1.
Bugatti
–
Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French car manufacturer of high-performance automobiles, founded in 1909 in the then German city of Molsheim, Alsace by Italian-born Ettore Bugatti. Bugatti cars were known for their beauty and for their many race victories. Famous Bugattis include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 Royale, the Type 57 Atlantic and the Type 55 sports car. The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be the end for the marque, no more than about 8,000 cars were made. The company struggled financially, and released one last model in the 1950s, in the 1990s, an Italian entrepreneur revived it as a builder of limited production exclusive sports cars. Today, the name is owned by German automobile manufacturing group Volkswagen, the company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettores family. During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris and he exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1, 368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a Type 13 with a body and using a chassis with a 2,000 mm wheelbase. The others were a Type 22 and a Type 23 with wheelbases of 2,250 and 2,400 mm respectively, the company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing, in 1929 a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice, Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race, the 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is probably the most successful racing car of all time, with over 2,000 wins. The Type 35 was developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car’s first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon, Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car. In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane and this would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his Type 7.5 lifting body, Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail Bugatti. The death of Ettore Bugattis son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a point in the companys fortunes. Jean died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory, World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property
Bugatti
–
1913 Bugatti 22, 3 seat Vinet
Bugatti
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The Bugatti logo
Bugatti
–
1938
Type 57SC Atlantic from the
Ralph Lauren collection
Bugatti
–
1933
Type 59 Grand Prix racer from the
Ralph Lauren collection
2.
Province of Modena
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The Province of Modena is a province in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Modena and it has an area of 2,689 square kilometres and a total population of about 701,000. There are 48 comuni in the province, see Comuni of the Province of Modena, the largest after Modena are Carpi, Sassuolo, Formigine and Castelfranco Emilia
Province of Modena
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Map highlighting the location of the province of Modena in Italy
3.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
Automotive design
–
Designers at work in 1961. Standing by the scale model's left front fender is
Richard Teague, an automobile designer at
American Motors Corporation (AMC)
Automotive design
–
A Bertone Birusa concept car on display at an International Car Show. In the Background are some concept sketches
Automotive design
–
Draft of
OScar design proposal
Automotive design
–
A futuristic original sketch for
Ferrari Modulo 512-S by Paul Martin in 1967. There are already many features of the final concept, including the reduced height, wheels coved for low drag and the characteristic entry system.
4.
Marcello Gandini
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Marcello Gandini is an Italian car designer, known for his work with the automotive design house Gruppo Bertone, including his design of the Lamborghini Countach. Gandini belongs to a triumvirate, along with Giorgetto Giugiaro and Leonardo Fioravanti, of noted Italian car designers, all born in 1938, Gandini was one of twenty-five designers nominated for Car Designer of the Century. The son of a conductor, Gandini was born in Turin. In 1963, he approached Nuccio Bertone, head of the Gruppo Bertone company for work, however Giorgetto Giugiaro, then Bertones chief designer, opposed him being hired. When Giugiaro left Bertone two years later, Gandini was hired, and worked for the company for fourteen years, creator of Stile Bertone in Caprie, Gandini served as general manager of the styling house, designing show cars as well as managing the construction of prototype automobiles. Gandini designed Lamborghinis Miura and Countach and many cars as well, including the Citroën BX, the first-generation BMW5 series, the Innocenti Mini. He introduced the concept of scissor doors with the Alfa Romeo 33 Carabo prototype, Gandini left Bertone in 1980, pursuing freelance automotive, industrial, and interior design. Gandini has worked in areas, including home architecture, the design of a nightclub interior. Gandini automobile designs include, Fiat X1/9 web site BMW Designers Marcello Gandini on the page with an overview of automotive designers working for BMW, Marcello Gandini, Maestro of Design by Gautam Sen. A complete two volume set featuring the designs and biography of Marcello Gandini
Marcello Gandini
–
Lamborghini Countach LP400
Marcello Gandini
–
Lamborghini Miura S
Marcello Gandini
–
BMW 5-series (1st generation)
Marcello Gandini
–
Citroen BX
Hatchback became one of the best selling Citroen models
5.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
Car classification
–
Aixam
Car classification
–
Citroën C1
Car classification
–
Renault Clio IV
Car classification
–
Ford Focus (International)
6.
Sports car
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A sports car is a small, usually two seater, two door automobile designed for spirited performance and nimble handling. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the first known use of the term was in 1928, Sports cars may be spartan or luxurious, but high maneuverability and minimum weight are requisite. The basis for the car is traced to the early 20th century touring cars and roadsters. These raced in rallies, such as the Herkomer Cup, Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt. These would shortly be joined by the French DFP and the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. In 1921, Ballot premiered its 2LS, with a remarkable 75 hp DOHC two liter, designed by Ernest Henry, capable of 150 km/h, at most, one hundred were built in four years and this was followed by the SOHC 2LT and 2LTS. The same year, Benz built a supercharged 28/95PS four for the Coppa Florio, duerkopps Zoller-blown two liter in 1924, as well. There was a clear cleavage by 1925, by the end of the 1920s, AC produced a 2-liter six, the 3. Benz introduced the powerful SS and SSK, and Alfa Romeo, hispano-Suizas Alfonso XIII is considered the first sportcar developed between 1911 and 1914. Two companies would offer really reliable sports cars, Austin with the Seven, the drive train and engine layout significantly influences the handling characteristics of an automobile, and is crucially important in the design of a sports car. The front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is common to cars of any era and has survived longer in sports cars than in mainstream automobiles. Examples include the Caterham 7, Mazda MX-5, and the Chevrolet Corvette, more specifically, many such sports cars have a FMR layout, with the centre of mass of the engine between the front axle and the firewall. In search of improved handling and weight distribution, other layouts are sometimes used, the RMR layout is commonly found only in sports cars—the motor is centre-mounted in the chassis, and powers only the rear wheels. Some high-performance sports car manufacturers, such as Ferrari and Lamborghini have preferred this layout, Porsche is one of the few remaining manufacturers using the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. The motors distributed weight across the wheels, in a Porsche 911, provides excellent traction, Porsche has continuously refined the design and in recent years added electronic driving aids to counteract these inherent design shortcomings. The front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout layout which is the most common in sport compacts and hot hatches, however, its conservative handling effect, particularly understeer, and the fact that many drivers believe rear wheel drive is a more desirable layout for a sports car count against it. The Fiat Barchetta, Saab Sonett, and Berkeley cars are cars with this layout. Before the 1980s few sports cars used four-wheel drive, which had added a lot of weight
Sports car
–
Mazda MX-5, the world's best selling sports car
Sports car
–
Prince Henry Vauxhall—3-litres
Sports car
–
Prince Henry Austro-Daimler—5.7-litres
Sports car
–
1900
NW Rennzweier (The Double Racer)
7.
Automobile layout
–
In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
Automobile layout
–
FF layout
8.
Mid-engine, four-wheel drive layout
–
In automotive design, an M4, or Mid-engine, Four-wheel-drive layout places the internal combustion engine in the middle of the vehicle, between both axles and drives all four road wheels. It is a type of car powertrain layout, the motive output is then sent down a shaft to a differential in the centre of the car, which in the case of an M4 layout, distributes power to both front and rear axles. The centre differential contained within many 4 wheel drive cars is similar to the differential in a 2 wheel drive car. Others contain a computer that will decide how much power to distribute to any wheel at any time depending on the circumstances of each wheel, in general the M4 system is not widely used as it is suited toward sports cars and some off-road racing vehicles. The engine is usually where the weight of a car is most concentrated so placing it between the front and rear axles gives a car a much better handling balance, assuming the engine is behind the passenger compartment, the engine will also be pushing down on the rear wheels. Because the engine is not in the front, the car can be designed with an amount of frontal area perpendicular to the wind. This means that through a fast corner the car is able to display more “neutral” handling - with less oversteer or understeer and this is a much more efficient means of turning and allows for faster cornering speeds as opposed to a two-wheel or conventional four-wheel-drive system. Such a system is difficult and expensive to design and engineer. Most mid-engine cars, because of the size and position of the engine and transmission, Four-wheel-drive systems tend to be quite heavy and some of the engines power can be lost through the various differentials in the car, in addition to the frictional losses of the powertrain
Mid-engine, four-wheel drive layout
–
The
Lamborghini Murciélago uses the M4 configuration.
9.
Engine
–
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
Engine
–
A V6
internal combustion engine from a
Mercedes car
Engine
–
Two 1949 photographs pertaining the
straight-eight engine of a
Rolls-Royce Phantom IV.
Engine
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Boulton & Watt engine of 1788
10.
Turbocharger
–
Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
Turbocharger
–
Cut-away view of an air
foil bearing -supported turbocharger.
Turbocharger
–
On the left, the brass oil drain connection. On the right are the braided oil supply line and water coolant line connections.
Turbocharger
–
Compressor impeller side with the cover removed.
Turbocharger
–
Turbine side housing removed.
11.
