1.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
2.
Star formation
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Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in interstellar space, sometimes referred to as stellar nurseries or star-forming regions, fuse to form stars. It is closely related to formation, another branch of astronomy. Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a star, must also account for the statistics of binary stars. In June 2015, astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z =6.60, a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way contains stars, stellar remnants, and a diffuse interstellar medium of gas and dust. The interstellar medium consists of 10−4 to 106 particles per cm3 and is composed of roughly 70% hydrogen by mass. This medium has been enriched by trace amounts of heavier elements that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their main sequence lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or diffuse nebulae, in the dense nebulae where stars are produced, much of the hydrogen is in the molecular form, so these nebulae are called molecular clouds. These giant molecular clouds have densities of 100 particles per cm3, diameters of 100 light-years, masses of up to 6 million solar masses. About half the mass of the galactic ISM is found in molecular clouds and in the Milky Way there are an estimated 6,000 molecular clouds. The nearest nebula to the Sun where massive stars are being formed is the Orion nebula,1,300 ly away, however, lower mass star formation is occurring about 400–450 light years distant in the ρ Ophiuchi cloud complex. A more compact site of formation is the opaque clouds of dense gas and dust known as Bok globules. These can form in association with collapsing molecular clouds or possibly independently, the Bok globules are typically up to a light year across and contain a few solar masses. They can be observed as dark clouds silhouetted against bright emission nebulae or background stars, over half the known Bok globules have been found to contain newly forming stars. An interstellar cloud of gas will remain in equilibrium as long as the kinetic energy of the gas pressure is in balance with the potential energy of the internal gravitational force. Mathematically this is expressed using the theorem, which states that, to maintain equilibrium. If a cloud is massive enough that the gas pressure is insufficient to support it, the mass above which a cloud will undergo such collapse is called the Jeans mass. The Jeans mass depends on the temperature and density of the cloud and this coincides with the typical mass of an open cluster of stars, which is the end product of a collapsing cloud. In triggered star formation, one of several events occur to compress a molecular cloud
3.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
4.
Rebar
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Rebars surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the concrete. Rebar has been used in construction since at least the 15th century, more recently, during the 18th century, rebar was used to form the carcass of the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk in Russia, built on the orders of the industrialist Akinfiy Demidov. The cast iron used for the rebar was of high quality, the carcass of the tower was connected to its cast iron tented roof, crowned with one of the first known lightning rods. More recently these techniques have been refined by embedding the steel bars in the concrete, concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concretes behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads, rebar is also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area. Rebar may also be used to other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate their loads. External steel tie bars can constrain and reinforce masonry structures, as illustrated by the Nevyansk Tower or ancient structures in Rome, masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with voids to accommodate rebar and this combination is known as reinforced masonry. Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete, if this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members, or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction, too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard and this phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. This is a problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in winter. Even damaged bars have shown better performance than uncoated reinforcing bars, though issues from debonding of the coating from the bars. These bars are used in over 70,000 bridge decks in the USA, fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is also used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in forms, such as spirals for reinforcing columns, common rods. Most commercially available rebar is made from glass fibre reinforced thermoset resins
5.
Slovakia
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Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Slovakias territory spans about 49,000 square kilometres and is mostly mountainous. The population is over 5 million and comprises mostly ethnic Slovaks, the capital and largest city is Bratislava. The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries, in the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samos Empire and in the 9th century established the Principality of Nitra. In the 10th century, the territory was integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary, which became part of the Habsburg Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a separate Slovak Republic existed in World War II as a client state of Nazi Germany. In 1945, Czechoslovakia was reëstablished under Communist rule as a Soviet satellite, in 1989 the Velvet Revolution ended authoritarian Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The country maintains a combination of economy with universal health care. The country joined the European Union in 2004 and the Eurozone on 1 January 2009, Slovakia is also a member of the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, CERN, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group. The Slovak economy is one of the fastest growing economies in Europe and its legal tender, the Euro, is the worlds 2nd most traded currency. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes, in 2016, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 165 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world. Slovakia is the world’s biggest per-capita car producer with a total of 1,040,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2016 alone, the car industry represents 43 percent of Slovakia’s industrial output, and a quarter of its exports. Radiocarbon datingputs the oldest surviving archaeological artefacts from Slovakia – found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom – at 270,000 BC and these ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia. Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era come from the Prévôt cave near Bojnice, the most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium, discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth-bone, the statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina and these findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe. The Bronze Age in the territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BC
6.
