1.
Bugatti 18/3 Chiron
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The Bugatti 18/3 Chiron is a 1999 concept car by Bugatti Automobiles designed by Fabrizio Giugiaro of Italdesign. Powered by a 6.3 L W18 engine, it is a 2-seater mid-engined sports car, Bugatti named the Chiron in honor of Bugatti racing driver Louis Chiron. The 18/3 Chiron was the last in a trio of Bugatti concept cars by Italdesign, after the 1998 EB118 coupé, the Chiron name was used again on the 2016 successor to the Bugatti Veyron. The 18/3 Chiron is named after Bugatti race driver Louis Chiron, the Bugatti 18/3 Chiron premiered at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 1999. Fabrizio Giugiaro of Italdesign was responsible for the design input from Hartmut Warkuss from the Volkswagen design centre in Wolfsburg. In creating a successor to the EB110, they had the unique opportunity to style Bugattis flagship model. Airflow management and aerodynamics were key considerations in the exterior design, a similar system is used on the side of the car to cool the rear brakes. At the rear a diffuser was integrated in the rear bumper, a retractable rear wing deploys at high speeds, much like on the EB110. The 20-inch eight-spoke wheels resemble the cast aluminium wheels first found on Louis Chirons Type 35B, lighting on both ends of the car was cutting edge, including triple Xenon headlights and elongated turn signals. Inside the cabin is upholstered in Blu Pacifico and Sabbia leather, in order to make it fully working, the 18/3 Chiron used a chassis and four-wheel drive system sourced from the Lamborghini Diablo VT. The 18/3 Chiron uses the same Volkswagen-designed W18 engine that first appeared on the 1998 EB118, as on the other two cars, the Chirons W18 has an output of 1,600 PS and 1,380 N·m of torque. The 18/3 Chirons W18 engine is composed of three banks of six cylinders with a sixty degree offset between each cylinder bank. In contrast, the W16 engine in Bugatti Automobiles first production car, Bugatti 18/3 Chiron on the Italdesign Giugiaro official website
2.
Bugatti Automobiles
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Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. is a French high-performance luxury automobiles manufacturer and a subsidiary of Volkswagen AG, with its head office and assembly plant in Molsheim, Alsace, France. Volkswagen purchased the Bugatti trademark in June 1998 and incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. in 1999. Bugatti presented several concept cars between 1998 and 2000 before commencing development of its first production model, the Veyron 16.4, at the urging of then-chairman Ferdinand Piëch, Volkswagen purchased the rights to produce cars under the Bugatti marque in June 1998. This followed the earlier Volkswagen purchases of the Lamborghini marque, the Rolls-Royce factory in Crewe, United Kingdom, on 22 December 2000, Volkswagen officially incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. with former VW drivetrain chief Karl-Heinz Neumann as president. The company purchased the 1856 Château Saint Jean, formerly Ettore Bugattis guest house in Dorlisheim, near Molsheim, the original factory was still in the hands of Snecma, who were unwilling to part with it. At the Pebble Beach Concours dElegance in August 2000, VW announced that they would build a new modern atelier next to. The atelier was officially inaugurated on 3 September 2005, Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen AG After the Veyrons discontinuation in 2014, the new Bugatti model was revealed to be the Chiron in 2016. Volkswagen commissioned Italdesigns Giorgetto Giugiaro to design a series of cars to return the marque to prominence. The first example, the EB118, was a two-door coupé and was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in 1998 and it was followed by the four-door EB218 touring sedan, introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in 1999. Later that year, the 18/3 Chiron was shown at the IAA in Frankfurt, Volkswagen designed the final Bugatti concept, the EB 18/4 GT in house. Bugatti introduced the EB 18/4 at the 1999 Tokyo Motor Show, all of these early concepts featured a 555 PS 18-cylinder engine. This was the first-ever W-configuration engine on a vehicle, with three blocks of 6 cylinders each. It shared many components with Volkswagens modular engine family, the 16C Galibier was first unveiled during Celebration of the Centenary of the Marque in Molsheim. The presentation was only for Bugatti customers, the car show in Molsheim showed the car in blue carbon fibre and aluminum parts. One year later Bugatti showed the world the 16C Galibier Concept at VW Group Night at the Geneva Auto Show in a new black and aluminum color combination. The Galibier, a 1000 HP sedan, was first shown as a concept in 2010 and it would use the same 16-cylinder 8. 0-litre engine as the Veyron but instead of four turbos, the 16C Galibier would instead use two superchargers to deliver better torque. Production would require new facilities in Molsheim, France, to be refitted, in 2013 it was announced that the car will never be produced as they wish to focus on a Veyron replacement. In the 1980s the Bugatti brand was back as Bugatti Automobili S. p. A. in Italy
3.
Alsace
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Alsace is a cultural and historical region in eastern France now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Alsace is located on Frances eastern border and on the west bank of the upper Rhine adjacent to Germany, from 1982 until January 2016, Alsace was the smallest of 22 administrative regions in metropolitan France, consisting of the Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin departments. Territorial reform passed by the French legislature in 2014 resulted in the merger of the Alsace administrative region with Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine to form Grand Est. The predominant historical language of Alsace is Alsatian, a Germanic dialect also spoken across the Rhine, but today most Alsatians primarily speak French, the political status of Alsace has been heavily influenced by historical decisions, wars, and strategic politics. The economic and cultural capital as well as largest city of Alsace is Strasbourg, the city is the seat of several international organizations and bodies. The name Alsace can be traced to the Old High German Ali-saz or Elisaz, an alternative explanation is from a Germanic Ell-sass, meaning seated on the Ill, a river in Alsace. In prehistoric times, Alsace was inhabited by nomadic hunters, by 1500 BC, Celts began to settle in Alsace, clearing and cultivating the land. It should be noted that Alsace is a surrounded by the Vosges mountains. It creates Foehn winds which, along with irrigation, contributes to the fertility of the soil. In a world of agriculture, Alsace has always been a region which explains why it suffered so many invasions and annexations in its history. By 58 BC, the Romans had invaded and established Alsace as a center of viticulture, to protect this highly valued industry, the Romans built fortifications and military camps that evolved into various communities which have been inhabited continuously to the present day. While part of the Roman Empire, Alsace was part of Germania Superior, with the decline of the Roman Empire, Alsace became the territory of the Germanic Alemanni. The Alemanni were agricultural people, and their Germanic language formed the basis of modern-day dialects spoken along the Upper Rhine, Clovis and the Franks defeated the Alemanni during the 5th century AD, culminating with the Battle of Tolbiac, and Alsace became part of the Kingdom of Austrasia. Under Clovis Merovingian successors the inhabitants were Christianized, Alsace formed part of the Middle Francia, which was ruled by the eldest grandson Lothar I. Lothar died early in 855 and his realm was divided into three parts, the part known as Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was given to Lothars son. The rest was shared between Lothars brothers Charles the Bald and Louis the German, the Kingdom of Lotharingia was short-lived, however, becoming the stem duchy of Lorraine in Eastern Francia after the Treaty of Ribemont in 880. Alsace was united with the other Alemanni east of the Rhine into the duchy of Swabia. Alsace experienced great prosperity during the 12th and 13th centuries under Hohenstaufen emperors, Frederick I set up Alsace as a province to be ruled by ministeriales, a non-noble class of civil servants
4.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
5.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
6.
