1.
Allegheny Center (Pittsburgh)
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Allegheny Center is a neighborhood on Pittsburghs North Side. Its zip code is 15212, and it has representation on Pittsburgh City Council by both council members for District 6 and District 1, in 1783, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania established a 3000-acre tract of land north of where the Allegheny River merged with the Ohio River. John Redick created a town plan for Allegheny City- which featured 36 city blocks surrounded by a common grazing area - the following year. That initial 36-block area is todays Allegheny Center and it is still surrounded on three sides by the former grazing area, now a public park called Allegheny Commons. On either side of park are the neighborhoods of Allegheny West and East Allegheny. The main thoroughfare was East Ohio Street, which stretched from Allegheny West through Allegheny Center and then to Allegheny East, from the 19th century to 1907, Allegheny Center was thus the hub of downtown Allegheny City. The Childrens Museum of Pittsburgh is located within it, as is the old Carnegie Free Library of Allegheny, Allegheny Center is also home to the National Aviary, situated within West Park. After 1907, this continued to be a hub for those residents of what was now Pittsburghs North Side. In the 1950s, community leaders discussed how to revitalize the historic hub of Allegheny City, designed by architects Deeter & Ritchey, it involved a $65 million project by Alcoa Properties, Inc. The public square was the object of a design competition sponsored by the Pittsburgh Urban Redevelopment Authority. The entire Allegheny Redevelopment Area encompasses approximately 79 acres on the North Side, the central portion of East Ohio Street was closed, and drivers were forced to take a new ring road around the mall and the other blocks of Redicks initial plan to proceed east or west. The mall, opened in 1965 and anchored by Sears, F. W, the malls stores began closing in the 1990s, and the mall gradually became a successful office complex. While there are businesses that serve the office workers in the former mall. A former business district along North Avenue in Central Northside, which deteriorated along with Allegheny Center, Allegheny West Central Northside East Allegheny North Shore List of Pittsburgh neighborhoods Toker, Franklin. Allegheny Center Childrens Museum of Pittsburgh history History of the Buhl Planetarium
2.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
3.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Classical architecture
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Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in all be said to draw on a common vocabulary of decorative and constructive elements. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture and it can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from traditional or vernacular architecture, for contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on, the first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense, nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture and this broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, during these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance. Neoclassical architecture held a strong position on the architectural scene c. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased to be practised, as noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Furthermore, it can even be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. And not everyone within the reach of Mediterranean civilization made this transition. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone
6.
Zeiss projector
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A Zeiss projector is one of a line of planetarium projectors manufactured by the Carl Zeiss Company. The first modern planetarium projectors were designed and built in 1924 by the Zeiss Works of Jena, Zeiss projectors are designed to sit in the middle of a dark, dome-covered room and project an accurate image of the stars and other astronomical objects on the dome. They are generally large, complicated, and imposing machines, the first Zeiss Mark I projector was installed in the Deutsches Museum in Munich in August,1923. It possessed a distinctive appearance, with a sphere of projection lenses supported above a large. Marks II through VI were similar in appearance, using two spheres of star projectors separated along an axis that contained projectors for the planets. Beginning with Mark VII, the axis was eliminated and the two spheres were merged into a single, egg-shaped projection unit. The Mark I was created in 1923–1924 and was the worlds first modern planetarium projector, the Mark II was developed during the 1930s jointly by Carl Zeiss AG factories in Jena and Oberkochen. Following WWII and the division of Germany, each developed its own line of projectors. Marks III – VI were developed in Oberkochen from 1957–1989, meanwhile, the East German facility in Jena developed the ZKP projector line. The Mark VII was developed in 1993 and was the first joint project of the two Zeiss factories following German reunification, as of 2011, Zeiss currently manufactures three main models of planetarium projectors. The Starmaster line of projectors are designed for smaller domes than the Universarium, between 1923 and 2011, Zeiss manufactured a total of 631 projectors. Therefore, the table is highly incomplete. List of planetariums Planetarium Planetarium Jena Walther Bauersfeld Zeiss Planetariums
7.