Beacon Hill, Boston
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Beacon Hill is a historic neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Bostons Beacon Hill neighborhood is 9,023 and it is a neighborhood of Federal-style rowhouses and is known for its narrow, gaslit streets and brick sidewalks. Today, Beacon Hill is regarded as one of the most desirable, like many similarly named areas, the neighborhood is named for the location of a former beacon atop the highest point in central Boston. The beacon was used to warn the residents of an invasion, Beacon Hill is bound by Storrow Drive, and Cambridge, Bowdoin, Park and Beacon Streets. It is about one square, and situated along the riverfront of the Charles River Esplanade to the west, just north of Boston Common. The block bound by Beacon, Tremont and Park Streets is included as well, Beacon Hill has three sections, the south slope, the north slope and the Flat of the Hill, which is a level neighborhood built on landfill. It is west of Charles Street and between Beacon Street and Cambridge Street, the name trimount later morphed into Tremont, as in Tremont Street. Between 1807 and 1832 Beacon Hill was reduced from 138 feet in elevation to 80 feet, the shoreline and bodies of water such as the Mill Pond had a massive filling, increasing Bostons land mass by 150%. Charles Street was one of the new roads created from the project, before the hill was reduced substantially, Beacon Hill was located just behind the current site of the Massachusetts State House. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Bostons Beacon Hill neighborhood is 9,023 and this reflects a slight decrease from the 2000 Census. According to 2007-2011 American Community Survey estimates, of the 5,411 households in Beacon Hill,27. 3% were family households and 72.7 were non-family households, of the 1,479 family households 81. 6% were married couple families. 36. 6% of married families were with related children under the age of 18 and 63. 4% were with no related children under age 18. Other family types make up 18. 4% of Beacon Hills population, with 90. 8% being female householder with no husband present, the first European settler was William Blaxton, also spelled Blackstone. In 1625 he built a house and orchard on Beacon Hills south slope, roughly at the location of Beacon, the settlement was a preformal arrangement. In 1630 Boston was settled by the Massachusetts Bay Company, the southwestern slope was used by the city for military drills and livestock grazing. In 1634 a signal beacon was established on the top of the hill, sailors and British soldiers visited the north slope of Beacon Hill during the 17th and 18th centuries. As a result, it became an area for Boston residents. Fringe activities occurred on Mount Whoredom, the backslope of Beacon Hill, Beacon Street was established in 1708 from a cow path to the Boston Common
7.
Construction
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
8.
Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
9.
Sand
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Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt, Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type, i. e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles by mass. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, for example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean. Sand is a non renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand, in terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. An individual particle in this size is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel and silt, a 1953 engineering standard published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. A1938 specification of the United States Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. ISO14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size, very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, and very coarse sand. These sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D, on this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole numbers. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources. The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for their bright, arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content, derived from weathering and erosion of a granitic rock outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum, Sands rich in magnetite are dark to black in color, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived from basaltic with a high olivine content, many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow color. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and other resistant minerals, the study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the origin and kind of transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is weathered from granite or gneiss quartz crystals will be angular. It is called grus in geology or sharp sand in the trade where it is preferred for concrete. Sand that is transported long distances by water or wind will be rounded, people who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles
10.
Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
11.
Building
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A building or edifice is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. To better understand the term building compare the list of nonbuilding structures, Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a division of the human habitat. Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have become objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in planning and building practices has also become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings. The word building is both a noun and a verb also an adverb, the structure itself and the act of making it. As a noun, a building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place, there was a building on the corner. In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building, however, the word structure is used more broadly than building including natural and man-made formations and does not necessarily have walls. Structure is more likely to be used for a fence, as a verb, building is the act of construction. Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level, depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included, the definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise. A report by Shinichi Fujimura of a shelter built 500000 years ago is doubtful since Fujimura was later found to have faked many of his findings. Supposed remains of huts found at the Terra Amata site in Nice purportedly dating from 200000 to 400000 years ago have also called into question. There is clear evidence of homebuilding from around 18000 BC, Buildings became common during the Neolithic. Single-family residential buildings are most often called houses or homes, residential buildings containing more than one dwelling unit are called a duplex, apartment building to differentiate them from individual houses. A condominium is an apartment that the occupant owns rather than rents, houses which were built as a single dwelling may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters, they may also be converted to another use e. g. an office or a shop. Building types may range from huts to multimillion-dollar high-rise apartment blocks able to house thousands of people, increasing settlement density in buildings is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. Other common building materials are brick, concrete or combinations of either of these with stone, also if the residents are in need of special care such as a nursing home, orphanage or prison, or in group housing like barracks or dormitories
12.
