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In 1944, Line E was the last of the CHADOPyF lines to be opened and was equally inaugurated with new Siemens O&K rolling stock ordered from Germany. With the three operating the same rolling stock during this time, it was the most standardised period in terms of rolling stock in the history of the Buenos Aires Underground. During the 1950s, as part of Juan Peróns five year plans, a Siemens O&K train was used as the fictitious missing UM-86 train in the 1996 Argentine science fiction film Moebius. Other trains of the type are also shown in the film. Though the Siemens O&K cars were due to be retired, they were put back into service in 2007 as temporary stock on Line H while newer rolling stock ordered in 2012 and 2014 arrived for the lines. On Line A, models refurbished by the Emepa Group are used as stand-ins until the remaining 200 Series cars are put into service. As the line continued to be extended,120 new 300 Series cars were ordered in 2012 to make up the entirety of the rolling stock. This also meant that the cars purchased by the CHADOPyF served for the first time on the line first built by their rivals, the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company. This plan was scrapped, but then revived in 2013 after the retirement of the Brugeoise cars from Line A created a shortage of rolling stock on the line while new trains arrived. The Argentine Emepa Group and Alstom refurbished 10 cars for Line A and these have completely new interiors, a modernised exterior as well as an overhaul of its mechanical components. It has been speculated that the cars will serve alongside the Fiat-Materfer cars when they are transferred to Line E. In January 2017, some of the cars were put for auction, Buenos Aires Underground rolling stock La Brugeoise cars UEC Preston Fiat-Materfer CITIC-CNR
12.
Air conditioning
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Air conditioning is the process of removing heat from a confined space, thus cooling the air, and removing humidity. Air conditioning can be used in domestic and commercial environments. Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the air to an occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort. The cooling is achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be based on desiccants and subterraneous pipes that can distribute the heated refrigerant to the ground for cooling. In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of air, in common usage, though, air conditioning refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation. Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling, the business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century. This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines, the basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window and this process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m in diameter. During the subsequent Song Dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used, in the 17th century, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated Turning Summer into Winter for James I of England by adding salt to water. The introduction of air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States. In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a professor at Cambridge University. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of volatile liquids could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C while the ambient temperature was 18 °C
13.
Buenos Aires Underground rolling stock
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The Buenos Aires Underground has one of the most diverse metro fleets in the world, and has had some of the oldest models in operation on any network. Recently there have been increased efforts to modernise and standardise the fleets, with purchases from China CNR Corporation. Line A was inaugurated in 1913 by the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company - then owned by the Belgian company Sofina - who owned the vast majority of the citys tramways at that point. However 4 UEC Preston cars had been sent to the country, the Brugeoise cars made up the entirety of the rolling stock of the line until 2013, retiring just before their 100-year anniversary. The Argentine company Lacroze Hermanos built Line B, originally designed to be a continuation of the Buenos Aires Central Tramway. Originally served by Metropolitan Cammell cars from its opening in 1930 and it was only in 1996 that the line was standardised again when cars were bought second-hand from the Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line in order to replace all the cars. This was also the first time in the history of the network that cars were bought second-hand, lines C, D and E were all built by the Hispanic-Argentine Company for Public Works and Finances in the 1930s and 1940s and were thus the most straightforward. All the lines used German Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel rolling stock from their inaugurations, the CAF-GEE cars were designed to be highly compatible with the Siemens O&K cars in order to reduce maintenance costs. Only in 2010s have there been moves towards re-standardising and modernising the fleet whilst retiring the ageing trains which had served since the opening of each respective line. The original La Brugeoise rolling stock has since been maintained, some in exhibition, the 3 surviving UEC Preston cars serve on the Buenos Aires Heritage Tramway above-ground in the neighbourhood of Caballito. It is unclear what will happen to the remaining Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel trains when they are retired in 2015, green = current, Blue = future, Yellow = being phased-out. Currently, the Underground is in a period where temporary rolling stock is serving on numerous lines while orders arrive from China. The older Siemens O&K cars will be retired from the network. No plans have made public about the long-term intentions with these lines. It has not been stated what rolling stock will be used on Line F, though the usage of platform doors on the line will require modern rolling stock. Until 2013, Line A had been served by La Brugeoise cars and a small number UEC Preston cars and these were withdrawn from service on January 12,2013,11 months before their 100th anniversary and replaced by 45 new 200 Series cars built by China CNR Corporation. Line B has been historically the most diverse of the network given its significantly different characteristics to other lines and this was addressed in 1996 when rolling was purchased from the Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line in order to make the line uniform. This was also the first time in the history that rolling stock was purchased second hand
14.