V12 engine
–
By using split crankpins or ignoring minor vibrations, any V angle is possible. The 180° configuration is referred to as a flat-twelve engine or a boxer although it is in reality a 180° V since the pistons can. This is not important in a car if all-out performance is the only goal. Since cost and fuel economy are usually important even in luxury and racing cars and it is often used in marine engines where great power is required, and the hull width is limited, but a longer vessel allows faster hull speed. In twin-propeller boats, two V12 engines can be enough to sit side-by-side, while three V12 engines are sometimes used in high-speed three-propeller configurations. Large, fast cruise ships can have six or more V12 engines, after World War II, the compact, more powerful, and vibration-free turboprop and turbojet engines replaced the V12 in aircraft applications. The first V-type engine was built in 1889 by Daimler, to a design by Wilhelm Maybach, by 1903 V8 engines were being produced for motor boat racing by the Société Antoinette to designs by Léon Levavasseur, building on experience gained with in-line four-cylinder engines. In 1904, the Putney Motor Works completed a new V12 marine racing engine—the first V12 engine produced for any purpose, a single camshaft mounted in the central V operated the valves directly. As in many engines, the camshaft could be slid longitudinally to engage a second set of cams. Starting is by pumping a charge into each cylinder and switching on the trembler coils, a sliding camshaft gave direct reversing. The camshaft has fluted webs and main bearings in graduated thickness from the largest at the flywheel end, displacing 1,120 cu in, the engine weighed 950 pounds and developed 150 bhp. Little is known of the achievements in the 40-foot hull for which it was intended. One V12 Dörwald marine engine was still running in a Hong Kong junk in the late-1960s. Two more V12s appeared in the 1909-1910 motor boat racing season, the Lamb Boat & Engine Company of Clinton, Iowa built a 1,559 cu in engine for the companys 32-foot Lamb IV. It weighed in at 2,114 pounds, no weight is known for the massive 3,464 cu in F-head engine built by the Orleans Motor Company. Output is quoted as nearly 400 bhp, by 1914, when Panhard built two 2,356 cu in engines with four-valve cylinder heads the V12 was well established in motor boat racing. In October 1913, Louis Coatalen, chief engineer of the Sunbeam Motor Car Company entered a V12 powered car in the Brooklands short, the engine displaced 9 L, with bore and stroke of 80 x 150 mm. An aluminum crankcase carried two blocks of three cylinders each along each side, with a 60 degree included angle, the cylinders were of iron, with integral cylinder heads with L-shaped combustion chambers
V12 engine
–
1926
BMW VI, water-cooled V12 aircraft engine
V12 engine
–
The 150 bhp V12 Dörwald marine motor, 1904
V12 engine
–
A 1917
Liberty L-12 (V12) aero-engine
V12 engine
–
Renault V12 aeroengine
12.
Transmission (mechanics)
–
A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
Transmission (mechanics)
–
Gears from a five-speed + reverse gearbox from the 1600 Volkswagen Golf (2009).
Transmission (mechanics)
–
The main gearbox and rotor of a
Bristol Sycamore helicopter
Transmission (mechanics)
–
Tractor transmission with 16 forward and 8 backward gears
Transmission (mechanics)
–
Amphicar gearbox cutaway w/optional shift for water going propellers
13.
Manual transmission
–
A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
Manual transmission
–
A floor-mounted gear lever in a modern passenger car with a manual transmission
Manual transmission
–
Top and side view of a typical manual transmission, in this case a Ford
Toploader, used in cars with external floor shifters.
Manual transmission
–
Dog clutches. The gear-like teeth ("dogs", right-side images) engage and disengage with each other.
Manual transmission
–
Synchronizer rings
14.
Wheelbase
–
In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
Wheelbase
–
Wheelbase (measured between rotational centers of wheels)
15.
Bugatti Veyron
–
The original version has a top speed of 407 km/h. It was named Car of the Decade and best car award by the BBC television programme Top Gear, the standard Bugatti Veyron also won Top Gears Best Car Driven All Year award in 2005. Several special variants have been produced, in December 2010, Bugatti began offering prospective buyers the ability to customise exterior and interior colours by using the Veyron 16.4 Configurator application on the marques official website. The Bugatti Veyron was discontinued in late 2014, in May 1998, Volkswagen AG acquired the rights to use the Bugatti logo and the trade name Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. To succeed the EB110 model produced under previous ownership, the maker quickly released a series of cars that would culminate in the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. Between October 1998 and September 1999, Bugatti introduced a series of Giugiaro-designed concept vehicles, each with permanent four-wheel drive, the first, the EB118, was a 2-door coupé presented at the 1998 Paris Motor Show. The next, the EB218, was a 4-door sedan presented at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show, a third, the 18/3 Chiron, was a mid-engined sports car presented at the 1999 International Motor Show in Frankfurt. In October 1999, Bugatti unveiled a concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show. The EB 18/4 Veyron was a mid-engined supercar styled in-house under the direction of Hartmut Warkuß, in 2000 a modified version, the EB 16/4 Veyron, was displayed at motor shows in Detroit, Geneva, and Paris. Rather than the three-bank W-18 of the four concepts, the EB 16/4 featured the four-bank W16 engine architecture installed in every production example of the Bugatti Veyron. The decision to start production of the car was made by the Volkswagen Group in 2001, the first roadworthy prototype was completed in August 2003. It is identical to the later series variant except for a few details, in the transition from development to series production considerable technical problems had to be addressed, repeatedly delaying production until September 2005. The EB refers to Bugatti founder Ettore Bugatti and the 16.4 refers to the engines 16 cylinders and 4 turbochargers, a controversy developed in 2013 over the Veyron Super Sports status as the world’s fastest production car, ultimately resolved in the Veyrons favour. In early April 2013, driving. co. uk began an investigation following claims from US car maker Hennessey that its 928 kW Hennessey Venom GT was entitled to the Guinness World Record. With a recorded speed of 427.6 km/h the Hennessey was 3.1 km/h, Hennessey said its Venom GT was road-ready and unmodified and was therefore a production car in the strict sense of the term. Driving. co. uk requested clarification from Guinness World Records, Hennessey later recorded the Venom GT at 435.31 km/h. However, this was only in one direction, Guinness requires 2 runs in opposite directions to average out wind effects, so the run was not valid for a Guinness world record. The Veyron features an 8. 0-litre, quad-turbocharged, W16 cylinder engine, each cylinder has four valves for a total of 64, but the VR8 configuration of each bank allows two overhead camshafts to drive two banks of cylinders so only four camshafts are needed
Bugatti Veyron
–
Bugatti Veyron 16.4 in Düsseldorf, Germany
Bugatti Veyron
–
The Veyron's quad-turbocharged W16 engine
Bugatti Veyron
–
First U.S. Bugatti Veyron on display in April 2006
Bugatti Veyron
16.
Mid-engine design
–
A mid-engine layout describes the placement of an automobile engine between the rear and front axles. The mid-engine layout makes ABS brakes and traction control systems work better, the mid-engine layout may make a vehicle safer, since an accident can occur if a vehicle cannot stay in its own lane around a curve or is unable to stop quickly enough. This balance is harder to achieve when the weight of the engine is located far to the front or far to the rear of the vehicle. Some automobile designs strive to balance the fore and aft weight distribution by means, such as putting the engine in the front. Another benefit comes when the mass of the engine is located close to the back of the seats. It makes it easier for the suspension to absorb the force of bumps so the riders feel a smoother ride, but in sports cars the engine position is once again used to increase performance and the potentially smoother ride is usually more than offset by stiffer shock absorbers. The largest drawback of mid-engine cars is restricted rear passenger space, the engine in effect pushes the passenger compartment forward towards the front axle. The mid-engine layout was common in buses in the 1950s and 1960s. The Ferrari Mondial is to date the only example of a true mid-engined convertible with seating for 4. A version of the Lotus Evora with a roof panel is anticipated. Like any layout where the engine is not front-mounted and facing the wind and this has been a problem in some cars, but this issue seems to have been largely solved in newer designs. For example, the Saleen S7 employs large engine-compartment vents on the sides, mid engined cars are more dangerous than front-engined cars if the driver loses control - although this may be initially harder to provoke due to the superior balance - and the car begins to spin. Conversely, a car is more likely to break away in a progressive. The term mid-engine has usually been applied to cars having the engine located between the driver and the drive axles. This layout is referred to here as RMR layout, sports and racing cars typically have this mid-engine layout, as these vehicles handling characteristics are more important than other features, such as capacity. Additionally the mechanical layout and packaging of an RMR car is substantially different from that of a front engine or rear engine car, in handling and vehicle layout FMR is substantially the same as FR. Some vehicles could be classified as FR or FMR depending on the installed engine. Historically most classical FR cars such as the Ford Models T and A would qualify as a FMR engine car, not all manufacturers use the Front-Mid designation
Mid-engine design
–
The Lotus Europa S1 was based on a prototype built to compete for Henry Ford II's contract to build a Le Mans race car in the early 1960s.
Mid-engine design
–
Underfloor mid-engine in a historical
Hanomag truck chassis.
17.
Palace of Versailles
–
The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. Versailles is therefore not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. First built by Louis XIII in 1623, as a lodge of brick and stone. The first phase of the expansion was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau and it culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone, which surrounded Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west. After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant, charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design. During the second phase of expansion, two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with became the most famous room of the palace. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688. One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV, owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be a residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the kings house. Once Louis XIV embarked on his campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record. To counter the costs of Versailles during the years of Louis XIVs personal reign. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France, even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, to meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins. In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne, the Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example. 5 In anticipation, For the silver balustrade for the bedroom,90,000 livres II
Palace of Versailles
–
Aerial view of the Palace from above the
Gardens of Versailles
Palace of Versailles
–
Bust of Louis XIV by
Bernini in the
Diana Salon of the Palace of Versailles
Palace of Versailles
–
View of the Palace from the garden
Palace of Versailles
–
Marble Court
18.