Carpentry
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Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98. 5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999, Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century and it is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places. The word carpenter is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier which is derived from the Latin carpentrius, the Middle English and Scots word was wright, which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright. An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place, second fix is done after plastering takes place. Second fix work, the construction of such as skirting boards, architraves. Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of such as roads. In the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured, or in situ, although the. work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined. Joiner is less common than the finish carpenter or cabinetmaker. The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically, now used by carpenters who work using traditional methods. Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter, wood is one of mankinds oldest building materials. The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances from the age to the bronze age to the iron age. The oldest surviving, complete text is Vitruvius ten books collectively titled De architectura which discusses some carpentry. By the 16th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe, the founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and these technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing. The 19th century saw the development of engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails. In the 20th century portland cement came into use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also, drywall came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath, plywood, engineered lumber and chemically treated lumber also came into use
13.
Building insulation
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Building insulation refers broadly to any object in a building used as insulation for any purpose. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation. Often an insulation material will be chosen for its ability to perform several of these functions at once, thermal insulation in buildings is an important factor to achieving thermal comfort for its occupants. Insulation reduces unwanted heat loss or gain and can decrease the energy demands of heating and cooling systems and it does not necessarily deal with issues of adequate ventilation and may or may not affect the level of sound insulation. The effectiveness of Reflective Insulation is commonly evaluated by the Reflectivity of the surface with airspace facing to the heat source. The effectiveness of insulation is commonly evaluated by its R-value. For attics, it is recommended that it should be at least R-38, however, an R-value does not take into account the quality of construction or local environmental factors for each building. Construction quality issues include inadequate vapor barriers, and problems with draft-proofing, in addition, the properties and density of the insulation material itself is critical. How much insulation a house should have depends on building design, climate, energy costs, budget, regional climates make for different requirements. Building codes specify only the minimum, insulating beyond what the code requires is often recommended. The insulation strategy of a building needs to be based on a consideration of the mode of energy transfer. This may alter throughout the day and from season to season and it is important to choose an appropriate design, the correct combination of materials and building techniques to suit the particular situation. To determine whether you should add insulation, you first need to find out how much insulation you already have in your home, a qualified home energy auditor will include an insulation check as a routine part of a whole-house energy audit. However, you can perform a self-assessment in certain areas of the home. Here, an inspection, along with use of a ruler. An initial estimate of insulation needs in the United States can be determined by the US Department of Energys ZIP code insulation calculator, in Russia, the availability of abundant and cheap gas has led to poorly insulated, overheated and inefficient consumption of energy. The Russian Center for Energy Efficiency found that Russian buildings are either over- or under-heated,53 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions in Russia are produced through heating and generating electricity for buildings. However, greenhouse gas emissions from the former Soviet Bloc are still below their 1990 levels, in cold conditions, the main aim is to reduce heat flow out of the building
14.
Plumbing
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Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, heating and cooling, waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications. The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes, in the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation. Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers, although they work with piping as part of their trade, standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B. C. The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft, Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years, improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed. Earlier, the disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches, most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960, after that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings. The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning, at this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes. e. Heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport thermal energy, as in district heating systems, a water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal, that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building, as well as inside the building. For many centuries, lead was the material for water pipes. This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood, among these were stillbirths. Lead water pipes were still used in the early 20th century. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, despite the Romans common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, what often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water. This was a result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink
15.
Roofing material
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Domestic roof construction is the framing and roof covering which is found on most suburban detached houses in cold and temperate climates. Such roofs are built with timber, take a number of different shapes. Modern timber roofs are mostly framed with pairs of rafters or prefabricated wooden trusses fastened together with truss connector plates. Timber framed and historic buildings may be framed with principal rafters or timber roof trusses, Roofs are also designated as warm or cold roof depending on how they are designed and built with regard to thermal building insulation and ventilation. The steepness or roof pitch of a roof is determined primarily by the roof covering material. Flat roofs actually slope up to ten degrees to shed water. Flat roofs on houses are found in arid regions. In high wind areas, such as where a cyclone or hurricane may make landfall, every component of the roof, as of course the rest of the structure, has to withstand the uplift forces of high wind speeds. This is accomplished by using metal ties fastened to each rafter or truss and this is not normally a problem in areas not prone to high wind. In the UK, a tiled roof would normally have rafters at 600mm centers, roof battens at 300mm centers. The United States still uses imperial units of measurement and framing members are typically spaced sixteen or twenty-four inches apart, the roof framing may be interrupted for openings such as a chimney or skylight. Chimneys are typically built with a water diverter known as a cricket or saddle above the chimney, flashing is used to seal the gap between the chimney and roofing material. A simple rafter roof consists of rafters that the rafter foot rest on horizontal wall plates on top of each wall, the top ends of the rafters often meet at a ridge beam, but may butt directly to another rafter to form a pair of rafters called a couple. Heavier under purlins or purlin plates are used to support longer rafter spans, tie beams, which may also serve as ceiling joists, are typically connected between the lower ends of opposite rafters to prevent them from spreading and forcing the walls apart. Collar beams or collar ties may be fixed higher up between opposite rafters for extra strength, the rafters, tie beams and plates serve to transmit the weight of the roof to the walls of the building Pre-manufactured roof trusses come in a wide variety of styles. They are designed by the manufacturer for specific building. Timber trusses also are built in a variety of styles using wood or metal joints, heavy timber rafters typically spaced 8 feet to 12 feet apart are called principal rafters. Principal rafters may be mixed with common rafters or carry common purlins, flat roofs may also need to be designed for live loads if people can walk on them
16.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
17.