Sports car
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A sports car is a small, usually two seater, two door automobile designed for spirited performance and nimble handling. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the first known use of the term was in 1928, Sports cars may be spartan or luxurious, but high maneuverability and minimum weight are requisite. The basis for the car is traced to the early 20th century touring cars and roadsters. These raced in rallies, such as the Herkomer Cup, Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt. These would shortly be joined by the French DFP and the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. In 1921, Ballot premiered its 2LS, with a remarkable 75 hp DOHC two liter, designed by Ernest Henry, capable of 150 km/h, at most, one hundred were built in four years and this was followed by the SOHC 2LT and 2LTS. The same year, Benz built a supercharged 28/95PS four for the Coppa Florio, duerkopps Zoller-blown two liter in 1924, as well. There was a clear cleavage by 1925, by the end of the 1920s, AC produced a 2-liter six, the 3. Benz introduced the powerful SS and SSK, and Alfa Romeo, hispano-Suizas Alfonso XIII is considered the first sportcar developed between 1911 and 1914. Two companies would offer really reliable sports cars, Austin with the Seven, the drive train and engine layout significantly influences the handling characteristics of an automobile, and is crucially important in the design of a sports car. The front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is common to cars of any era and has survived longer in sports cars than in mainstream automobiles. Examples include the Caterham 7, Mazda MX-5, and the Chevrolet Corvette, more specifically, many such sports cars have a FMR layout, with the centre of mass of the engine between the front axle and the firewall. In search of improved handling and weight distribution, other layouts are sometimes used, the RMR layout is commonly found only in sports cars—the motor is centre-mounted in the chassis, and powers only the rear wheels. Some high-performance sports car manufacturers, such as Ferrari and Lamborghini have preferred this layout, Porsche is one of the few remaining manufacturers using the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. The motors distributed weight across the wheels, in a Porsche 911, provides excellent traction, Porsche has continuously refined the design and in recent years added electronic driving aids to counteract these inherent design shortcomings. The front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout layout which is the most common in sport compacts and hot hatches, however, its conservative handling effect, particularly understeer, and the fact that many drivers believe rear wheel drive is a more desirable layout for a sports car count against it. The Fiat Barchetta, Saab Sonett, and Berkeley cars are cars with this layout. Before the 1980s few sports cars used four-wheel drive, which had added a lot of weight
7.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
8.
Mid-engine design
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A mid-engine layout describes the placement of an automobile engine between the rear and front axles. The mid-engine layout makes ABS brakes and traction control systems work better, the mid-engine layout may make a vehicle safer, since an accident can occur if a vehicle cannot stay in its own lane around a curve or is unable to stop quickly enough. This balance is harder to achieve when the weight of the engine is located far to the front or far to the rear of the vehicle. Some automobile designs strive to balance the fore and aft weight distribution by means, such as putting the engine in the front. Another benefit comes when the mass of the engine is located close to the back of the seats. It makes it easier for the suspension to absorb the force of bumps so the riders feel a smoother ride, but in sports cars the engine position is once again used to increase performance and the potentially smoother ride is usually more than offset by stiffer shock absorbers. The largest drawback of mid-engine cars is restricted rear passenger space, the engine in effect pushes the passenger compartment forward towards the front axle. The mid-engine layout was common in buses in the 1950s and 1960s. The Ferrari Mondial is to date the only example of a true mid-engined convertible with seating for 4. A version of the Lotus Evora with a roof panel is anticipated. Like any layout where the engine is not front-mounted and facing the wind and this has been a problem in some cars, but this issue seems to have been largely solved in newer designs. For example, the Saleen S7 employs large engine-compartment vents on the sides, mid engined cars are more dangerous than front-engined cars if the driver loses control - although this may be initially harder to provoke due to the superior balance - and the car begins to spin. Conversely, a car is more likely to break away in a progressive. The term mid-engine has usually been applied to cars having the engine located between the driver and the drive axles. This layout is referred to here as RMR layout, sports and racing cars typically have this mid-engine layout, as these vehicles handling characteristics are more important than other features, such as capacity. Additionally the mechanical layout and packaging of an RMR car is substantially different from that of a front engine or rear engine car, in handling and vehicle layout FMR is substantially the same as FR. Some vehicles could be classified as FR or FMR depending on the installed engine. Historically most classical FR cars such as the Ford Models T and A would qualify as a FMR engine car, not all manufacturers use the Front-Mid designation
9.
All-wheel-drive
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An all-wheel drive vehicle is one with a powertrain capable of providing power to all its wheels, whether full-time or on-demand. The most common forms of all-wheel drive are, 4×4 Reflecting two axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. 6×6 Reflecting three axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. 8×8 Reflecting four axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. This distinction in terminology is not generally used outside North America, when tyre grip is good during road driving a differential is used between the axles to avoid driveline windup. This is not required off-road, as the grip allows the tyres to slip relative to each other. All-wheel drive vehicles designed for extensive off-road use may not have such a differential, selectable 4WD also avoids this problem and requires only a simple dog clutch in the transfer case, rather than a differential. For this reason, most early off-road vehicles used system, e. g. Jeep. Esoteric vehicles such as the high-powered Jensen FF followed by the AMC Eagle, Subaru Leone and these, particularly the Quattro, would extensively develop this drivetrain with the use of viscous couplings and differentials to provide a safe and drivable car. The first off-road / on-road hybrids such as the Range Rover also chose the permanent all wheel drive system rather than manual selection, selectable 4WD has both axles rigidly coupled together, which has some advantages in very poor off-road conditions. To gain the advantage in a permanent AWD system with a differential. As this control is frequently misunderstood and mis-used, which can cause damage due to wind-up. Front-wheel drive Rear-wheel drive All-terrain vehicle Two-wheel drive H-drive Four Wheel Drive or FWD, one of the first companies, from 1909, to build four-wheel drive vehicles
10.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
11.