Grande Arche
–
La Grande Arche de la Défense is a monument and building in the business district of La Défense and in the commune of Puteaux, to the west of Paris, France. It is usually known as the Arche de la Défense or simply as La Grande Arche, a great national design competition was launched in 1982 as the initiative of French president François Mitterrand. The construction of the monument began in 1985, spreckelsen resigned in July 1986 and ratified the transfer of all his architectural responsibilities to his associate, French architect Paul Andreu. Reitzel continued his work until the monument was completed in 1989, the Arche is in the approximate shape of a cube, it has been suggested that the structure looks like a hypercube projected onto the three-dimensional world. It has a concrete frame covered with glass and Carrara marble from Italy and was built by the French civil engineering company Bouygues. La Grande Arche was inaugurated in July 1989, with military parades that marked the bicentennial of the French Revolution. It completed the line of monuments that forms the Axe historique running through Paris, the Arche is turned at an angle of 6. 33° about the vertical axis. In addition, from a point of view, the turn emphasizes the depth of the monument and is similar to the turn of the Louvre at the other end of the Axe historique. La Voie Royale, a short film of June 2015 by director Larbi Chikh. In reality, this would require a turn of 0. 1°, in addition, the Arche is placed so that it forms a secondary axe with the two highest buildings in Paris, the Tour Eiffel and the Tour Montparnasse. The two sides of the Arche house government offices, the roof section was an exhibition centre, housing the Musée de lInformatique. The roof, when it was open to the public, was popular for its views of Paris. Access to the roof is possible via the elevators in the north and south walls. A reopening is planned for May 2017, list of tallest buildings and structures in the Paris region François Chaslin et Virginie Picon-Lefebvre, La Grande Arche de La Défense Electa-Moniteur,1989 Erik Reitzel Le Cube ouvert. Structures and foundations International conference on tall buildings, ISBN9971840421 Erik Reitzel Les forces dont resultent quelques monuments Parisiens de la Fin du XXe siècle Le pouvoir et la ville à lépoque moderne et contemporaine, Sorbonne 2001. ISBN2747526100 Grande Arche Satellite image from Google Maps Panorama during a storm Grande Arche ERI. dk Grande Arche pictures in Art Days
Grande Arche
–
La Grande Arche de la Défense
Grande Arche
–
Grande Arche at night
Grande Arche
–
View of the Arc de Triomphe from the Grande Arche
Grande Arche
–
Christmas decoration at the Grand Arche
19.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
20.
Ettore Bugatti
–
Ettore Arco Isidoro Bugatti was an Italian-born French automobile designer and manufacturer. He is remembered as the founder and proprietor of the manufacturing company Automobiles E. Bugatti. Ettore Bugatti was born into a family with its origin in Milan. He was the son of Carlo Bugatti, an important Italian Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer. His younger brother was an animal sculptor, Rembrandt Bugatti. His aunt, Luigia Bugatti, was the wife of the painter Giovanni Segantini and his paternal grandfather, Giovanni Luigi Bugatti, was an architect and sculptor. With financial support from his father, Ettore Bugatti developed a prototype which was a prize-winning exhibit at the Milan Trade Fair in the Spring of 1901. Bugattis design also caught the eye of Baron de Dietrich who offered Bugatti the opportunity to come, from 1902 through 1904, De Dietrich built his Type 3/4 and Type 5/6/7, identified at the time with the name De Dietrich, Licence Bugatti. While working for De Dietrich Bugatti met Émile Mathis, the two became first friends and then business partners, leaving De Dietrich in 1904 in order to produce automobiles of their own, which were identified with the name Mathis-Hermes. This arrangement lasted till 1906 after which the partners went their separate ways and he produced several prototypes, collaborating closely with the Cologne based Deutz company. In 1907, Bugatti was appointed Production Director with Deutz, here he designed the Type 8/9. While employed at Deutz, Bugatti built the Type 10 in the basement of his home, in 1913, Bugatti designed a small car for Peugeot, the Type 19 Bébé. Despite being born in Italy, Bugatti established his eponymous company, Automobiles E. Bugatti. Automobiles E. Bugatti was known for some of the fastest, most luxurious, exceptional engineering led to success in early Grand Prix motor racing, a Bugatti being driven to victory in the first Monaco Grand Prix. Between the wars Ettore Bugatti designed a successful motorized railcar dubbed the Autorail Bugatti, and won a government contract to construct an airplane and it was designed by Louis de Monge using two type 50B Bugatti engines but never flew due to the outbreak of World War II. Ettore Bugattis son, Jean Bugatti, was killed on 11 August 1939 at the age of 30 while testing a Bugatti Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory, after that, the companys fortunes began to decline. World War II ruined the factory in Molsheim, and the company lost control of the property, during the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois in Paris and designed a series of new cars. Bugattis concept of customer relations was somewhat eccentric, to a Bugatti owner who complained that his car was difficult to start on cold mornings, he is said to have retorted, Sir
Ettore Bugatti
–
Ettore Bugatti (1932)
Ettore Bugatti
–
Bugatti Type 59 Grand Prix
21.
Formula One
–
Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
Formula One
–
Juan Manuel Fangio 's
1951 title-winning
Alfa Romeo 159
Formula One
–
Formula One
Formula One
–
Stirling Moss 's
Lotus 18 at the
Nürburgring during
1961
Formula One
–
Nigel Mansell 's
Williams FW10 from
1985
22.
Michael Schumacher
–
Michael Schumacher is a German retired racing driver. He is a seven-time Formula One World Champion and is regarded as one of the greatest Formula One drivers of all time. He was named Laureus World Sportsman of the Year twice and he won two titles with Benetton in 1994 and 1995 before moving to Ferrari where he drove for eleven years. His time with Ferrari yielded five consecutive titles between 2000 and 2004, Schumacher holds many of Formula Ones driver records, including most championships, race victories, fastest laps, pole positions and races won in a single season –13 in 2004. In 2002, he became the driver in Formula One history to finish in the top three in every race of a season and then also broke the record for most consecutive podium finishes. According to the official Formula One website, he is statistically the greatest driver the sport has ever seen, after beginning in karting, Schumacher won the German drivers championships in Formula König and Formula Three before joining Mercedes in the World Sportscar Championship. In 1991, his Mercedes-funded race debut for the Jordan Formula One team resulted in Schumacher being signed by Benetton Formula One team as their driver for the rest of that season. Establishing himself as a top driver, finishing third in 1992 and fourth in 1993, in 1995 he repeated the success, this time with a greater margin. Schumacher moved to Ferrari in 1996, Schumacher came close to winning the 1997 and 1998 titles, before breaking his leg at the 1999 British Grand Prix, ending another title run. Things then came good for Schumacher who won five consecutive drivers titles from 2000 to 2004. Schumacher retired from Formula One driving in 2006 staying with Ferrari as an advisor and he came close to an eighth title that year, but due to technical problems in the final two races he fell short to Fernando Alonso. Schumacher agreed to return for Ferrari part-way through 2009, as cover for the badly injured Felipe Massa, Schumacher returned to Formula One on a permanent basis from 2010 with the Mercedes team before retiring for a second time at the conclusion of the 2012 season. Off the track, Schumacher is an ambassador for UNESCO and a spokesman for driver safety and he has been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts throughout his life and donated tens of millions of dollars to charity. In December 2013, Schumacher suffered a head injury while skiing. He was airlifted to a hospital and placed in an induced coma. He was in the coma for six months from 29 December 2013 until 16 June 2014 and he left the hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the University Hospital in Lausanne. On 9 September 2014, Schumacher was relocated to his home where he continues to receive medical treatment, Schumacher was born in Hürth, North Rhine-Westphalia, to Rolf Schumacher, a bricklayer, and his wife Elisabeth. When Schumacher was four, his father modified his pedal kart by adding a small motorcycle engine, when Schumacher crashed it into a lamp post in Kerpen, his parents took him to the karting track at Kerpen-Horrem, where he became the youngest member of the karting club
Michael Schumacher
–
Michael Schumacher in
2011
Michael Schumacher
–
Schumacher's title-winning German
Formula Three car from 1990
Michael Schumacher
–
Schumacher driving for
Benetton at the
1992 Monaco Grand Prix
Michael Schumacher
–
Schumacher drove the
Benetton B194 to his first World Championship in 1994.
23.
Phil Hill
–
Philip Toll Hill, Jr. was an American automobile racer and the only American-born driver to win the Formula One World Drivers Championship. He also scored three wins at each of the 24 Hours of Le Mans and 12 Hours of Sebring sports car races, Hill was described as a thoughtful, gentle man and once said, Im in the wrong business. I dont want to beat anybody, I dont want to be the big hero, born in Miami, Florida, Hill was raised in Santa Monica, California, where he lived until his death. He studied business administration at the University of Southern California from 1945 to 1947, Hill left early to pursue auto racing, working as a mechanic on other drivers cars. Hill began racing cars at an age, going to England as a Jaguar trainee in 1949. He made his debut in the French Grand Prix at Reims France in 1958 driving a Maserati. That same year, paired with Belgian teammate Olivier Gendebien, Hill became the first American-born winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans with Hill driving most of the night in rainy conditions. He and Gendebien would go on to win the endurance race again in 1961 and 1962. Hill began driving full-time for the Ferrari Formula One team in 1959, in 1960 he won the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, the first Grand Prix win for an American driver in nearly forty years, since Jimmy Murphy won the 1921 French Grand Prix. This also turned out to be the last win for a car in Formula 1. The following season, Hill won the Belgian Grand Prix and with two races left trailed only his Ferrari teammate Wolfgang von Trips in the season standings, a crash during the Italian Grand Prix killed von Trips and fifteen spectators. Hill won the race and clinched the championship but the triumph was bittersweet, Ferraris decision not to travel to America for the seasons final round deprived Hill of the opportunity to participate in his home race at Watkins Glen as the newly crowned World Champion. When he returned for the season, his last with Ferrari, Hill said, I no longer have as much need to race. I dont have as much hunger anymore, I am no longer willing to risk killing myself. After leaving Ferrari at the end of 1962, he and fellow driver Giancarlo Baghetti started for the new team ATS created by engineers in the great walkout of 1961. Phil Hill has the distinction of having won the first and last races of his driving career, Hill also drove an experimental MG, EX-181, at Bonneville Salt Flats. The Roaring Raindrop, had an 91 cu. in, supercharged MGA Twin Cam engine, using 86% methanol with nitrobenzene, acetone, and sulphuric ether, for an output of 290 HP. In 1959 Phil Hill attained 257 MPH in this car, breaking the record of Stirling Moss in same car
Phil Hill
–
Hill (left) and
Jackie Stewart at the
1991 United States Grand Prix
Phil Hill
–
Hill driving for
Ferrari at the
1962 German Grand Prix.
24.