Home
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It is the largest Federal block grant to States and local governments designed exclusively to create affordable housing for low-income families, providing approximately US$2 billion each year. Its federal identification number, or CFDA number, is 14.239 and it was designed with four main objectives in mind, Expanding the supply of decent and affordable housing in the U. S. Strengthening the abilities of States and local governments to design and implement strategies for achieving adequate supplies of decent, provide financial and technical assistance to States and local governments to develop affordable low-income housing. Extend and strengthen partnerships among all levels of government and the sector in the production and operation of affordable housing. HOME funds can be used in a range of eligible activities. This down payment can be made for the purchase of new housing or for the rehabilitation of the family’s own housing unit. Building or rehabilitation of housing for rent or ownership – In this type of activity, the families would either provide a monthly rent fee or may choose to purchase the housing unit for an affordable price. Site acquisition or improvement – In this type of activity, HOME funds may be used to purchase property which later be developed as affordable housing unit. This activity also covers the improvement and rehabilitation of current affordable housing. Among these eligible activities, HUD has specified that governments can use funds to carry out “other reasonable and necessary expenses related to the development of non-luxury housing. ”The final recipients, otherwise known as beneficiaries, must be, for the most part, low-income families. HUD publishes the area median incomes plus the 80% income limits every year in its website, the program is conducted by non-federal US governmental jurisdictions, such as States, cities, urban counties, and so forth, that receive an allocation of federal benefits from HUD. States are automatically eligible for HOME funds, and each receives a minimum of $3 million for the program, however, federal regulations require that every single government that receives funds must provide 25 cents on their own for every HOME dollar used. However, certain areas may be excluded from this requirement or have the percentage reduced if, in addition to the matching requirement, HUD has established certain earmarking requirements for all governments to follow
18.
Composite material
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The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for reasons, common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter. More recently, researchers have begun to actively include sensing, actuation, computation and communication into composites. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments, the earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. Ancient brick-making was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings, wattle and daub is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old. Concrete is also a material, and is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each year—more than one metre for every person on Earth. 2181–2055 BC and was used for death masks Cob Mud Bricks, concrete was described by Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana, which were volcanic sands from the beds of Pozzuoli brownish-yellow-gray in colour near Naples. Natural cement-stones, after burning, produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into the 20th century, the glass fiber is relatively strong and stiff, whereas the polymer is ductile. Thus the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is a material, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading, therefore, to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete. Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or CFRP, and glass-reinforced plastic or GRP, if classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fiber thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerous thermoset composites, including paper composite panels, many advanced thermoset polymer matrix systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix. Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or fabric reinforcement and they can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures, rapid manufacturing. Although high strain composites exhibit many similarities to shape memory polymers, Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix composites or ceramic matrix composites, which includes bone, cermet and concrete
19.