W16 engine
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A W16 engine is a sixteen cylinder piston internal combustion engine in a four-bank W configuration. All W16 engines consist of two offset banks of eight cylinders, coupled to a single crankshaft. Volkswagen Group is the automotive manufacturer currently producing W16 engines. Volkswagen Groups design is a form of its W12 engine. The W16 engine was introduced with the Bentley Hunaudieres concept car, a sports car. This W16 was later used in the Audi Rosemeyer concept car, the VR6 engine is a narrow-angle V6 engine, which could also be described as a staggered-inline six-cylinder piston engine. The VR6 is designed to fit within the engine bay of a front-wheel drive compact car. Joining two such designs together into a W engine creates a design that is shorter than an inline engine with the same number of cylinders. Volkswagen Groups W12 engines utilise two VR6-like sets of cylinders mated at 72 degrees, and the W8 engine consisted of two VR4 engines at the 72-degree angle, in the W16, each side is made up of two VR8 banks and the bank angle is increased to 90 degrees. The narrow angle of each set of cylinders allows just two overhead camshafts to drive each pair of banks, so just four are needed in total, for this reason, the engine is sometimes described as a WR16. Note that this differs from the triple-bank W18 engine that Volkswagen produced for concept cars of 1998 and 1999. The Volkswagen Group W16 engine as configured for the Bugatti Veyron EB16.4 is a 16 cylinder quad-turbocharged engine with four valves per cylinder, the engine is 71 centimetres long, and weighs approximately 400 kilograms. Maximum power output is 736 kilowatts at 6,000 revolutions per minute, some automotive press outlets have also reported that the W16 engine has been considered for use in other Volkswagen Group products - specifically a Bentley. Cylinder firing order on WR-16, 1-14-9-4-7-12-15-6-13-8-3-16-11-2-5-10
12.
Turbocharger
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Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
13.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
14.
Dual-clutch transmission
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A dual-clutch transmission, is a type of automatic transmission or automated automotive transmission. It uses two separate clutches for odd and even gear sets and it can fundamentally be described as two separate manual transmissions contained within one housing, and working as one unit. This type of transmission was invented by Frenchman Adolphe Kégresse just before World War II, initially, the control systems were based on purely analogue/discrete digital circuitry with patents filed in July 1981. All of these early AP twin-clutch installations featured a dry clutch. A dual-clutch transmission eliminates the torque converter as used in conventional epicyclic-geared automatic transmissions, the first series production road car with a DCT was the 2003 Volkswagen Golf Mk4 R32. In 2010, on BMW Canadas website for the 3 Series Coupe and it is actually a dual-clutch semiautomatic. In DCTs where the two clutches are arranged concentrically, the outer clutch drives the odd-numbered gears, while the smaller inner clutch drives the even-numbered gears. Since alternate gear ratios can preselect an odd gear on one gear shaft while the vehicle is being driven in an even gear, DCTs are the fastest-shifting road car transmission available and are even able to shift faster than a professional race car driver using a manual transmission. DCTs can even shift more quickly than cars equipped with single-clutch automated-manual transmissions, also, with a DCT, shifts can be made more smoothly than with a single-clutch AMT, making a DCT more suitable for conventional road cars. Dual-clutch transmissions use two different types of clutches, either two wet multiplate clutches, bathed in oil —or two dry single-plate clutches. Currently, three variations of clutch installation are used, the second implementation uses two single-plate dry clutches—side-by-side from the perpendicular view, but again sharing the center line of the crankshaft. A later variation uses two separate but identical-sized clutches and these are arranged side-by-side when viewed head-on, and also share the same plane when viewed perpendicularly. This latter clutch arrangement is driven by a gear from the engine crankshaft, BorgWarner Inc. supplies wet dual clutches and electrohydraulic control modules for these dual-clutch transmissions, along with complete dual-clutch transmission and transaxle assemblies. BorgWarner, which call their technology DualTronic, entered production for Volkswagen Group. The company signed agreements with three other European automotive manufacturers to incorporate their components in DCTs. On 14 January 2009, BorgWarner announced a joint venture with the China Automobile Development United Investment Co. Ltd. which is owned by 12 Chinese automakers and this joint venture is known as the BorgWarner United Transmission Systems Co. Ltd. and is located in Dalian, China. The company has produced various dual-clutch transmission modules beginning in 2011, the Nissan GT-R uses BorgWarner components, including the dual-clutch module, clutch-control, shift-actuation systems, and synchronizer assemblies. EATON developed the first dual-clutch transmission for class 6-7 trucks in North America - Procision, Fiat Powertrain Technologies developed a dual-clutch transmission with Magneti Marelli and BorgWarner called Euro Twin Clutch Transmission
15.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
16.