Foucault pendulum
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The Foucault pendulum, or Foucaults pendulum, named after the French physicist Léon Foucault, is a simple device conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. While it had long known that the Earth rotates, the introduction of the Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first simple proof of the rotation in an easy-to-see experiment. Today, Foucault pendulums are popular displays in museums and universities. The first public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum took place in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory. A few weeks later, Foucault made his most famous pendulum when he suspended a 28-kg brass-coated lead bob with a 67-m-long wire from the dome of the Panthéon, Paris. The plane of the pendulums swing rotated clockwise approximately 11. 3° per hour, the original bob used in 1851 at the Panthéon was moved in 1855 to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. A second temporary installation was made for the 50th anniversary in 1902, during museum reconstruction in the 1990s, the original pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon, but was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers before it reopened in 2000. On April 6,2010, the cable suspending the bob in the Musée des Arts et Métiers snapped, causing damage to the pendulum. An exact copy of the pendulum had been swinging permanently since 1995 under the dome of the Panthéon. The pendulum has since been reinstalled, so, relative to Earth, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum at the North Pole undergoes a full clockwise rotation during one day, a pendulum at the South Pole rotates counterclockwise. When a Foucault pendulum is suspended at the equator, the plane of oscillation remains fixed relative to Earth, for example, a Foucault pendulum at 30° south latitude, viewed from above by an earthbound observer, rotates counterclockwise 360° in two days. To demonstrate rotation directly rather than indirectly via the swinging pendulum, the instrument could be observed either with a microscope viewing a tenth of a degree scale or by a long pointer. At least three copies of a Foucault gyro were made in convenient travelling and demonstration boxes and copies survive in the UK, France. A Foucault pendulum requires care to set up because imprecise construction can cause additional veering which masks the terrestrial effect, a pendulum day is the time needed for the plane of a freely suspended Foucault pendulum to complete an apparent rotation about the local vertical. This is one day divided by the sine of the latitude. From the perspective of a frame moving in tandem with Earth, but not sharing its rotation. If the plane of swing was north-south at the outset, it is east-west one sidereal day later and this implies that there has been exchange of momentum, the Earth and the pendulum bob have exchanged momentum. The Earth is so much more massive than the pendulum bob that the Earths change of momentum is unnoticeable, nonetheless, since the pendulum bobs plane of swing has shifted, the conservation laws imply that an exchange must have occurred
8.
Heliostat
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The target may be a physical object, distant from the heliostat, or a direction in space. To do this, the surface of the mirror is kept perpendicular to the bisector of the angle between the directions of the sun and the target as seen from the mirror. In almost every case, the target is stationary relative to the heliostat, according to contemporary sources the heliostata, as it was called at first, was invented by Willem s Gravesande. Other contenders are Giovanni Alonso Borelli and Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, nowadays, most heliostats are used for daylighting or for the production of concentrated solar power, usually to generate electricity. They are also used in solar cooking. A few are used experimentally, or to reflect beams of sunlight into solar telescopes. Before the availability of lasers and other lights, heliostats were widely used to produce intense, stationary beams of light for scientific. Most modern heliostats are controlled by computers, the computer is given the latitude and longitude of the heliostats position on the earth and the time and date. From these, using astronomical theory, it calculates the direction of the sun as seen from the mirror, e. g. its compass bearing and this sequence of operations is repeated frequently to keep the mirror properly oriented. Large installations such as power stations include fields of heliostats comprising many mirrors. Usually, all the mirrors in such a field are controlled by a single computer, there are older types of heliostat which do not use computers, including ones that are partly or wholly operated by hand or by clockwork, or are controlled by light-sensors. Heliostats should be distinguished from solar trackers or sun-trackers that point directly at the sun in the sky, however, some older types of heliostat incorporate solar trackers, together with additional components to bisect the sun-mirror-target angle. A siderostat is a device which is designed to follow a fainter star. The medium travels through a heat exchanger to heat water, produce steam, a somewhat different arrangement of heliostats in a field is used at experimental solar furnaces, such as the one at Odeillo, in France. All the heliostat mirrors send accurately parallel beams of light into a large paraboloidal reflector which brings them to a precise focus. The mirrors have to be located close enough to the axis of the paraboloid to reflect sunlight into it along lines parallel to the axis, a closed loop control system is used. Sensors determine if any of the heliostats is slightly misaligned, if so, they send signals to correct it. It has been proposed that the high temperatures generated could be used to water producing hydrogen sustainably
9.