Seismic
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Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies. A related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past earthquakes is paleoseismology, a recording of earth motion as a function of time is called a seismogram. A seismologist is a scientist who does research in seismology, scholarly interest in earthquakes can be traced back to antiquity. Early speculations on the causes of earthquakes were included in the writings of Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes of Miletus, Aristotle. In 132 CE, Zhang Heng of Chinas Han dynasty designed the first known seismoscope, in 1664, Athanasius Kircher argued that earthquakes were caused by the movement of fire within a system of channels inside the Earth. In 1703, Martin Lister and Nicolas Lemery proposed that earthquakes were caused by chemical explosions within the earth, the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, coinciding with the general flowering of science in Europe, set in motion intensified scientific attempts to understand the behaviour and causation of earthquakes. The earliest responses include work by John Bevis and John Michell, Michell determined that earthquakes originate within the Earth and were waves of movement caused by shifting masses of rock miles below the surface. From 1857, Robert Mallet laid the foundation of instrumental seismology and he is also responsible for coining the word seismology. In 1897, Emil Wiecherts theoretical calculations led him to conclude that the Earths interior consists of a mantle of silicates, surrounding a core of iron. In 1906 Richard Dixon Oldham identified the separate arrival of P-waves, S-waves and surface waves on seismograms, in 1910, after studying the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Harry Fielding Reid put forward the elastic rebound theory which remains the foundation for modern tectonic studies. The development of this depended on the considerable progress of earlier independent streams of work on the behaviour of elastic materials. In 1926, Harold Jeffreys was the first to claim, based on his study of waves, that below the mantle. In 1937, Inge Lehmann determined that within the liquid outer core there is a solid inner core. By the 1960s, earth science had developed to the point where a comprehensive theory of the causation of seismic events had come together in the now well-established theory of plate tectonics, seismic waves are elastic waves that propagate in solid or fluid materials. There are two types of waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves and Shear or Secondary waves. S-waves are transverse waves that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation, therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids, the two main surface wave types are Rayleigh waves, which have some compressional motion, and Love waves, which do not. Rayleigh waves result from the interaction of vertically polarized P- and S-waves that satisfy the conditions on the surface
20.
Ecological footprint
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An ecological footprint is a measure of human impact on Earths ecosystems. Its typically measured in area of wilderness or amount of natural capital consumed each year, at a global scale, it is used to estimate how rapidly we are depleting natural capital. The Global Footprint Network calculates the global ecological footprint from UN and they estimate that as of 2007 our planet has been using natural capital 1.6 times as fast as nature can renew it. Ecological footprint analysis is used around the Earth as an indicator of environmental sustainability. Since 2006, a first set of ecological footprint standards exist that detail both communication and calculation procedures, Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale, for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a region, a nation or humanity as a whole. Cities, due to concentration, have large ecological footprints and have become ground zero for footprint reduction. However, there has been some convergence of metrics and standards since 2006, City Ecological Footprints, are being measured. There are two types of measurements in use, the first measures ecosystem displacement which is defined as City Area minus remaining green spaces. This is a measurement that does not include human or other biological activity. The Second attempts to quantify surviving ecosystem health, specifically, it attempts to quantify both area and biological health of ecosystems surviving inside city areas such as nature reserves, parks, other green spaces. City footprints are being calculated and ranked with city ecological indexes, the first academic publication about ecological footprints was by William Rees in 1992. Originally, Wackernagel and Rees called the concept appropriated carrying capacity, to make the idea more accessible, Rees came up with the term ecological footprint, inspired by a computer technician who praised his new computers small footprint on the desk. In early 1996, Wackernagel and Rees published the book Our Ecological Footprint and this approach can also be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. Per capita ecological footprint, or ecological footprint analysis, is a means of comparing consumption and lifestyles, the tool can inform policy by examining to what extent a nation uses more than is available within its territory, or to what extent the nations lifestyle would be replicable worldwide. The footprint can also be a tool to educate people about carrying capacity and overconsumption. Ecological footprints may be used to argue that many current lifestyles are not sustainable, such a global comparison also clearly shows the inequalities of resource use on this planet at the beginning of the twenty-first century. In 2007, the biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares per capita. The U. S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, the WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity of the planet by 20%
21.
Indoor air pollution
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Indoor air quality is a term which refers to the air quality within and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants. IAQ can be affected by gases, particulates, microbial contaminants, source control, filtration and the use of ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in most buildings. Residential units can further improve air quality by routine cleaning of carpets. Determination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples, monitoring human exposure to pollutants, collection of samples on building surfaces, IAQ is part of indoor environmental quality, which includes IAQ as well as other physical and psychological aspects of life indoors. Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a health hazard. A major source of air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass for heating and cooking. The resulting exposure to high levels of particulate matter resulted in between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths in 2000, second-hand smoke is tobacco smoke which affects other people other than the active smoker. The only certain method to improve air quality as regards second-hand smoke is the implementation of comprehensive smoke-free laws. Radon is an invisible, radioactive gas that results from the radioactive decay of radium. Radon is probably the most pervasive serious hazard for air in the United States and Europe. There are relatively simple test kits for do-it-yourself radon gas testing, radon gas enters buildings as a soil gas and is a heavy gas and thus will tend to accumulate at the lowest level. Radon may also be introduced into a building through drinking water particularly from bathroom showers, the half life for radon is 3.8 days, indicating that once the source is removed, the hazard will be greatly reduced within a few weeks. Radon mitigation methods include sealing concrete slab floors, basement foundations, water drainage systems and they are usually cost effective and can greatly reduce or even eliminate the contamination and the associated health risks. Mold is always associated with moisture, and its growth can be inhibited by keeping humidity levels below 50%, in areas where cellulosic materials become moist and fail to dry within 48 hours, mold mildew can propagate and release allergenic spores into the air. In many cases, if materials have failed to dry out several days after the suspected water event, through a mold investigation, which may include destructive inspection, one should be able to determine the presence or absence of mold. In a situation there is visible mold and the indoor air quality may have been compromised. There are some varieties of mold that contain toxic compounds, however, exposure to hazardous levels of mycotoxin via inhalation is not possible in most cases, as toxins are produced by the fungal body and are not at significant levels in the released spores. The primary hazard of mold growth, as it relates to air quality
22.