24 Hours of Daytona
–
It is run on a 3. 56-mile combined road course, utilizing portions of the NASCAR tri-oval and an infield road course. Since its inception, it has held the last weekend of January or first weekend of February, part of Speedweeks. It is also the first race of the season for the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship, the race has had several names over the years. Since 1991, the Rolex Watch Co. is the sponsor of the race under a naming rights arrangement. Winning drivers of all classes receive a steel Rolex Daytona watch, in 2006, the race moved one week earlier into January to prevent a clash with the Super Bowl, which had in turn moved one week later into February a few years earlier. The race has been known historically as a leg of the informal Triple Crown of endurance racing, shortly after the track opened, on April 5,1959, a six-hour/1000 kilometer USAC-FIA sports car race was held on the road course. Count Antonio Von Dory and Roberto Mieres won the race in a Porsche, the race utilized a 3. 81-mile layout, running counter-clockwise. In 1962, a few years after the track was built, known as the Daytona Continental, it counted towards the FIAs new International Championship for GT Manufacturers. The first Continental was won by Dan Gurney, driving a 2. 7L Coventry Climax-powered Lotus 19. Gurney was a factory Porsche driver at the time, but the 1600-cc Porsche 718 was considered too small, in 1964, the event was expanded to 2,000 km, doubling the classic 1000 km distance of races at Nürburgring, Spa and Monza. Starting in 1966, the Daytona race was extended to the same 24-hour length as Le Mans, unlike the Le Mans event, the Daytona race is conducted entirely over a closed course within the speedway arena without the use of any public streets. Most parts of the steep banking are included, interrupted with a chicane on the back straight, unlike Le Mans, the race is held in wintertime, when nights are at their longest. There are lights installed around the circuit for racing, although the infield section is still not as well-lit as the main oval. This was the case in the initial 1962 Daytona Continental, in which Dan Gurneys Lotus had established a lead when the engine failed with just minutes remaining. Gurney stopped the car at the top of the banking, just short of the finish line and this led to the international rule requiring a car to cross the line under its own power in order to be classified. The first 24 Hour event in 1966 was won by Ken Miles, after having lost in 1966 at Daytona, Sebring and Le Mans to the Fords, the Ferrari P series prototypes staged a 1–2–3 side-by-side parade finish at the banked finish line in 1967. The Ferrari 365 GTB/4 road car was given the unofficial name Ferrari Daytona in celebration of this victory, Porsche repeated this show in their 1–2–3 win in the 196824 Hours. After the car of Gerhard Mitter had a big crash caused by tire failure in the banking, his teammate Rolf Stommelen supported the car of Vic Elford and Jochen Neerpasch
24 Hours of Daytona
–
24 Hours of Daytona
24 Hours of Daytona
25.
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus Cars is an English company that manufactures sports cars and racing cars with its headquarters in Hethel, Norfolk, England, and is a subsidiary of Malaysian automotive company Proton. Notable Lotus cars include the Esprit, Elan, Europa and Elise sports cars, Lotus Cars is based at the former site of RAF Hethel, a World War II airfield in Norfolk. The company designs and builds race and production automobiles of light weight and it also owns the engineering consultancy Lotus Engineering, which has facilities in the United Kingdom, United States, China, and Malaysia. Lotus is owned by DRB-HICOM through its subsidiary Proton, which acquired it following the bankruptcy of former owner Romano Artioli in 1996, the company was formed as Lotus Engineering Ltd. by engineers Colin Chapman and Colin Dare, both graduates of University College, London, in 1952. The four letters in the middle of the stand for the initials of company founder. When the logo was created, Colin Chapmans original partners Michael and Nigel Allen were led to believe that the letters stood for Colin Chapman, the first factory was situated in old stables behind the Railway Hotel in Hornsey, North London. Team Lotus, which was split off from Lotus Engineering in 1954, was active and competitive in Formula One racing from 1958 to 1994, the Lotus Group of Companies was formed in 1959. This was made up of Lotus Cars Limited and Lotus Components Limited, Lotus Components Limited became Lotus Racing Limited in 1971 but the newly renamed entity ceased operation in the same year. The company moved to a purpose built factory at Cheshunt in 1959 and since 1966 the company has occupied a modern factory and road test facility at Hethel and this site is the former RAF Hethel base and the test track uses sections of the old runway. In its early days Lotus sold cars aimed at privateer racers and its early road cars could be bought as kits, in order to save on purchase tax. After the elegant but delicate Lotus Elite of the 1950s, Lotus found critical, Lotus was notable for its use of fibreglass bodies, backbone chassis, and twin cam engines, initially supplied by Coventry Climax but later replaced by Lotus-Ford units. Lotus worked with Ford on the Lotus Cortina, a sports saloon. The Lotus Seven, originating in the 1950s as a simple, Lotus then sold the rights to produce the Seven to Caterham, which has continued to produce the car since then. The mid engined line continued with the Lotus Esprit, which was to one of the companys longest lived. Lotus developed its own series of four cylinder DOHC engines, the Lotus 900 series, and later a V8, variants of the 900 series engine were supplied for the Jensen Healey sports car and the Sunbeam Lotus hot hatchback. In the 1980s, Lotus collaborated with Vauxhall Motors to produce the Lotus Carlton, by 1980, Group Lotus was in serious financial trouble. Production had dropped from 1,200 units per year to a mere 383, in early 1982, Chapman came to an agreement with Toyota to exchange intellectual property and applied expertise. This initially resulted in Lotus Engineering helping to develop the Mk2 Toyota Supra, secondly it allowed Lotus to launch the new Lotus Excel to replace the ageing Lotus Eclat
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus final assembly
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus Cars Limited
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus 77
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus 72
26.
Nuremberg
–
Nuremberg is a city on the river Pegnitz and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia, about 170 kilometres north of Munich. It is the second-largest city in Bavaria, and the largest in Franconia, the population as of February 2015, is 517,498, which makes it Germanys fourteenth-largest city. The urban area also includes Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with a population of 763,854. The European Metropolitan Area Nuremberg has ca.3.5 million inhabitants, Nuremberg was, according to the first documentary mention of the city in 1050, the location of an Imperial castle between the East Franks and the Bavarian March of the Nordgau. From 1050 to 1571, the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade routes, Nuremberg is often referred to as having been the unofficial capital of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly because Imperial Diet and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg were an important part of the structure of the empire. The increasing demand of the court and the increasing importance of the city attracted increased trade. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe. In 1298, the Jews of the town were accused of having desecrated the host, behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague years, in 1349, Nurembergs Jews were subjected to a pogrom. They were burned at the stake or expelled, and a marketplace was built over the former Jewish quarter, the plague returned to the city in 1405,1435,1437,1482,1494,1520 and 1534. Charles was the patron of the Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362, where the Imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg. Charles IV conferred upon the city the right to conclude alliances independently, frequent fights took place with the burgraves without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the city. Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory, the Hussite Wars, recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century. During the Middle Ages, Nurembergs literary culture was rich, varied, the cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the centre of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, during the 1552 revolution against Charles V, Nuremberg tried to purchase its neutrality, but the city was attacked without a declaration of war and was forced into a disadvantageous peace. The state of affairs in the early 16th century, increased trade routes elsewhere, frequent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League soldiers, the financial costs of the war and the cessation of trade caused irreparable damage to the city and a near-halving of the population. In 1632, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein, the city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial centre
Nuremberg
–
Nuremberg Castle
Nuremberg
–
Flag
Nuremberg
–
Old fortifications of Nuremberg
Nuremberg
–
The Imperial Castle
27.
Multi-valve
–
In automotive engineering a multi-valve or multivalve engine is one where each cylinder has more than two valves. A multi-valve engine has better breathing and may be able to operate at higher revolutions per minute than a two-valve engine, a multi-valve engine design typically has three, four, or five valves per cylinder to achieve improved performance. Any four-stroke internal combustion engine needs at least two valves per cylinder, one for intake of air and fuel, and another for exhaust of combustion gases. Adding more valves increases valve area and improves the flow of intake and exhaust gases, thereby enhancing combustion, volumetric efficiency, multi-valve geometry allows the spark plug to be ideally located within the combustion chamber for optimal flame propagation. Multi-valve engines tend to have smaller valves that have lower reciprocating mass, which can wear on each cam lobe. Some engines are designed to each intake valve at a slightly different time. More valves also provide additional cooling to the cylinder head, the disadvantages of multi-valve engines are an increase in manufacturing cost and a potential increase in oil consumption due to the greater number of valve stem seals. Some SOHC multi-valve engines use a single fork-shaped rocker arm to drive two valves so that fewer cam lobes will be needed in order to reduce manufacturing costs, three-valve cylinder head This has a single large exhaust valve and two smaller intake valves. A three-valve layout allows better breathing than a head. The manufacturing cost for this design can be lower than for a four-valve design, the three-valve design was common in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and from 2004 the main valve arrangement used in Ford F-Series trucks, and Ford SUVs. Four-valve cylinder head This is the most common type of multi-valve head and this design allows similar breathing as compared to a three-valve head, and as the small exhaust valves allow high RPM, this design is very suitable for high power outputs. Five-valve cylinder head Less common is the head, with two exhaust valves and three inlet valves. All five valves are similar in size and this design allows excellent breathing, and, as every valve is small, high RPM and very high power outputs are theoretically available. After making five-valve Genesis engines for several years, Yamaha has reverted to the cheaper four-valve design, beyond five valves For a cylindrical bore and equal-area sized valves, increasing the number of valves beyond five decreases the total valve area. The following table shows the areas of differing valve quantities as proportion of cylinder bore. These percentages are based on geometry and do not take into account orifices for spark plugs or injectors. Also, in practice, exhaust valves are larger than intake in heads with an even number of valves-per-cylinder. The same applies to variable valve timing and variable intake manifolds, rotary valves also offer improved engine breathing and high rev performance but these were never very successful
Multi-valve
–
A
cylinder head of a four
valve engine. (
Nissan VQ engine)
Multi-valve
–
Cutaway model of Subaru's
i-AVLS variable valve timing system on SOHC 4-valve-per-cylinder
EJ25 boxer engine at Tokyo Motor Show 2007.