Bugatti Veyron
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The original version has a top speed of 407 km/h. It was named Car of the Decade and best car award by the BBC television programme Top Gear, the standard Bugatti Veyron also won Top Gears Best Car Driven All Year award in 2005. Several special variants have been produced, in December 2010, Bugatti began offering prospective buyers the ability to customise exterior and interior colours by using the Veyron 16.4 Configurator application on the marques official website. The Bugatti Veyron was discontinued in late 2014, in May 1998, Volkswagen AG acquired the rights to use the Bugatti logo and the trade name Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. To succeed the EB110 model produced under previous ownership, the maker quickly released a series of cars that would culminate in the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. Between October 1998 and September 1999, Bugatti introduced a series of Giugiaro-designed concept vehicles, each with permanent four-wheel drive, the first, the EB118, was a 2-door coupé presented at the 1998 Paris Motor Show. The next, the EB218, was a 4-door sedan presented at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show, a third, the 18/3 Chiron, was a mid-engined sports car presented at the 1999 International Motor Show in Frankfurt. In October 1999, Bugatti unveiled a concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show. The EB 18/4 Veyron was a mid-engined supercar styled in-house under the direction of Hartmut Warkuß, in 2000 a modified version, the EB 16/4 Veyron, was displayed at motor shows in Detroit, Geneva, and Paris. Rather than the three-bank W-18 of the four concepts, the EB 16/4 featured the four-bank W16 engine architecture installed in every production example of the Bugatti Veyron. The decision to start production of the car was made by the Volkswagen Group in 2001, the first roadworthy prototype was completed in August 2003. It is identical to the later series variant except for a few details, in the transition from development to series production considerable technical problems had to be addressed, repeatedly delaying production until September 2005. The EB refers to Bugatti founder Ettore Bugatti and the 16.4 refers to the engines 16 cylinders and 4 turbochargers, a controversy developed in 2013 over the Veyron Super Sports status as the world’s fastest production car, ultimately resolved in the Veyrons favour. In early April 2013, driving. co. uk began an investigation following claims from US car maker Hennessey that its 928 kW Hennessey Venom GT was entitled to the Guinness World Record. With a recorded speed of 427.6 km/h the Hennessey was 3.1 km/h, Hennessey said its Venom GT was road-ready and unmodified and was therefore a production car in the strict sense of the term. Driving. co. uk requested clarification from Guinness World Records, Hennessey later recorded the Venom GT at 435.31 km/h. However, this was only in one direction, Guinness requires 2 runs in opposite directions to average out wind effects, so the run was not valid for a Guinness world record. The Veyron features an 8. 0-litre, quad-turbocharged, W16 cylinder engine, each cylinder has four valves for a total of 64, but the VR8 configuration of each bank allows two overhead camshafts to drive two banks of cylinders so only four camshafts are needed
17.
Geneva Motor Show
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The International Geneva Motor Show is an annual auto show held in March in the Swiss city of Geneva. The show is hosted at the Geneva Palexpo, a centre located next to the Geneva Cointrin International Airport. The Salon is organised by the Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs dAutomobiles, exotic supercars often steal the spotlight during their debuts at the show. Prototypes, new equipment, technical breakthroughs, international partnerships, as well as political and social debates, have announced at the exhibition. The show is regarded as a playing field for the worlds automakers. Areas of the show, Motor cars 3 or 4 or more wheels, electric cars and alternative powered cars. Special bodywork for motor cars, car design, engineering, the International Advanced Mobility Forum is the Geneva Motor Show forum on the mobility of the future. The 87th Geneva Motor Show was held from 9 to 19 March 2017, the 86th Geneva Motor Show was held from 3 to 13 March 2016. The 85th Geneva Motor Show was held from 5 to 15 March 2015, the 84th Geneva Motor Show was held from 6 to 16 March 2014. The 83rd Geneva Motor Show was held from 5 to 17 March 2013, the 82nd edition was held from 8 to 18 March 2012. The 2011 edition was held from 3 to 13 March 2011, the 80th edition of the Geneva Motor Show was held from 4–14 March 2010. Over 80 introductions were expected for the show, press days for the show started on 2 March 2010, when most of the major introductions occurred. The 2009 Geneva Motor Show was held from 5–15 March 2009, the following vehicles were introduced, The 2008 Geneva Motor Show was held from 4–16 March 2008. Bolloré Bluecar Fiat Panda, hybrid petrol -natural gas, ford Focus Turnier 2.0 Honda Small Hybrid Sports Honda FCX Clarity Opel Corsa D, with optimized 100HP1. 6l natural gas engine. Reva Greeny AC1 and AC1 Z Subaru R1e, small city car
18.
Monaco
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Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco, is a sovereign city-state and microstate, located on the French Riviera in Western Europe. France borders the country on three sides while the other side borders the Mediterranean Sea, Monaco has an area of 2.02 km2 and a population of about 38,400 according to the last census of 2015. With 19,009 inhabitants per km², it is the second smallest, Monaco has a land border of 5.47 km, a coastline of 3.83 km, and a width that varies between 1,700 and 349 m. The highest point in the country is a pathway named Chemin des Révoires on the slopes of Mont Agel, in the Les Révoires Ward. Monacos most populous Quartier is Monte Carlo and the most populous Ward is Larvotto/Bas Moulins, through land reclamation, Monacos land mass has expanded by twenty percent, in 2005, it had an area of only 1.974 km2. Monaco is known as a playground for the rich and famous, in 2014, it was noted about 30% of the population was made up of millionaires, more than in Zürich or Geneva. Monaco is a principality governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, although Prince Albert II is a constitutional monarch, he wields immense political power. The House of Grimaldi have ruled Monaco, with brief interruptions, the official language is French, but Monégasque, Italian, and English are widely spoken and understood. The states sovereignty was recognized by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. Despite Monacos independence and separate foreign policy, its defense is the responsibility of France, however, Monaco does maintain two small military units. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the countrys first casino, Monte Carlo, since then, Monacos mild climate, scenery, and gambling facilities have contributed to the principalitys status as a tourist destination and recreation center for the rich. In more recent years, Monaco has become a major banking center and has sought to diversify its economy into services and small, high-value-added, the state has no income tax, low business taxes, and is well known for being a tax haven. It is also the host of the street circuit motor race Monaco Grand Prix. Monaco is not formally a part of the European Union, but it participates in certain EU policies, including customs, through its relationship with France, Monaco uses the euro as its sole currency. Monaco joined the Council of Europe in 2004 and it is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Monacos name comes from the nearby 6th-century BC Phocaean Greek colony, according to an ancient myth, Hercules passed through the Monaco area and turned away the previous gods. As a result, a temple was constructed there, the temple of Hercules Monoikos, because the only temple of this area was the House of Hercules, the city was called Monoikos. It ended up in the hands of the Holy Roman Empire, an ousted branch of a Genoese family, the Grimaldi, contested it for a hundred years before actually gaining control
19.