Carbon footprint
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A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent. The total carbon footprint cannot be calculated because of the amount of data required. Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential, greenhouse gases can be emitted through transport, land clearance, and the production and consumption of food, fuels, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads, buildings, and services. For simplicity of reporting, it is expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide, or its equivalent of other GHGs. Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U. S. household come from indirect sources and these are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in ones car or stove, commonly referred to as direct sources of the consumers carbon footprint. In 2007, carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the plan for City of Lynnwood. Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere, Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators, which also includes water footprint and land footprint. An individuals, nations, or organizations carbon footprint can be measured by undertaking a GHG emissions assessment or other calculative activities denoted as carbon accounting, the website then estimates your carbon footprint based on your answers to these questions. A systematic literature review was conducted to determine the best way to calculate individual/household carbon footprints. This review identified 13 calculation principles and subsequently used the principles to evaluate the 15 most popular online carbon footprint calculators. A recent study’s results by Carnegie Mellons Christopher Weber found that the calculation of carbon footprints for products is often filled with large uncertainties. The variables of owning electronic goods such as the production, shipment and it is important to question, and address the accuracy of Carbon Footprint techniques, especially due to its overwhelming popularity. These examples are known as Carbon Offsetting, the counteracting of carbon emissions with an equivalent reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The main influences on carbon footprints include population, economic output and these factors are the main targets of individuals and businesses in order to decrease carbon footprints. Production creates a carbon footprint, scholars suggest that decreasing the amount of energy needed for production would be one of the most effective ways to decrease a carbon footprint. This is due to the fact that Electricity is responsible for roughly 37% of Carbon Dioxide emissions, coal production has been refined to greatly reduce carbon emissions, since the 1980s, the amount of energy used to produce a ton of steel has decreased by 50%. The average U. S. household carbon footprint is about 50 tons CO2e per year, the single largest source of emissions for the typical household is from driving. Transportation as a whole is the largest overall category, followed by housing then food, the carbon footprint of U. S. households is about 5 times greater than the global average, which is approximately 10 tons CO2e per household per year
23.
Life-cycle analysis
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Designers use this process to help critique their products. This information is used to improve processes, support policy and provide a basis for informed decisions. There are two types of LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or with a service or process. Social LCA is under development as a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to assess social implications or potential impacts, social LCA should be considered as an approach that is complementary to environmental LCA. The procedures of life cycle assessment are part of the ISO14000 environmental management standards, GHG product life cycle assessments can also comply with specifications such as PAS2050 and the GHG Protocol Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard. According to the ISO14040 and 14044 standards, a Life Cycle Assessment is carried out in four phases as illustrated in the figure shown to the right. The phases are often interdependent in that the results of one phase will inform how other phases are completed. An LCA starts with a statement of the goal and scope of the study. This is a key step and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined, further, the functional unit is an important basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be compared and analyzed. The functional flow would be the necessary for that function, so this would be a brush, tin of paint. The system boundaries, which are delimitations of which processes that should be included in the analysis of a product system, doing this is not easy and different methods may give different results and the impact categories chosen for example human toxicity, smog, global warming, eutrophication. Life Cycle Inventory analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from, Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a model of the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, the data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition. Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be already at this stage. Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary, for product LCAs at either the generic or brand-specific level, that data is typically collected through survey questionnaires. One area where access is likely to be difficult is flows from the technosphere
24.