Buenos Aires Underground 200 Series
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The 200 Series is a set of underground cars manufactured by China CNR Corporation and CITIC Construction for use on Line A of the Buenos Aires Underground in Argentina. The cars were made in order to replace the 100-year-old La Brugeoise cars which operated on the line up until 2013, the Buenos Aires Underground ordered 45 of these units, followed by a further 105 which are currently being integrated into the line. Since the opening of Line A in 1913, it had used the same La Brugeoise et Nicaise et Delcuve rolling stock, one such attempt was the Alstom Metropolis cars purchased at the turn of the 21st century, however these ultimately ended up serving on Line D. The Materfer cars also didnt make it to Line A at their time of production, in 2008,45 of the CITIC-CNR cars were ordered by the National Government for the network at a cost of $3 million per car. The line re-opened in March 2013 with the 45 cars operational, by 2013, Line A was 3 km longer, with four more stations than what the 120 La Brugeoise cars once gave service to. In 2014, the City of Buenos Aires purchased another 105 of the 200 Series cars at a lower cost of $1.53 million per unit. This would bring the total to 150 cars on the line -30 more than the amount of La Brugeoise cars serving on the line before its two extensions, Buenos Aires Underground rolling stock La Brugeoise cars Fiat-Materfer cars UEC Preston Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel
15.
Madrid Metro
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The Madrid Metro is a metro system serving the city of Madrid, capital of Spain. The system is the 7th longest metro in the world, having a length of 293 km. The Madrid Metro operates every day from 6 am until 1,30 am, a light rail system feeding the metro opened in 2007 called Metro Ligero. The Cercanias system works in conjunction with the metro servicing commuter train services to, some underground stations are large enough to hold public events, such as the three-day fitness festival in May 2011, which attracted 2,600 visitors. One station contains a 200-square-meter archaeological museum, the Madrid Metro has 1,698 escalators, the most of any system in the world. The first line of the Madrid metro opened on 17 October 1919 under the direction of the Compañía de Metro Alfonso XIII, the Madrid Metro is the first metro system in Spain and the second in the Spanish-speaking world after the Buenos Aires Underground. It was constructed in a section and the stations had 60 m platforms. The enlargement of this line and the construction of two others followed shortly after 1919, in 1924, traffic in Madrid switched from driving on the left, to driving on the right, but the lines of the Madrid Metro kept operating on the left hand side. In 1936, the network had three lines and a line between Opera and Norte railway station. All these stations served as air raid shelters during the Spanish Civil War, after the Civil war, the public works to extend the network went on little by little. In the 1960s, a railway was constructed between Plaza de España and Carabanchel, linked to lines 2 and 3. A fifth metro line was constructed as well with narrow section but 90 m platforms, shortly after opening the first section of line 5, the platforms in line 1 were enlarged from 60 to 90 m, closing Chamberí station since it was too close to Iglesia. Chamberí has been closed ever since and has recently opened as a museum. In the early 1970s, the network was expanded to cope with the influx of population. New lines were planned with large 115 m platforms, lines 4 and 5 were enlarged as well. In 1979, bad management led to a crisis, Works already started were finished during the 1980s and all remaining projects were abandoned. After all those projects,100 km of track had been completed. At the beginning of the 1990s, control of the network was transferred to a public enterprise, more large-scale expansion projects were carried out
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Nagoya Municipal Subway 5000 series
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Following their withdrawal in Japan, five sets were shipped to Argentina in 2015 for use on Line C of the Buenos Aires Underground. The trains were formed as six-car sets, as follows, one car was designated as a women-only car during the morning and evening peak periods on weekdays as a measure to reduce sexual assault during crowded times. The first trains entered service on 1 July 1980 and these were the first air-conditioned trains to be used on the Higashiyama Line. A total of 23 sets were built between 1980 and 1990, the last remaining 5000 series train in service, set 5114, was withdrawn from the Higashiyama Line following a special final run on 30 August 2015. In 2015, five 5000 series units were shipped to Argentina to be used on Line C of the Buenos Aires Underground and these sets were modified with pantographs to operate from a 1,500 V overhead supply instead of the original 600 V third rail. Nagoya Transportation Bureaus technical details about the 5000 series
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UEC Preston
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Only 4 trams were built and they served on the line up until their retirement in 1977. The company needed rolling stock to serve the new line and thus took bids from two companies, the United Electric Car Company and the Belgian company La Brugeoise et Nicaise et Delcuve, UEC sent 4 of these trams to Buenos Aires for the AATCs consideration. Though their exterior design was similar to the La Brugeoise trams. The trams had seats made of Indonesian rattan, oak frames and panelling, ultimately, the AATC would settle for the more economical La Brugeoise cars, though the 4 Preston trams still remained in service on the line. In 1927, both the Preston and La Brugeoise trams were refurbished for use only since it was decided that they would no longer serve above ground. The cars were used for special events and the transportation of VIPs in their 64 years of service. One notable example was a used to transport Edward VIII. Following their retirement from the Buenos Aires Underground in 1977, car No.1 was scrapped in the early 1980s and it officially became part of their collection in 1994. This car was exhibited at the Tecnópolis exhibition in 2011, then later returned to the AAT in 2012. In 2006, the AAT discovered car No.4 in the city of Banfield where it was being used as a shop, the car was then purchased and returned to the Polvorín Workshop where it was restored by the AAT. Trams in Buenos Aires Buenos Aires Underground rolling stock Line A La Brugeoise cars Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company