Multi-valve
–
Combustion chamber of a 2009
Ford Ecoboost 3.5-liter turbocharged V6 petrol engine (77.8 kW/liter) showing two intake valves (right), two exhaust valves (left), centrally placed spark plug, and
direct fuel injector (right).
Multi-valve
–
A
cylinder head from a 1987
Honda CRX Si showing SOHC, rocker arms, valve springs, and other components. This is a multi-valve configuration with two intake valves and one exhaust valve for each cylinder.
28.
Throttle body
–
A throttle is the mechanism by which fluid flow is managed by constriction or obstruction. An engines power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases, the term throttle has come to refer, informally and incorrectly, to any mechanism by which the power or speed of an engine is regulated. What is often termed a throttle is more correctly called a thrust lever, for a steam engine, the steam valve that sets the engine speed/power is often known as a regulator. A diesel engine does not have a throttle except there is a valve on the newer diesel engines which is generally referred to as air management valves. Air management valves can be with or without integrated control electronics, the throttle is typically a butterfly valve. In a fuel-injected engine, the valve is placed on the entrance of the intake manifold. In a carbureted engine, it is found in the carburetor, when a throttle is wide open, the intake manifold is usually at ambient atmospheric pressure. When the throttle is closed, a manifold vacuum develops as the intake drops below ambient pressure. Usually, the valve is controlled with a throttle pedal or lever via a direct mechanical linkage. In vehicles with electronic control, the manual throttle control sends a signal to the Engine Control Unit. This means that the operator does not have control over the throttle valve. In a reciprocating-engine aircraft, the control is usually a hand-operated lever or knob. It controls the power output, which may or may not reflect in a change of RPM. The power output of an engine is controlled by regulating the quantity of fuel that is injected into the cylinder. Because the engines do not need to control air volumes, they lack a butterfly valve in the intake tract. In fuel injected engines, the body is the part of the air intake system that controls the amount of air flowing into the engine. The throttle body is located between the air filter box and the intake manifold, and it is usually attached to, or near. The largest piece inside the body is the throttle plate
Throttle body
–
Throttle body showing
throttle position sensor. The throttle cable attaches to the curved, black portion on the left. The copper-coloured coil visible next to this returns the throttle to its idle (closed) position when the pedal is released.
Throttle body
–
A cross-section view of a throttle valve
Throttle body
–
Image of
BMW S65 from the E92
BMW M3 showing eight individual throttle bodies
29.
AWD (vehicle)
–
An all-wheel drive vehicle is one with a powertrain capable of providing power to all its wheels, whether full-time or on-demand. The most common forms of all-wheel drive are, 4×4 Reflecting two axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. 6×6 Reflecting three axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. 8×8 Reflecting four axles with wheels on each capable of being powered. This distinction in terminology is not generally used outside North America, when tyre grip is good during road driving a differential is used between the axles to avoid driveline windup. This is not required off-road, as the grip allows the tyres to slip relative to each other. All-wheel drive vehicles designed for extensive off-road use may not have such a differential, selectable 4WD also avoids this problem and requires only a simple dog clutch in the transfer case, rather than a differential. For this reason, most early off-road vehicles used system, e. g. Jeep. Esoteric vehicles such as the high-powered Jensen FF followed by the AMC Eagle, Subaru Leone and these, particularly the Quattro, would extensively develop this drivetrain with the use of viscous couplings and differentials to provide a safe and drivable car. The first off-road / on-road hybrids such as the Range Rover also chose the permanent all wheel drive system rather than manual selection, selectable 4WD has both axles rigidly coupled together, which has some advantages in very poor off-road conditions. To gain the advantage in a permanent AWD system with a differential. As this control is frequently misunderstood and mis-used, which can cause damage due to wind-up. Front-wheel drive Rear-wheel drive All-terrain vehicle Two-wheel drive H-drive Four Wheel Drive or FWD, one of the first companies, from 1909, to build four-wheel drive vehicles
AWD (vehicle)
–
The
Jeep Wrangler is a
4×4 four-wheel drive vehicle with a
transfer case to select low range or high range gearing
AWD (vehicle)
–
Hayes WHDX 70-170
6×6 tractor
AWD (vehicle)
–
The
8×8 tractor unit of the
HETS heavy equipment transport system
30.
Double wishbone suspension
–
In automobiles, a double wishbone suspension is an independent suspension design using two wishbone-shaped arms to locate the wheel. Each wishbone or arm has two mounting points to the chassis and one joint at the knuckle, the shock absorber and coil spring mount to the wishbones to control vertical movement. The double-wishbone suspension can also be referred to as double A-arms, though the arms themselves can be A-shaped, L-shaped, a single wishbone or A-arm can also be used in various other suspension types, such as variations of the MacPherson strut. The upper arm is shorter to induce negative camber as the suspension jounces. When the vehicle is in a turn, body roll results in positive camber gain on the lightly loaded inside wheel, between the outboard end of the arms is a knuckle. The knuckle contains a kingpin for horizontal radial movement in older designs, in newer designs, a ball joint at each end allow for all movement. Attached to the knuckle at its center is a hub, or in many older designs. To resist fore-aft loads such as acceleration and braking, the arms require two bushings or ball joints at the body. At the knuckle end, single ball joints are used, in which case the steering loads have to be taken via a steering arm. An L-shaped arm is generally preferred on passenger vehicles because it allows a better compromise of handling and comfort to be tuned in. The bushing in line with the wheel can be kept relatively stiff to effectively handle cornering loads while the joint can be softer to allow the wheel to recess under fore-aft impact loads. For a rear suspension, a pair of joints can be used at both ends of the arm, making them more H-shaped in plan view. Alternatively, a fixed-length driveshaft can perform the function of a wishbone as long as the shape of the other wishbone provides control of the upright and this arrangement has been successfully used in the Jaguar IRS. In elevation view, the suspension is a 4-bar link, and it is easy to work out the camber gain, the various bushings or ball joints do not have to be on horizontal axes, parallel to the vehicle centre line. If they are set at an angle, then anti-dive and anti-squat geometry can be dialled in, in many racing cars, the springs and dampers are relocated inside the bodywork. The suspension uses a bellcrank to transfer the forces at the end of the suspension to the internal spring. This is then known as a rod if bump travel pushes on the rod. As the wheel rises, the push rod compresses the spring via a pivot or pivoting system
Double wishbone suspension
–
Wishbones and upright painted yellow
Double wishbone suspension
–
Double wishbone suspension (front) on a
Saab Quantum IV.
31.
Carbon fibre
–
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
Carbon fibre
–
Tail of a
radio-controlled helicopter, made of CFRP
Carbon fibre
–
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
Carbon fibre
–
Airbus A350, 52% composite materials
Carbon fibre
–
Citroën SM that won 1971
Rally of Morocco with carbon fiber wheels
32.
Scissor doors
–
Scissor doors are automobile doors that rotate vertically at a fixed hinge at the front of the door, rather than outward as with a conventional door. The first vehicle to feature scissor doors was the 1968 Alfa Romeo Carabo concept car, the door style was dictated by Gandinis desire for an innovative design, and by his concern over the cars extremely poor rear visibility. In order to reverse the car, the driver would be able to lift the door, the doors were used on the Countachs successor, the Diablo, on its replacement, the Murciélago, and on a low-production run derivative of the Murciélago called the Reventón. The Aventador is the latest Lamborghini car to feature the trademark doors, today many aftermarket companies are specialized in production of scissor door conversion kits for regular production cars that originally come with regular doors. A common scissor door conversion kit includes model specific redesigned door hinges, such kits are usually bolt-on or weld on and require some modifications to front bumpers and door panels. Original door panels are not replaced, so a vehicle looks standard from the outside, offers the possibility of operating the car with the door open, in a manner that would be difficult or impossible in a car with conventional doors. Because the doors stay within the track throughout their range of movement. A gullwing door style offers similar visibility, but the swing out from the cars area slightly. The hinge is placed in a location to a conventional door. Reduces the dooring hazard to cyclists, the door still impedes access/egress much more than a gullwing and, in some cases, more than a conventional door. The manufacture cost of the hinge can be more than that of a conventional door. If the height of the parking lot ceiling is insufficient, the door may come into contact with it when opens, in the event of a rollover, emergency egress may be more difficult than with conventional doors, if not impossible. There are different types of scissor doors, the conventional type rotates to 90 degrees. Scissor doors can be powered and they usually are, VLS doors have a scissor door configuration. The biggest difference is that they are designed to open slightly outward before opening upward to allow the top edge of the door to clear the door frame. Although butterfly doors also move upwards and outwards, VLS doors are not butterfly doors, although conventional scissor doors rotate to 90 degrees, some can rotate up to 130 degrees, these are commonly used for modified cars. These have the benefit that they dont obstruct the entrance or exit to the car as much as conventional scissor doors, VLS doors also can rotate to 130 degrees. Some aftermarket example scissor doors are designed so they can open vertically and horizontally like a conventional car door
Scissor doors
–
The
Lamborghini Murciélago
Scissor doors
–
The Carabo concept car was the first vehicle to use scissor doors
Scissor doors
–
Smart roadster of 2006 with prepared panel and lsd doors
33.