Deconstruction (building)
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In the context of physical construction, deconstruction is the selective dismantlement of building components, specifically for re-use, repurposing, recycling, and waste management. It differs from demolition where a site is cleared of its building by the most expedient means, deconstruction has also been defined as “construction in reverse”. The process of dismantling structures is an ancient activity that has been revived by the field of sustainable. Buildings, like everything, have a life-cycle, deconstruction focuses on giving the materials within a building a new life once the building as a whole can no longer continue. When buildings reach the end of their life, they are typically demolished and hauled to landfills. Building implosions or ‘wrecking-ball’ style demolitions are relatively inexpensive and offer a method of clearing sites for new structures. On the other hand, these methods create substantial amounts of waste, components within old buildings may still be valuable, sometimes more valuable than at the time the building was constructed. Deconstruction is a method of harvesting what is commonly considered “waste”, deconstruction has strong ties to environmental sustainability. In addition to giving materials a new cycle, deconstructing buildings helps to lower the need for virgin resources. This in turn leads to energy and emissions reductions from the refining, as deconstruction is often done on a local level, many times on-site, energy and emissions are also saved in the transportation of materials. Deconstruction can potentially support communities by providing jobs and renovated structures. Deconstruction work typically employs 3-6 workers for every one employed in a demolition job. In addition, solid waste from conventional demolition is diverted from landfills and this is a major benefit because construction and demolition waste accounts for approximately 20% of the solid waste stream. In Canada, the CO2 Neutral Alliance has created a website with resources for regulators and municipalities, developers and contractors, business owners and operators, and individuals and households. At this rate, if deconstruction replaced residential demolition, the United States could generate enough recovered wood to construct 120,000 new affordable homes each year, the deconstruction of a typical 2, 000-square-foot wood frame home can yield 6,000 board feet of reusable lumber. Every year the United States buries about 33 million tons of wood-related construction and demolition debris in landfills, as anaerobic microorganisms decompose this wood, it will release about five million tons of carbon equivalent in the form of methane gas. Deconstruction is commonly separated into two categories, structural and non-structural, non-structural deconstruction, also known as “soft-stripping”, consists of reclaiming non-structural components, appliances, doors, windows, and finish materials. The reuse of these types of materials is commonplace and considered to be a market in many locales
25.
Construction waste
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Construction waste consists of unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by the construction or industries. Construction waste may lead, asbestos, or other hazardous substances. Much building waste is made up of such as bricks, concrete. Since considerable variability exists between construction sites, there is opportunity for reducing this waste. Some certain components of construction such as plasterboard are hazardous once landfilled. Plasterboard is broken down in landfill conditions releasing hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas, there is the potential to recycle many elements of construction waste. Often roll-off containers are used to transport the waste, rubble can be crushed and reused in construction projects. Waste wood can also be recovered and recycled, in England all personnel performing builders or construction waste clearance are required by law to be working for a CIS registered business. Government or local authorities often make rules about how much waste should be sorted before it is hauled away to landfills or other treatment facilities. Some hazardous materials may not be moved, before the authorities have ascertained that safety guidelines, among their concerns would be the proper handling and disposal of such toxic elements as lead, asbestos or radioactive materials. The government pays tipping fee to the company for waste removal as an incentive to relieve the stress on the environment, the construction waste is recycled to several sizes of gravels that can be reused in construction beside the screened sand can be used in ancillary construction uses. Demolition waste Recycling Waste management COSHH Construction Waste Management Database | Whole Building Design Guide Builders Cleaning Quiz constructional waste Removals
26.
Ecological economics
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Ecological economics was founded in the 1980s as a modern discipline in the works of and interactions between various European and American academics. The related field of economics is, in general, a more politically applied form of the subject. According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, issues of intergenerational equity, irreversibility of environmental change, uncertainty of long-term outcomes, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and valuation. Positional analysis, which attempts to time and justice issues, is proposed as an alternative. Ecological economics shares many of its perspectives with feminist economics, including the focus on sustainability, nature, justice, the first principles, deriving from the radiochemist FA Soddy, were laid out in his 1926 book Wealth, Money and Debt in 1926. Early modern interest in ecology and economics dates back to the 1940s in the work of K. William Kapp and Karl Polanyi, however, the first organized meetings of modern ecological economists occurred in the 1980s. These began in 1982, at the instigation of Lois Banner, most were ecosystem ecologists or mainstream environmental economists, with the exception of Daly. In 1987, Daly and Costanza edited an issue of Ecological Modeling to test the waters, a book entitled Ecological Economics, by Juan Martinez-Alier, was published later that year. 1989 saw the foundation of the International Society for Ecological Economics and publication of its journal, Ecological Economics, Robert Costanza was the first president of the society and first editor of the journal, currently edited by Richard Howarth. European conceptual founders include Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, K. William Kapp, some key concepts of what is now ecological economics are evident in the writings of E. F. Other figures include ecologists C. S. Holling, H. T, odum and Robert Costanza, biologist Gretchen Daily and physicist Robert Ayres. CUNY geography professor David Harvey explicitly added ecological concerns to political economic literature and this parallel development in political economy has been continued by analysts such as sociologist John Bellamy Foster. The antecedents can be traced back to the Romantics of the 19th century as well as some Enlightenment political economists of that era, concerns over population were expressed by Thomas Malthus, while John Stuart Mill predicted the desirability of the stationary state of an economy. Mill thereby anticipated later insights of modern ecological economists, but without having had their experience of the social and ecological costs of the Post–World War II economic expansion. As Martinez-Alier explores in his book the debate on energy in systems can also be traced into the 19th century e. g. Nobel prize-winning chemist. His magnum opus, The Entropy Law and the Economic Process, has been highly influential, in addition, the journal Ecological Economics has itself been criticized for swamping the field with mainstream economics. Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy as pollution, the sink function describes an environments ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution, when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs. Some persistent pollutants, such as organic pollutants and nuclear waste are absorbed very slowly or not at all
27.