Miniature Railroad & Village
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The Miniature Railroad & Village is one of the largest and most detailed model train layouts in the United States. It depicts Western Pennsylvania from 1880 to 1930, located at the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the MRRV has been a Pittsburgh tradition for over 50 years. The exhibit dates back to late in the decade of the 20th century. Charles Bowdish of Brookville, Pennsylvania, was a soldier in World War I, when doctors discovered a congenital heart problem, he was honorably discharged from service and sent home, where he began to build models of structures around Brookville, his hometown. Every Christmas, in his home on Creek Street, the buildings were assembled in a display, on Christmas Eve 1920, Charles hosted his brothers wedding and reception, and entertained the guests by running his train display. One of the guests, Alfred Truman, asked if he could bring some friends over to see it—word quickly spread, because of this, Christmas Eve 1920 is considered to be the birth date of the exhibit. Bowdish soon began setting up and exhibiting his railroad yearly at Christmas time in his house, each year there would be a different theme, such as White Christmas or Indian Summer. The railroad spanned the entire floor, and no admission fee was ever charged. Thousands of people saw it over the years, some coming from other countries, a combination of a flood nearly destroying his stored models, and his insurance company refusing to cover the crowds anymore, forced Charles to begin searching for a new home for his work. He originally offered it to Brookville, but the town declined, eventually he offered it to the Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science in Pittsburgh. The Buhl offered him space, opening there on December 1,1954, during the 31-day period, figures showed that 23,885 visitors viewed the layout. It was originally 14 X14, and was called The Great Christmastown Railroad and it was renamed The Miniature Railroad & Village in 1957. The exhibit was an instant hit, and was and still is one of the major attractions in Pittsburgh. The MRRV was in the basement, and the queue would at times extend out the front door and around the block, eventually the dates it was open would be the first weekend of November to the last weekend of February. It was then torn down and stored until next year because the space had to be used for the science fair. On January 1,1987, the Buhl officially became a part of the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, the Buhl staff had been wanting to expand the science center so they could bring in large travelling exhibits, and create more of their own. Joining the Carnegie allowed them to have the resources to do it, Buhl closed on August 31,1991, and Carnegie Science Center opened on October 5,1991. A whole new building allowed the museum to dedicate a room just to the MRRV, the new and expanded Miniature Railroad & Village opened in the Fall of 1992
10.
History of Pittsburgh
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The history of Pittsburgh began with centuries of Native American civilization in the modern Pittsburgh region, known as Dionde, gâ in the Seneca language. Eventually French and British explorers encountered the strategic confluence where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers meet to form the Ohio, the area became a battleground when France and Britain fought for control in the 1750s. When the British were victorious, the French ceded control of territories east of the Mississippi, following American independence in 1783, the village around Fort Pitt continued to grow. The region saw the short-lived Whiskey Rebellion, when farmers rebelled against federal taxes on whiskey, the War of 1812 cut off the supply of British goods, stimulating American manufacture. By 1815, Pittsburgh was producing large quantities of iron, brass, tin, by the 1840s, Pittsburgh had grown to one of the largest cities west of the Allegheny Mountains. Production of steel began in 1875, during the 1877 railway riots it was the site of the most violence and damage in any city affected by the nationwide strikes of that summer. Workers protested against cuts in wages, burning buildings at the railyards, including 100 train engines. Forty men were killed, most of them strikers, by 1911, Pittsburgh was producing half the nations steel. Pittsburgh was a Republican party stronghold until 1932, in World War II, it was the center of the Arsenal of Democracy, producing munitions for the Allied war effort as prosperity returned. Following World War II, Pittsburgh launched an air and civic revitalization project known as the Renaissance. The industrial base continued to expand through the 1960s, but after 1970 foreign competition led to the collapse of the industry, with massive layoffs. Top corporate headquarters moved out in the 1980s, in 2007 the city lost its status as a major transportation hub. The population of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area is holding steady at 2.4 million, 65% of its residents are of European descent, for thousands of years, Native Americans inhabited the region where the Allegheny and the Monongahela join to form the Ohio. Paleo-Indians conducted a hunter-gatherer lifestyle in the region perhaps as early as 19,000 years ago, meadowcroft Rockshelter, an archaeological site west of Pittsburgh, provides evidence that these first Americans lived in the region from that date. During the Adena culture that followed, Mound Builders erected a large Indian Mound at the site of McKees Rocks. The Indian Mound, a site, was augmented in later years by members of the Hopewell culture. By 1700 the Iroquois Confederacy, the Five Nations-based south of the Great Lakes in present-day New York, held dominion over the upper Ohio valley, reserving it for hunting grounds. Other tribes included the Lenape, who had displaced from eastern Pennsylvania by European settlement, and the Shawnee
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