Autocar (magazine)
–
Autocar is a weekly British automobile magazine published by Haymarket Motoring Publications Ltd. It was first published in 1895 and refers to itself as The Worlds oldest car magazine, there are now several international editions including China, India, New Zealand and South Africa. Henry Sturmey stood down as editor of The Autocar magazine and left the company in 1901, Autocar claims to have invented the road test in 1928 when it analysed the Austin 7 Gordon England Sunshine Saloon. Autocar has been published weekly throughout its life with only strikes in the 1970s interrupting its frequency. In 1988, it absorbed its long-time rival The Motor magazine, founded by Temple Press Ltd on 28 January 1903, briefly calling itself Autocar & Motor afterwards, before reverting to Autocar. The magazine has scored many firsts in its history including the first full road tests and independent performance tests of the Jaguar XJ220, McLaren F1, and the Porsche 911 GT1. It was also the first magazine to produce independently recorded performance figures for the Bugatti Veyron, news – includes scoop photographs and information about still-secret future models. First drives – brief road tests of new models, group tests - analysis of how a model compares relative to rivals Motorsport – summaries of current racing news, predominantly in Formula 1 and rallying. Road tests – Thorough test and analysis of one new model per issue, in the issue closest to Christmas, Autocar traditionally publishes a road test of a more unusual vehicle. These have included tests of New Routemaster, HMS Ark Royal, Concorde, used car news Long term car tests New car data In the 1950s, the magazines Sport Editor, John Cooper, used Cooper T11 parts to create the Cooper-Alta. Former Autocar writers include Russell Bulgin, Chris Harris, Top Gear presenter James May, current Autocar writers include Richard Bremner, Formula 1 journalist Joe Saward, used-car expert James Ruppert, and Editor-in-Chief Steve Cropley. The current editor is Matt Burt, Autocar has been licensed to publishers around the world and is now published in 16 countries outside the UK, including China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, and Vietnam. In 1952 The Autocar retailed for one shilling, equivalent to five pence in post decimalization British currency, in 1968 the cover price of Autocar was increased from two shillings to two shillings and six pence. By 1972, the price had increased fivefold in the two decades since 1952, to 25p, in 1992, the price was £1.25. As of June 2016, the magazine sells for £3.80, Autocar official site Autocar India official site Autocar Indonesia official site Full Autocar History Trucksplanet
Autocar (magazine)
–
Issue from 14th October 1935
Autocar (magazine)
–
Autocar magazine logo
34.
Graphite-reinforced plastic
–
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
Graphite-reinforced plastic
–
Tail of a
radio-controlled helicopter, made of CFRP
Graphite-reinforced plastic
–
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
Graphite-reinforced plastic
–
Airbus A350, 52% composite materials
Graphite-reinforced plastic
–
Citroën SM that won 1971
Rally of Morocco with carbon fiber wheels
35.
Chassis
–
A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports an artificial object in its construction and use, can also provide protection for some internal parts. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor vehicle, if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the drivers seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis. In the case of vehicles, the rolling chassis means the frame plus the running gear like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential. An under body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the parts of a truck to be ready for operation on the road. The design of a car chassis will be different than one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as chassis cab versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies and these include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc. In particular applications, such as buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U. S. defines the design standards of chassis. An armoured fighting vehicles hull serves as the chassis and comprises the part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, drivers seat. This describes the hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured carriers, combat engineering vehicles. In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other supporting structure on which the circuit boards. In the absence of a frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves. The combination of chassis and outer covering is called an enclosure. Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1978
Chassis
–
Motor vehicle chassis with its suspension, exhaust system, and steering box
Chassis
–
Chassis of a
Rolls-Royce Phantom IV, 1949.
Chassis
–
1950s
Jeep FC cowl and chassis for others to convert into finished vehicles
Chassis
–
PowerMac G4 chassis opened to expose computer components
36.
Torque
–
Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
Torque
37.
4WD
–
Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
4WD
–
The
Jeep Wrangler is a 4WD vehicle with a transfer case to select low range or high range four-wheel drive
4WD
–
The
Lamborghini Murciélago is an AWD that powers the front via a
viscous coupling unit if the rear slips.
4WD
–
The
HMMWV is a 4WD/AWD that powers all wheels evenly (continuously) via a manually lockable center differential, with
Torsen differentials for both front and rear.
4WD
–
The 1903 Spyker 60 H.P. 4WD
38.
Front engine, rear-wheel drive layout
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In automotive design, an FR, or front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one where the engine is located at the front of the vehicle and driven wheels are located at the rear. This was the automobile layout for most of the 20th century. Modern designs commonly use the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, the first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the Système Panhard in the early years. The layout has the advantage of minimizing mechanical complexity, as it allows the transmission to be placed in-line with the output shaft. In comparison, a vehicle with the engine over the driven wheels eliminates the need for the drive shaft, in order to reduce the relative weight of the drive shaft, the transmission was normally split into two parts, the gearbox and the final drive. The gearbox was produced with its highest gear being 1,1. The final drive, in the axle, would then reduce this to the most appropriate speed for the wheels. As power is the product of torque and angular velocity, spinning the shaft faster for any given power reduces the torque, in an era when gasoline was cheap and cars were heavy, the mechanical advantages of the FR drivetrain layout made up for any disadvantage in weight terms. It remained almost universal among car designs until the 1970s, after the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV-van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream, chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GMs American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Corvette, Firebird and Camaro. This configuration is referred to as a transaxle since the transmission. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf, upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s, toyotas first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR, luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subarus BRZ is an FR car, currently most cars are FF, including all front-engined economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles. In North America, GM returned to production of FR-based luxury vehicles with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, as of 2012, all but the SRX and XTS are FR-based vehicles. Chevrolet reintroduced the FR-based Camaro in 2009, and the Caprice PPV in 2011, Pontiac also had a short run with the FR-based G8 and Pontiac Solstice. A Chevrolet replacement for the G8 called the Chevrolet SS was released in 2013, chrysler and Dodge reintroduced the 300 and Charger on a FR platform
Front engine, rear-wheel drive layout
–
FF layout
39.
Transaxle
–
Many mid- and rear-engined vehicles use a transverse engine and transaxle, similar to a front wheel drive unit. Front-engine, rear-wheel drive vehicles tend to have the transmission up front just after the engine and this is generally done for reasons of weight distribution, and is therefore common on sports cars. Another advantage is that as the spins at engine speed it only has to endure the torque of the engine. This design was pioneered in the 1934 Škoda Popular, and then in the 1950 Lancia Aurelia, since this placement of the gearbox is unsuitable for a live axle, the rear suspension is either independent, or uses a de Dion tube. Rare exceptions to this rule were the Bugatti T46 and T50 which had a three speed gearbox on a live axle and this is mounted immediately behind the front-mounted engine and contains the gearbox, along with both the centre differential, and the front differential and final drive unit. Hybrid Synergy Drive Axle Transmission Differential Powertrain Drivetrain Transfer case
Transaxle
–
Csonka transaxle from 1908.
40.
Dauer Sportwagen
–
Dauer Sportwagen GmbH was a German automotive company founded by former racing driver Jochen Dauer in Nuremberg. Once changing to Dauer Sportwagen, the company sold a continuation of the Bugatti EB110, the company went bankrupt in 2008 and parts for the EB110 were transferred to Toscana-Motors GmbH. For several years, Jochen Dauer had run for a number of teams, mainly in the Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft and its successor championship, Dauer Racing purchased John Fitzpatricks successful team, including all racing cars, team transporters and equipment at the end of 1986. Dauer also purchased a Zakspeed C1/8, Dauer was able to secure sponsorship from the Victor Computer company, and confirmed a full-season campaign in the Supercup for the 962C, while the Zakspeed car would run in the Interserie. Jochen Dauer was the driver of the machines in both championships. Towards the end of 1987, Dauer also chose to enter the World Sports-Prototype Championship, with Johnny Dumfries, Jochen Dauer won the Interserie drivers championship for the year. In 1989, Dauer Racing chose to fully on the World Championship and Supercup. Franz Konrad remained as the co-driver initially, but was replaced by Will Hoy. Tic Tacs replaced Victor Computer as the primary sponsor. Dauer Racing struggled in the World Championship, finishing one race in which they competed in. In Supercup however, the finished second in the championship behind the dominant Joest Racing squad, although no victories were earned during the year. By 1990, the Supercup championship had been canceled, both squads struggled to complete races eventually withdrew from their respective championships before the year was completed. Strapped for cash, Dauer Racing made an effort at the 24 Hours of Daytona in 1991. One car was driven by Mario, Michael, and Jeff Andretti to a fifth-place finish overall, while the other featured Al, Al Jr. Bobby, after this, Dauer Racing withdrew from motorsport. Shortly after Dauer Racing was closed, Jochen Dauer began work on converting a Porsche 962 so that it could be used by the public on the street, Dauer Sportwagen was created from the remnants of Dauer Racing, and conversion of Porsche 962 chassis #169 began. By the Frankfurt Auto Show of 1993, the first Dauer 962 Le Mans was completed, Porsche assisted in providing numerous customer parts that had been developed for the 962, as well as assistance in developing new parts necessary to make the 962 legal for the streets. Running the Dauer 962s under a different class allowed it to use a fuel tank. Successfully completed by June 1994, the two chassis were entered by the factory Porsche team, running in a production-based classification thanks to new regulations
Dauer Sportwagen
–
A Dauer EB110 SS, featuring an unpainted
carbon fiber body
41.