Louis Chiron
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Louis Alexandre Chiron was a Monégasque racing driver who competed in rallies, sports car races, and Grands Prix. He is the oldest driver ever to have raced in Formula One, Louis Chiron fell in love with cars and racing when he was a teenager. He started driving in Grand Prix races after World War I, in which he was seconded from a regiment as a driver for Maréchal Pétain. In 1929 he drove a Delage to 7th place in the Indianapolis 500 and he won the 1931 Monaco Grand Prix—the only Monaco-born driver to have done so—and in 1933 he partnered with specialist endurance racer Luigi Chinetti to win the Spa 24 hours race. He retired in 1938, and World War II curtailed motor racing a year later, when racing resumed after the War, he came out of retirement and drove a Talbot-Lago to victory in two French Grands Prix. The review says biographer Miranda Seymour is “circumspect on Nice’s guilt”, a review of the same book in The New York Times says Nice was accused of being a “Gestapo agent”, that Seymour “rebuts” the charge, and that it made Nice unemployable. Paired with the Swiss driver Ciro Basadonna, Chiron won the 1954 Monte Carlo Rally, and achieved podium finishes in the fifteen Formula One races he entered that year. His last race was In 1955, when he took a Lancia D50 to sixth place in the Monaco Grand Prix a few weeks before his 56th birthday, becoming the oldest driver to compete in a Formula One race. He is also the oldest driver ever to have entered for a Formula One race, as he had achieved the greatest number of podium finishes in Bugattis, the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car and the 2016 Bugatti Chiron are named in his honor. Grand Prix History, Louis Chiron Louis Chiron at The Crittenden Automotive Library Louis Chiron at Le Mans Louis Chiron at Find a Grave
20.
Litre
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The litre or liter is an SI accepted metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre,1,000 cubic centimetres or 1/1,000 cubic metre. A cubic decimetre occupies a volume of 10×10×10 centimetres and is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is litre, the less common spelling of liter is more predominantly used in American English. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact, a litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre or 10 centimetres ×10 centimetres ×10 centimetres. Hence 1 L ≡0.001 m3 ≡1000 cm3, from 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density and standard pressure. The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder held at Sèvres in France and was intended to be of the mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above. It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, additionally, the mass-volume relationship of water depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity. In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was abandoned in favour of the current one, although the litre is not an official SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM for use with the SI. CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols, a litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit customarily used for dry measure. The litre is often used in some calculated measurements, such as density. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, similarly,1 millilitre of water has a mass of about 1 g,1,000 litres of water has a mass of about 1,000 kg. It is now known that density of water depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes, the most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name cubic centimetre. It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine and cooking, Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold
21.
Kilowatt
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
22.
Metric horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
23.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
24.
Carbon-fibre
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
25.
Independent suspension
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Independent suspension is a broad term for any automobile suspension system that allows each wheel on the same axle to move vertically independently of the others. This is contrasted with an axle or deDion axle system in which the wheels are linked – movement on one side affects the wheel on the other side. Independent refers to the motion or path of movement of the wheels or suspension and it is common for the left and right sides of the suspension to be connected with anti-roll bars or other such mechanisms. The anti-roll bar ties the left and right suspension spring rates together, most modern vehicles have independent front suspension. Many vehicles also have an independent rear suspension, IRS, as the name implies, has the rear wheels independently sprung. A fully independent suspension has an independent suspension on all wheels, some early independent systems used swing axles, but modern systems use Chapman or MacPherson struts, trailing arms, multilink, or wishbones. Independent suspension requires additional engineering effort and expense in development versus a beam or live axle arrangement, a very complex IRS solution can also result in higher manufacturing costs. The key reason for lower unsprung weight relative to a live axle design is that, for driven wheels, instead it is either bolted directly to the vehicles chassis or more commonly to a subframe. Suspension is the component that separates the driver and/or passenger from the ground. The suspension in a vehicle helps absorb harshness in the road, there are many systems and designs that do this, such as independent suspension. This system provides many advantages over other suspension systems, for example, in solid axle suspension systems, when one wheel hits a bump, it affects both wheels. This will compromise traction, smoothness of the ride, and could cause a dangerous wheel shimmy when moving at high speeds. According to Car Suspension Bible with independent suspension systems, the bump only affects the contacted wheel and this offers many advantages such as greater ride comfort, better traction, and safer, more stable vehicles on and off the road. Double wishbone suspension Multi-link suspension This is the most common, widely used front suspension system in cars of European and Japanese origin. It is a simple and effective design that uses a strut-type spring. This system has used in the BMW E21 series, which are the first generation 3 series from 1976-1983. People can often confuse this with a CV joint knock, several independent suspension designs have featured transverse leaf springs. Most applications used multi-leaf steel springs though more recent designs have used fiber reinforced plastic springs, in addition to spring type, a distinction can be drawn between systems where the spring also acts as a locating link and those where the spring only acts as a spring member
26.
Haldex (company)
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Haldex AB, also known as Haldex Group, is a Swedish public company operating in the commercial vehicle industry. It is listed on the OMX Stockholm Stock Exchange, and has a turnover of around 8,5 bn SEK. Haldex started out in 1887 by building clocks, typing machines, the company made two acquisitions in the United States since the late 1990s, Midland-Grau in 1998 and Neway/Anchorlok in 2002. Haldex operates in the commercial sector, specifically heavy trucks, trailers. Haldex has production plants in the countries, Brazil China France Germany Hungary Mexico United States Sweden India Australia
27.
All-wheel drive
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An all-wheel drive vehicle is one with a powertrain capable of providing power to all its wheels, whether full-time or on-demand. The most common forms of all-wheel drive are, 4×4 Reflecting two axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. 6×6 Reflecting three axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. 8×8 Reflecting four axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. This distinction in terminology is not generally used outside North America, when tyre grip is good during road driving a differential is used between the axles to avoid driveline windup. This is not required off-road, as the grip allows the tyres to slip relative to each other. All-wheel drive vehicles designed for extensive off-road use may not have such a differential, selectable 4WD also avoids this problem and requires only a simple dog clutch in the transfer case, rather than a differential. For this reason, most early off-road vehicles used system, e. g. Jeep. Esoteric vehicles such as the high-powered Jensen FF followed by the AMC Eagle, Subaru Leone and these, particularly the Quattro, would extensively develop this drivetrain with the use of viscous couplings and differentials to provide a safe and drivable car. The first off-road / on-road hybrids such as the Range Rover also chose the permanent all wheel drive system rather than manual selection, selectable 4WD has both axles rigidly coupled together, which has some advantages in very poor off-road conditions. To gain the advantage in a permanent AWD system with a differential. As this control is frequently misunderstood and mis-used, which can cause damage due to wind-up. Front-wheel drive Rear-wheel drive All-terrain vehicle Two-wheel drive H-drive Four Wheel Drive or FWD, one of the first companies, from 1909, to build four-wheel drive vehicles
28.