Diagram
–
A diagram is a symbolic representation of information according to some visualization technique. Diagrams have been used since ancient times, but became prevalent during the Enlightenment. Sometimes, the uses a three-dimensional visualization which is then projected onto a two-dimensional surface. The word graph is used as a synonym for diagram. Specific kind of display, This is the genre that shows qualitative data with shapes that are connected by lines, arrows. In science the term is used in both ways, on the other hand, Lowe defined diagrams as specifically abstract graphic portrayals of the subject matter they represent. Or in Halls words diagrams are simplified figures, caricatures in a way and these simplified figures are often based on a set of rules. The basic shape according to White can be characterized in terms of elegance, clarity, ease, pattern, simplicity, elegance is basically determined by whether or not the diagram is the simplest and most fitting solution to a problem. g. Many of these types of diagrams are generated using diagramming software such as Visio. Chart Diagrammatic reasoning Diagrammatology List of graphical methods Mathematical diagram Plot commons, michael Anderson, Peter Cheng, Volker Haarslev. Theory and Application of Diagrams, First International Conference, Diagrams 2000, edinburgh, Scotland, UK, September 1–3,2000. Garcia, M The Diagrams of Architecture
Diagram
–
Sample
flowchart representing the
decision process to add a new article to Wikipedia.
42.
24 Hours of Le Mans
–
The 24 Hours of Le Mans is the worlds oldest active sports car race in endurance racing, held annually since 1923 near the town of Le Mans, France. It is one of the most prestigious races in the world and is often called the Grand Prix of Endurance. The event represents one leg of the Triple Crown of Motorsport, other events being the Indianapolis 500, since 2012, the 24 Hours of Le Mans has been a part of the FIA World Endurance Championship. In 2017, it will be the round of the season. The race has over the years inspired imitating races all over the globe, popularizing the 24-hour format at places like Daytona, Nürburgring, Spa-Francorchamps, and Bathurst. The American Le Mans Series and Europes Le Mans Series of multi-event sports car championships were spun off from 24 Hours of Le Mans regulations. At a time when Grand Prix motor racing was the dominant form of motorsport throughout Europe, Le Mans was designed to present a different test. Instead of focusing on the ability of a car company to build the fastest machines and this encouraged innovation in producing reliable and fuel-efficient vehicles, because endurance racing requires cars that last and spend as little time in the pits as possible. At the same time, the layout of the track necessitated cars with better aerodynamics, while this was shared with Grand Prix racing, few tracks in Europe had straights of a length comparable to the Mulsanne. Additionally, because the road is public and thus not as meticulously maintained as permanent racing circuits, racing puts more strain on the parts, increasing the importance of reliability. The oil crisis in the early 1970s led organizers to adopt a fuel economy formula known as Group C that limited the amount of each car was allowed. Although it was abandoned, fuel economy remains important as new fuel sources reduced time spent during pit stops. Such technological innovations have had an effect and can be incorporated into consumer cars. This has also led to faster and more exotic supercars as manufacturers seek to develop road cars in order to develop them into even faster GT cars. Additionally, in recent years hybrid systems have been championed in the LMP category as rules have changed to their benefit. The race is held in June, leading at times to very hot conditions for drivers, particularly in closed vehicles with poor ventilation, the race begins in mid-afternoon and finishes the following day at the same hour the race started the previous day. Over the 24 hours, modern competitors often cover distances well over 5,000 km, the record is 2010s 5,410 km, six times the length of the Indianapolis 500, or approximately 18 times longer than a Formula One Grand Prix. Drivers and racing teams strive for speed and avoiding damage, as well as managing the cars consumables, primarily fuel, tires
24 Hours of Le Mans
–
The
pits at dawn
24 Hours of Le Mans
–
24 Hours of Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans
–
A
BMW M3 GT2 at the 24 Hours of Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans
–
Rolling start of the
2008 race
43.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
44.
Volkswagen AG
–
Volkswagen Group, or Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft, shortly VW AG, is a German multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. It designs, manufactures and distributes passenger and commercial vehicles, motorcycles, engines, in 2016, it was the largest automaker in the world with sales of 10.3 million units, overtaking Toyota. It has maintained the largest market share in Europe for over two decades and it ranked seventh in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds largest companies. It is divided into two divisions, the Automotive Division and the Financial Services Division, and has approximately 340 subsidiary companies. VW also has two major joint-ventures in China, the company has operations in approximately 150 countries and operates 100 production facilities across 27 countries. Volkswagen was founded in 1937 to manufacture the car which would become known as the Beetle, the companys production grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and in 1965 it acquired Auto Union, which subsequently produced the first post-war Audi models. Volkswagen launched a new generation of front-wheel drive vehicles in the 1970s, including the Passat, Polo and Golf, the companys operations in China have grown rapidly in the past decade with the country becoming its largest market. It has been traded in the United States via American Depositary Receipts since 1988, Volkswagen delisted from the London Stock Exchange in 2013. The state of Lower Saxony holds 12. 7% of the companys shares, Volkswagen held a 19. 9% non-controlling shareholding in Suzuki between 2009 and 2015. An international arbitration court ordered Volkswagen to sell the back to Suzuki. Suzuki paid $3. 8bn to complete the stock buy-back just hours prior to a scandal about emissions violations engulfing Volkswagen. Volkswagen was founded on 28 May 1937 in Berlin as the Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH by the National Socialist Deutsche Arbeitsfront. The purpose of the company was to manufacture the Volkswagen car, originally referred to as the Porsche Type 60, then the Volkswagen Type 1 and this vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Porsches consulting firm, and the company was backed by the support of Adolf Hitler. On 16 September 1938, Gezuvor was renamed Volkswagenwerk GmbH, only a small number of Type 60 Volkswagens were made during this time. The Fallersleben plant also manufactured the V-1 flying bomb, making the plant a major bombing target for the Allied forces, however, no British car manufacturer was interested, the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car. It is quite unattractive to the average buyer, to build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise. In 1948, the Ford Motor Company of USA was offered Volkswagen, but Ernest Breech, as part of the Industrial plans for Germany, large parts of German industry, including Volkswagen, were to be dismantled. Total German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers
Volkswagen AG
–
Volkswagen Headquarters
Volkswagen AG
–
Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft
Volkswagen AG
–
A 1951
Volkswagen Beetle
Volkswagen AG
–
The
Audi F103, in production from 1965 to 1972
45.
Bugatti Automobiles
–
Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. is a French high-performance luxury automobiles manufacturer and a subsidiary of Volkswagen AG, with its head office and assembly plant in Molsheim, Alsace, France. Volkswagen purchased the Bugatti trademark in June 1998 and incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. in 1999. Bugatti presented several concept cars between 1998 and 2000 before commencing development of its first production model, the Veyron 16.4, at the urging of then-chairman Ferdinand Piëch, Volkswagen purchased the rights to produce cars under the Bugatti marque in June 1998. This followed the earlier Volkswagen purchases of the Lamborghini marque, the Rolls-Royce factory in Crewe, United Kingdom, on 22 December 2000, Volkswagen officially incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. with former VW drivetrain chief Karl-Heinz Neumann as president. The company purchased the 1856 Château Saint Jean, formerly Ettore Bugattis guest house in Dorlisheim, near Molsheim, the original factory was still in the hands of Snecma, who were unwilling to part with it. At the Pebble Beach Concours dElegance in August 2000, VW announced that they would build a new modern atelier next to. The atelier was officially inaugurated on 3 September 2005, Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen AG After the Veyrons discontinuation in 2014, the new Bugatti model was revealed to be the Chiron in 2016. Volkswagen commissioned Italdesigns Giorgetto Giugiaro to design a series of cars to return the marque to prominence. The first example, the EB118, was a two-door coupé and was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in 1998 and it was followed by the four-door EB218 touring sedan, introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in 1999. Later that year, the 18/3 Chiron was shown at the IAA in Frankfurt, Volkswagen designed the final Bugatti concept, the EB 18/4 GT in house. Bugatti introduced the EB 18/4 at the 1999 Tokyo Motor Show, all of these early concepts featured a 555 PS 18-cylinder engine. This was the first-ever W-configuration engine on a vehicle, with three blocks of 6 cylinders each. It shared many components with Volkswagens modular engine family, the 16C Galibier was first unveiled during Celebration of the Centenary of the Marque in Molsheim. The presentation was only for Bugatti customers, the car show in Molsheim showed the car in blue carbon fibre and aluminum parts. One year later Bugatti showed the world the 16C Galibier Concept at VW Group Night at the Geneva Auto Show in a new black and aluminum color combination. The Galibier, a 1000 HP sedan, was first shown as a concept in 2010 and it would use the same 16-cylinder 8. 0-litre engine as the Veyron but instead of four turbos, the 16C Galibier would instead use two superchargers to deliver better torque. Production would require new facilities in Molsheim, France, to be refitted, in 2013 it was announced that the car will never be produced as they wish to focus on a Veyron replacement. In the 1980s the Bugatti brand was back as Bugatti Automobili S. p. A. in Italy
Bugatti Automobiles
–
Veyron 16.4
Bugatti Automobiles
–
The Bugatti Logo
46.
Bugatti Chiron
–
The Bugatti Chiron is a mid-engined, two-seated sports car, developed and manufactured in Molsheim, France, by Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. as the successor to the Bugatti Veyron. The Chiron was first shown at the Geneva Motor Show on March 1,2016, the car is named in honor of the Monegasque driver Louis Chiron. The main carryover piece will be the 8-litre W16 quad-turbocharged engine, the Chiron has 1,103 kW of power and 1,600 N·m of torque starting from 2000 rpm. Like its predecessor, the Veyron, it has a carbon fibre structure, independent suspension. The carbon fibre body has a stiffness of 50,000 Nm per degree, the Chiron will accelerate from 0–97 km/h in under 2.5 seconds according to the manufacturer, 0–200 km/h in under 6.5 seconds and 0–300 km/h in under 13.6 seconds. The Chirons top speed is limited to 262 mph for safety reasons. The anticipated full top speed of the Bugatti Chiron is believed to be around 463 km/h and its predecessor makes almost 220 kW less than the new Chiron. The Chiron was an instant success when it was released, with 200 units having been sold before the first delivery of the car. The base price is €2,400,000, and buyers are required to place a €200,000 deposit on the car before retrieving it, Bugatti 16C Galibier Bugatti Vision Gran Turismo Official website
Bugatti Chiron
–
Bugatti 18/3 Chiron
47.
Bugatti EB 218
–
The Bugatti EB218 4-door sedan is the second concept car presented by Bugatti under ownership of the Volkswagen Auto Group. The EB218 was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro, who designed the EB112, the cars predecessor and the EB118. The EB218 can be considered as an update of the EB112, the EB218 features Volkswagens unconventional W18 engine and permanent four-wheel drive borrowed from the Lamborghini Diablo VT. Bugatti commissioned Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign to update the EB112 4-door sedan concept that he designed for Bugatti Automobili SpA in 1993, the EB218s wheelbase measures 3 meters and a total length of 5385 mm. This makes the EB218 longer that the EB112 by 315 millimeters, the most notable visual differences between the EB218 and the EB112 is a redesigned hood, bumpers and lights. The overall design is far less controversial than the EB 112s Droopy hatchback-sedan look and has a more of a typical sedan shape rather than the EB 112s hatchback-sedan shape. The interior design is simple yet extremely luxurious, with beige leather seats. The EB218 draws inspiration from the classic Bugatti Type 101 Berline Tourisme, Bugatti debuted the EB218 at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show, one year after its 2-door counterpart was revealed at the 1998 Paris Auto Show. The EB218 uses the same W18 engine and permanent four wheel drive powertrain that debuted in the 1998 EB118, the same technology was used in the 1999 18/3 Chiron concept car. Power comes from a Volkswagen-designed,555 hp and 479 lb·ft and this engine design was extremely unconventional due to the unusual firing order of the engine. The EB218 W18 engine is composed of three banks of six cylinders with a sixty degree offset between each cylinder bank, in contrast, the W16 engine in Bugattis first production car, the 2005 Veyron EB16.4 features four banks of four cylinders. The EB218 features permanent all-wheel drive taken from the Lamborghini Diablo VT supercar
Bugatti EB 218
–
Bugatti EB218
48.
Bugatti 18/3 Chiron
–
The Bugatti 18/3 Chiron is a 1999 concept car by Bugatti Automobiles designed by Fabrizio Giugiaro of Italdesign. Powered by a 6.3 L W18 engine, it is a 2-seater mid-engined sports car, Bugatti named the Chiron in honor of Bugatti racing driver Louis Chiron. The 18/3 Chiron was the last in a trio of Bugatti concept cars by Italdesign, after the 1998 EB118 coupé, the Chiron name was used again on the 2016 successor to the Bugatti Veyron. The 18/3 Chiron is named after Bugatti race driver Louis Chiron, the Bugatti 18/3 Chiron premiered at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 1999. Fabrizio Giugiaro of Italdesign was responsible for the design input from Hartmut Warkuss from the Volkswagen design centre in Wolfsburg. In creating a successor to the EB110, they had the unique opportunity to style Bugattis flagship model. Airflow management and aerodynamics were key considerations in the exterior design, a similar system is used on the side of the car to cool the rear brakes. At the rear a diffuser was integrated in the rear bumper, a retractable rear wing deploys at high speeds, much like on the EB110. The 20-inch eight-spoke wheels resemble the cast aluminium wheels first found on Louis Chirons Type 35B, lighting on both ends of the car was cutting edge, including triple Xenon headlights and elongated turn signals. Inside the cabin is upholstered in Blu Pacifico and Sabbia leather, in order to make it fully working, the 18/3 Chiron used a chassis and four-wheel drive system sourced from the Lamborghini Diablo VT. The 18/3 Chiron uses the same Volkswagen-designed W18 engine that first appeared on the 1998 EB118, as on the other two cars, the Chirons W18 has an output of 1,600 PS and 1,380 N·m of torque. The 18/3 Chirons W18 engine is composed of three banks of six cylinders with a sixty degree offset between each cylinder bank. In contrast, the W16 engine in Bugatti Automobiles first production car, Bugatti 18/3 Chiron on the Italdesign Giugiaro official website
Bugatti 18/3 Chiron
–
Bugatti 18/3 Chiron
49.
Bugatti 16C Galibier
–
The Bugatti 16C Galibier is a luxury 5-door fastback concept car built by Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. It was unveiled at a show held at the Molsheim. The 16C Galibier was to use a front-mounted,8.0 L twin-supercharged W16 engine delivering power via permanent all-wheel drive, there are many contradictory reports as to the reasoning for the axing of the Galibier. The 16C Galibier name is a reference to the Bugatti Type 57 Galibier, Bugatti traditionally gave Type 57 variants names that referred to mountain passes. Galibier refers to Frances Col du Galibier, the 16C refers to the engines 16 cylinders. The 16C Galibier features a hood which opens in two parts along a central hinge, the 16C Galibier features the longitudinal rib also seen on the previous EB118 and EB218 concepts that references the longitudinal body seam of the Type 57SC Atlantic. Debuted the Bugatti 16C Galibier 5-door fastback concept at a show held at the Molsheim. The 16C Galibier was first shown to the public at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show. The 16C Galibier uses a front-mounted,8.0 L twin-supercharged W16 engine that delivers power via permanent four-wheel drive, the engine is derived from the quad-turbocharged unit used in the Bugatti Veyron. It will also incorporate an option for a hybrid powertrain, primarily to reduce pollution in urbanised environments, performance figures have not been specified, but it has a power output in excess of 1,000 bhp while surpassing speeds of 235 mph. A production version of the 16C Galibier concept, expected to be named the Royale, was scheduled to reach the market in 2013. In 2011, Bugatti postponed the release of the Royale to 2015 or later to refine the vehicles design, Bugatti was expected to produce 3000 units of the Galibier compared to 300 of the Veyron. It was also expected to cost more than £1 million, in an interview with Top Gear, President of Bugatti Dr. Wolfgang Schreiber said that Bugatti will never manufacture Galibier nor SuperVeyron because it will confuse their customers. The newest 2009 Bugatti 16C Galibier blueprints Bugatti Galibier 16C Photographs
Bugatti 16C Galibier
50.
Bugatti Type 13
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The Type 13 was the first true Bugatti car. Production of the Type 13 and later Types 15,17,22, most road cars used an eight-valve engine, though five Type 13 racers had 16-valve heads, some of the first ever produced. The road cars became known as pur-sang in keeping with Ettore Bugattis feelings for his designs, the car was brought back after World War I with a multi-valve engine to bring fame to the marque at Brescia. The production Brescia tourer also brought in much-needed cash, the Bugatti automobile was prototyped as the Type 10 in Ettore Bugattis basement in 1908 and 1909 while he was chief engineer at Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik in Cologne, Germany. The Type 10 used a monobloc engine of Ettores own design. It was an overhead cam unit with two valves per cylinder, which was advanced for the time. A very-undersquare design, it had a 60 mm bore and 100 mm stroke for a total of 1.1 L and this was attached to an open roadster body with solid axles front and rear. Leaf springs suspended the front with no suspension at all in the rear, after World War I, Alsace became a part of France again, and with it Bugatti. The car was preserved and nicknamed la baignoire by the staff at Molsheim in later years due to its shape, Ettore restored it in 1939 and repainted it an orange-red color, earning it a new nickname, le homard. It was moved to Bordeaux for the duration of World War II, today, the car is in California in the hands of a private collector. Upon starting operations at his new factory in Molsheim, Bugatti refined his light shaft-driven car into the Type 13 racer and this included boring the engine out to 65 mm for a total of 1.4 L. A major advance was the 4-valve head Bugatti designed — one of the first of its type ever conceived, power output with dual Zenith Carburetters reached 30 hp at 4500 rpm, more than adequate for the 660 lb car. Leaf springs were now fitted all around, and the car rode on a roughly 2 m wheelbase, the new company produced five examples in 1910, and entered the French Grand Prix at Le Mans in 1911. The tiny Bugatti looked out of place at the race, World War I caused production to halt in the disputed region. Ettore took two completed Type 13 cars with him to Milan for the duration of the war, leaving the parts for three more buried near the factory, after the war, Bugatti returned, unearthed the parts, and prepared five Type 13s for racing. The Type 15 was a version of the Type 13 with a longer,2400 mm and it had a six-sided radiator in front and semi-elliptic rear leaf springs. Another version, the Type 17, was also produced and this used a 2550 mm wheelbase. It shared its hexagonal radiator and rear springs with the Type 15, the Type 15 was updated in 1913 as the Type 22
Bugatti Type 13
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Bugatti Type 13 Brescia Sport-Racing 1922
Bugatti Type 13
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Bugatti 1913, model T22, 3 seat vinet boday
Bugatti Type 13
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Bugatti Type 23 Brescia two-Seater Boattail 1921
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Romano Artioli
Volkswagen Group
Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.