Stiffness
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Stiffness is the rigidity of an object — the extent to which it resists deformation in response to an applied force. The complementary concept is flexibility or pliability, the more flexible an object is, the stiffness, k, of a body is a measure of the resistance offered by an elastic body to deformation. In Imperial units, stiffness is typically measured in pounds per inch, generally speaking, deflections of an infinitesimal element in an elastic body can occur along multiple DOF. For example, a point on a beam can undergo both a vertical displacement and a rotation relative to its undeformed axis. When there are M degrees of freedom a M x M matrix must be used to describe the stiffness at the point, in industry, the term influence coefficient is sometimes used to refer to the coupling stiffness. For a body with multiple DOF, in order to calculate a particular direct-related stiffness, under such a condition, the above equation can be used to obtain the direct-related stiffness for the degree of freedom which is unconstrained. The ratios between the forces and the produced deflection are the coupling stiffnesses. A description including all possible stretch and shear parameters is given by the elasticity tensor, the inverse of stiffness is flexibility or compliance, typically measured in units of metres per newton. In rheology it may be defined as the ratio of strain to stress, in the SAE system, rotational stiffness is typically measured in inch-pounds per degree. For example, for an element in tension or compression, the stiffness is k = A E L where A is the cross-sectional area, E is the elastic modulus. For the special case of unconstrained uniaxial tension or compression, Youngs modulus can be thought of as a measure of the stiffness of a structure. The stiffness of a structure is of importance in many engineering applications. A high modulus of elasticity is sought when deflection is undesirable, while a low modulus of elasticity is required when flexibility is needed, in biology, the stiffness of the extracellular matrix is important for guiding the migration of cells in a phenomenon called durotaxis. Another application of stiffness finds itself in skin biology, the skin maintains its structure due to its intrinsic tension, contributed to by collagen, an extracellular protein which accounts for approximately 75% of its dry weight. The pliability of skin is a parameter of interest that represents its firmness and extensibility, encompassing characteristics such as elasticity, stiffness and these factors are of functional significance to patients. This is of significance to patients with injuries to the skin, whereby the pliability can be reduced due to the formation. This can be evaluated both subjectively, or objectively using a device such as the Cutometer, the Cutometer applies a vacuum to the skin and measures the extent to which it can be vertically distended
29.
Kilometres per hour
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The kilometre per hour is a unit of speed, expressing the number of kilometres travelled in one hour. Worldwide, it is the most commonly used unit of speed on road signs, the Dutch on the other hand adopted the kilometre in 1817 but gave it the local name of the mijl. The SI representations, classified as symbols, are km/h, km h−1 and km·h−1, the use of abbreviations dates back to antiquity, but abbreviations for kilometres per hour did not appear in the English language until the late nineteenth century. The kilometre, a unit of length, first appeared in English in 1810, kilometres per hour did not begin to be abbreviated in print until many years later, with several different abbreviations existing near-contemporaneously. For example, news organisations such as Reuters and The Economist require kph, in Australian unofficial usage, km/h is sometimes pronounced and written as klicks or clicks. The use of symbols to replace words dates back to at least the medieval era when Johannes Widman, writing in German in 1486. In the early 1800s Berzelius introduced a symbolic notation for the chemical elements derived from the elements Latin names, typically, Na was used for the element sodium and H2O for water. In 1879, four years after the signing of the Treaty of the Metre, among these were the use of the symbol km for kilometre. In 1948, as part of its work for the SI. The SI explicitly states that unit symbols are not abbreviations and are to be using a very specific set of rules. Hence the name of the unit can be replaced by a kind of algebraic symbol and this symbol is not merely an abbreviation but a symbol which, like chemical symbols, must be used in a precise and prescribed manner. SI, and hence the use of km/h has now been adopted around the world in areas related to health and safety. It is also the system of measure in academia and in education. During the early years of the car, each country developed its own system of road signs. In 1968 the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals was drawn up under the auspices of the United Nations Economic, many countries have since signed the convention and adopted its proposals. The use of SI implicitly required that states use km/h as the shorthand for kilometres per hour on official documents. Examples include, Dutch, kilometer per uur, Portuguese, quilómetro por hora Greek, in 1988 the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration promulgated a rule stating that MPH and/or km/h were to be used in speedometer displays. On May 15,2000 this was clarified to read MPH, or MPH, however, the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard number 101 allows any combination of upper- and lowercase letters to represent the units
30.
Miles per hour
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Miles per hour is an imperial and United States customary unit of speed expressing the number of statute miles covered in one hour. Miles per hour is the also used in the Canadian rail system. In some countries mph may be used to express the speed of delivery of a ball in sporting events such as cricket, tennis, road traffic speeds in other countries are indicated in kilometres per hour, while occasionally both systems are used. For example, in Ireland, a considered a speeding case by examining speeds in both kilometres per hour and miles per hour. The judge was quoted as saying the speed seemed very excessive at 180 km/h but did not look as bad at 112 mph, nautical and aeronautical applications, however, favour the knot as a common unit of speed. 1 Mph =0.000277778 Mps Example, Apollo 11 attained speeds of 25,000 Mph, if Apollo 11 were to travel at 25,000 Mph from New York to Los Angeles it would reach Los Angeles in under 6 minutes
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Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
32.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
33.
Ehra-Lessien
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Ehra-Lessien is a municipality in the district of Gifhorn, in Lower Saxony, Germany. Volkswagen Group owns a test track facility in Ehra-Lessien, the facility was built during the Cold War. The location was chosen since at the time, it was in a zone near the East German border. The track is used by all Volkswagen Group subsidiaries and marques, such as Audi, Lamborghini, Bentley, Bugatti, SEAT, Škoda. The facility features 96 km of tarmac, which includes a large variety of road surfaces and curves, used as test tracks to evaluate new. More significantly, there is a high speed circuit with a straight approximately 8.7 km long. Although the straight portion of the track is flat and level for the entire length. Notably, the top speed of the Bugatti Veyron and the McLaren F1 were recorded along this straight, in episode 2 of Season 9, aired on 4 February 2007 on BBC Twos Top Gear, presenter James May reached 407.5 km/h in a Bugatti Veyron. In July 2010 a Bugatti Super Sport with 1,200 bhp, reached 417.9 km/h while driven by James May, back at Ehra-Lessen again. However shortly after this, while being driven by Bugatti test driver Pierre Henri Raphanel, the facility also appeared on National Geographic Channels Man-Made, in an episode about the Bugatti Veyron
34.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
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Juan Pablo Montoya
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Juan Pablo Montoya Roldán is a Colombian racing driver. He currently competes in the Verizon IndyCar Series driving for Team Penske, Montoya is one of two drivers to have won the CART title in his rookie year, the first being Formula One World Champion Nigel Mansell in 1993. He is the active driver who has won two legs of the Triple Crown of Motorsport in its original definition. In October 2009, Montoya was ranked 30th on Times Onlines list of the Top 50 Formula One drivers of all time. Montoya was born in Bogotá, Colombia, where he was taught the techniques of karting from an age by his father Pablo. Montoya moved to the Colombian Formula Renault Series in 1992, while racing there he won four of eight races and had five poles, the same year he also participated in the U. S. Skip Barber driving school, and was hailed by driving instructors as being one of the best pupils to come through their school. 1993 saw Montoya switch to the Swift GTI Championship, a series he dominated by winning seven of eight races, in 1994, Montoya raced in three separate series, The Sudam 125 Karting, Barber Saab Pro Series, and Formula N in Mexico. He graduated from the Colegio San Tarsicio in Bogotá in the same year, Montoya developed into a strong qualifier, in some cases taking 80% of a seasons pole positions. For the next three years Montoya raced in various divisions, continually progressing upward and he raced in the 1995 British Formula Vauxhall Championship, winning three races and finishing third in the championship. Montoya got the opportunity to advance in his racing career when he was hired by the RSM Marko. In the ten races during the season, Montoya had three wins and three pole positions and he finished his rookie season second in the championship points standings, just 1.5 points shy of taking the overall season title. During this time, Williams noticed his potential and invited him to test with the team at Jerez, Montoya was the fastest of them all and he and Max Wilson were signed by WilliamsF1 to be test drivers for the following season. Alongside his Formula One testing duties for Williams, he competed again in F3000, during the 1998 F3000 season, Montoya opened the season up with a record four straight pole positions. He also achieved another record that year by being the first driver to lap the entire grid, Montoya won the 1998 F3000 season with four wins, seven pole positions, and nine podium finishes in twelve races. Renault, Williamss engine supplier for most of the 1990s, left Formula One at the end of the 1997 season, with no major engine suppliers available, Williams were forced to sign a contract to run customer engines for the 1998 and 1999 seasons. In 1998 the team failed to win a race for the first time in a decade, while Zanardi had a miserable year in Formula One, Montoya, with Honda power and a great Reynard chassis at his disposal, took the American motorsport scene by storm. He took the 1999 title in his year, something accomplished six years earlier by former Formula One Champion Nigel Mansell
36.
Bugatti 16C Galibier
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The Bugatti 16C Galibier is a luxury 5-door fastback concept car built by Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. It was unveiled at a show held at the Molsheim. The 16C Galibier was to use a front-mounted,8.0 L twin-supercharged W16 engine delivering power via permanent all-wheel drive, there are many contradictory reports as to the reasoning for the axing of the Galibier. The 16C Galibier name is a reference to the Bugatti Type 57 Galibier, Bugatti traditionally gave Type 57 variants names that referred to mountain passes. Galibier refers to Frances Col du Galibier, the 16C refers to the engines 16 cylinders. The 16C Galibier features a hood which opens in two parts along a central hinge, the 16C Galibier features the longitudinal rib also seen on the previous EB118 and EB218 concepts that references the longitudinal body seam of the Type 57SC Atlantic. Debuted the Bugatti 16C Galibier 5-door fastback concept at a show held at the Molsheim. The 16C Galibier was first shown to the public at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show. The 16C Galibier uses a front-mounted,8.0 L twin-supercharged W16 engine that delivers power via permanent four-wheel drive, the engine is derived from the quad-turbocharged unit used in the Bugatti Veyron. It will also incorporate an option for a hybrid powertrain, primarily to reduce pollution in urbanised environments, performance figures have not been specified, but it has a power output in excess of 1,000 bhp while surpassing speeds of 235 mph. A production version of the 16C Galibier concept, expected to be named the Royale, was scheduled to reach the market in 2013. In 2011, Bugatti postponed the release of the Royale to 2015 or later to refine the vehicles design, Bugatti was expected to produce 3000 units of the Galibier compared to 300 of the Veyron. It was also expected to cost more than £1 million, in an interview with Top Gear, President of Bugatti Dr. Wolfgang Schreiber said that Bugatti will never manufacture Galibier nor SuperVeyron because it will confuse their customers. The newest 2009 Bugatti 16C Galibier blueprints Bugatti Galibier 16C Photographs
37.
Bugatti
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Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French car manufacturer of high-performance automobiles, founded in 1909 in the then German city of Molsheim, Alsace by Italian-born Ettore Bugatti. Bugatti cars were known for their beauty and for their many race victories. Famous Bugattis include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 Royale, the Type 57 Atlantic and the Type 55 sports car. The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be the end for the marque, no more than about 8,000 cars were made. The company struggled financially, and released one last model in the 1950s, in the 1990s, an Italian entrepreneur revived it as a builder of limited production exclusive sports cars. Today, the name is owned by German automobile manufacturing group Volkswagen, the company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettores family. During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris and he exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1, 368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a Type 13 with a body and using a chassis with a 2,000 mm wheelbase. The others were a Type 22 and a Type 23 with wheelbases of 2,250 and 2,400 mm respectively, the company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing, in 1929 a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice, Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race, the 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is probably the most successful racing car of all time, with over 2,000 wins. The Type 35 was developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car’s first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon, Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car. In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane and this would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his Type 7.5 lifting body, Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail Bugatti. The death of Ettore Bugattis son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a point in the companys fortunes. Jean died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory, World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property
38.
Volkswagen AG
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Volkswagen Group, or Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft, shortly VW AG, is a German multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. It designs, manufactures and distributes passenger and commercial vehicles, motorcycles, engines, in 2016, it was the largest automaker in the world with sales of 10.3 million units, overtaking Toyota. It has maintained the largest market share in Europe for over two decades and it ranked seventh in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds largest companies. It is divided into two divisions, the Automotive Division and the Financial Services Division, and has approximately 340 subsidiary companies. VW also has two major joint-ventures in China, the company has operations in approximately 150 countries and operates 100 production facilities across 27 countries. Volkswagen was founded in 1937 to manufacture the car which would become known as the Beetle, the companys production grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and in 1965 it acquired Auto Union, which subsequently produced the first post-war Audi models. Volkswagen launched a new generation of front-wheel drive vehicles in the 1970s, including the Passat, Polo and Golf, the companys operations in China have grown rapidly in the past decade with the country becoming its largest market. It has been traded in the United States via American Depositary Receipts since 1988, Volkswagen delisted from the London Stock Exchange in 2013. The state of Lower Saxony holds 12. 7% of the companys shares, Volkswagen held a 19. 9% non-controlling shareholding in Suzuki between 2009 and 2015. An international arbitration court ordered Volkswagen to sell the back to Suzuki. Suzuki paid $3. 8bn to complete the stock buy-back just hours prior to a scandal about emissions violations engulfing Volkswagen. Volkswagen was founded on 28 May 1937 in Berlin as the Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH by the National Socialist Deutsche Arbeitsfront. The purpose of the company was to manufacture the Volkswagen car, originally referred to as the Porsche Type 60, then the Volkswagen Type 1 and this vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Porsches consulting firm, and the company was backed by the support of Adolf Hitler. On 16 September 1938, Gezuvor was renamed Volkswagenwerk GmbH, only a small number of Type 60 Volkswagens were made during this time. The Fallersleben plant also manufactured the V-1 flying bomb, making the plant a major bombing target for the Allied forces, however, no British car manufacturer was interested, the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car. It is quite unattractive to the average buyer, to build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise. In 1948, the Ford Motor Company of USA was offered Volkswagen, but Ernest Breech, as part of the Industrial plans for Germany, large parts of German industry, including Volkswagen, were to be dismantled. Total German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers
39.
Bugatti EB 218
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The Bugatti EB218 4-door sedan is the second concept car presented by Bugatti under ownership of the Volkswagen Auto Group. The EB218 was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro, who designed the EB112, the cars predecessor and the EB118. The EB218 can be considered as an update of the EB112, the EB218 features Volkswagens unconventional W18 engine and permanent four-wheel drive borrowed from the Lamborghini Diablo VT. Bugatti commissioned Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign to update the EB112 4-door sedan concept that he designed for Bugatti Automobili SpA in 1993, the EB218s wheelbase measures 3 meters and a total length of 5385 mm. This makes the EB218 longer that the EB112 by 315 millimeters, the most notable visual differences between the EB218 and the EB112 is a redesigned hood, bumpers and lights. The overall design is far less controversial than the EB 112s Droopy hatchback-sedan look and has a more of a typical sedan shape rather than the EB 112s hatchback-sedan shape. The interior design is simple yet extremely luxurious, with beige leather seats. The EB218 draws inspiration from the classic Bugatti Type 101 Berline Tourisme, Bugatti debuted the EB218 at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show, one year after its 2-door counterpart was revealed at the 1998 Paris Auto Show. The EB218 uses the same W18 engine and permanent four wheel drive powertrain that debuted in the 1998 EB118, the same technology was used in the 1999 18/3 Chiron concept car. Power comes from a Volkswagen-designed,555 hp and 479 lb·ft and this engine design was extremely unconventional due to the unusual firing order of the engine. The EB218 W18 engine is composed of three banks of six cylinders with a sixty degree offset between each cylinder bank, in contrast, the W16 engine in Bugattis first production car, the 2005 Veyron EB16.4 features four banks of four cylinders. The EB218 features permanent all-wheel drive taken from the Lamborghini Diablo VT supercar
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Bugatti EB 110
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The Bugatti EB110 was a mid-engine sports car produced by Bugatti Automobili S. p. A. from 1991 to 1995, when the company went bankrupt. It was the production model made by Romano Artiolis Italian incarnation of Bugatti. The Bugatti EB110 was unveiled on 15 September 1991, in both Versailles and in front of the Grande Arche de la Défense in Paris, exactly 110 years after Ettore Bugattis birth. In 1992, a lighter and more powerful model with 612 PS at 8250 rpm and this car is capable of 216 mph and 0-100 km/h in 3.2 seconds. Early in 1994 Formula One driver Michael Schumacher purchased a yellow EB110 SS, Schumacher retained the car until 2003. Derek Hill, son of American Formula One champion Phil Hill, was one of three drivers on a team competed with an EB110 in the United States at the 199624 Hours of Daytona. Hard times hit the company in 1995 and, as result of chairman Artiolis over-ambitious purchase of Lotus in addition to the companys quest to develop the EB112 four door car, the company was bankrupt. Dauer Racing GmbH of Nuremberg, Germany, bought the semi-finished EB110 cars in the assembly plant plus the parts inventory through the bankruptcy trustee, the remaining chassis and a version of the engine were later developed by B Engineering into their Edonis sports car. The car has a 60-valve, quad-turbo V12 fed through 12 individual throttle bodies, the 3.5 L engine has a bore of 81 mm and a stroke of 56.6 mm and is capable of 560 PS at 8000 rpm. Acceleration to 100 km/h takes 3.2 seconds, and the GT has a top speed of 213 mph, the car uses a double wishbone suspension, with the chassis built by Aérospatiale, an aircraft company, and made from carbon fibre. The French magazine sport auto measured 0–100 km/h in 3.3 s, 0–400 m in 11.0 s, 0–1000 m in 19.8 s and a top speed of 351 km/h. The B Engineering Edonis is based on the Bugatti EB110 SS but has been extensively re-engineered, both the exterior and interior of the car have been completely redesigned. The 3.5 liter Bugatti engine has had its displacement increased from 3500 cc to 3760 cc, the original four small IHI turbochargers have been replaced by two larger units from the same manufacturer. Engine power has been boosted from 450 kW and 650 N·m of torque to 500 kW at 8000 rpm and 735 N·m. In addition, the 4WD triple-differential drivetrain from the original Bugatti has been replaced with a simpler and lighter RWD transaxle. These power figures give the 1,500 kg Edonis a power-to-weight ratio of 480 bhp/ton, in addition, the engines specific power output is an unprecedented 181 bhp/liter. The brand claims a maximum speed of 365 km/h, while accelerating from 0 to 100 km/h in 3.9 seconds, plans are for B Engineering to build only 21 vehicles from chassis originally built for Bugatti by Aérospatiale. As well as the Edonis, B Engineering also provide spare parts, Dauer Sportwagen in Nuremberg, Germany, bought the remaining stock of EB110 parts from the Bugatti factory
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Romano Artioli
Volkswagen Group
Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.