Green building
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In other words, green building design involves finding the balance between homebuilding and the sustainable environment. This requires close cooperation of the team, the architects, the engineers. The Green Building practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, other certificates system that confirms the sustainability of buildings is the British BREEAM for buildings and large scale developments. Other related topics include sustainable design and green architecture, Sustainability may be defined as meeting the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Although some green building programs dont address the issue of the existing homes, others do. Green construction principles can easily be applied to work as well as new construction. A2009 report by the U. S, general Services Administration found 12 sustainably-designed buildings that cost less to operate and have excellent energy performance. In addition, occupants were overall more satisfied with the building than those in commercial buildings. These are eco-friendly buildings. Globally buildings are responsible for a share of energy, electricity, water. The building sector has the greatest potential to deliver significant cuts in emissions at little or no cost, buildings account for 18% of global emissions today, or the equivalent of 9 billion tonnes of CO2 annually. Since construction almost always degrades a building site, not building at all is preferable to green building, the second rule is that every building should be as small as possible. The third rule is not to contribute to sprawl, even if the most energy-efficient, environmentally sound methods are used in design, buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the National Resources Inventory, approximately 107 million acres of land in the United States are developed, the concept of sustainable development can be traced to the energy crisis and environmental pollution concerns of the 1960s and 1970s. The Rachel Carson book, “Silent Spring”, published in 1962, is considered to be one of the first initial efforts to describe sustainable development as related to green building. The green building movement in the U. S. originated from the need and desire for energy efficient. There are a number of motives for building green, including environmental, economic, however, modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to both new construction and in the retrofitting of existing structures. Also known as design, this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green practice employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy among the practices used. Green building brings together a vast array of practices, techniques, the essence of green building is an optimization of one or more of these principles
28.
Sustainable development
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The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems. As the concept developed, it has shifted to more on economic development, social development. The concept of development has been — and still is — subject to criticism. What, exactly, is to be sustained in sustainable development, Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social, political, and economic challenges faced by humanity. Sustainability science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development, there is an additional focus on the present generations responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations. Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management which were developed in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1713 Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published Sylvicultura oeconomica. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert and his work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of a science of forestry. Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged. In 1987 the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, the report included what is now one of the most widely recognised definitions of sustainable development. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable and it emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasises that broad public participation in making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. Broadly defined, sustainable development is an approach to growth and development and to manage natural, produced. A2013 study concluded that sustainability reporting should be reframed through the lens of four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics, the goals are to be implemented and achieved in every country from the year 2016 to 2030. Sustainable development, or sustainability, has described in terms of three spheres, dimensions, domains or pillars, i. e. the environment, the economy. The three-sphere framework was proposed by the economist René Passet in 1979. It has also been worded as economic, environmental and social or ecology, economy and this has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of culture, institutions or governance. The ecological stability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and their natural, social and built environments, also termed human ecology, this broadens the focus of sustainable development to include the domain of human health
29.
Fair trade
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Fair trade is a social movement whose stated goal is to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions and to promote sustainable farming. Members of the movement advocate the payment of prices to exporters. The movement seeks to promote equity in international trading partnerships through dialogue, transparency. It promotes sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, Fair trade is grounded in three core beliefs, first, producers have the power to express unity with consumers. Secondly, the trade practices that currently exist promote the unequal distribution of wealth between nations. Lastly, buying products from producers in developing countries at a price is a more efficient way of promoting sustainable development than traditional charity. Specifically, fair trade is a partnership, based on dialogue, transparency, and respect. There are several recognized fair trade certifiers, including Fairtrade International, IMO, Make Trade Fair, in 2008, Fairtrade International certified approximately of products. The World Trade Organization publishes annual figures on the trade of goods. The fair trade movement is popular in the UK, where there are 500 Fairtrade towns,118 universities, over 6,000 churches, according to Fairtrade International, nearly six out of ten consumers have seen the Fairtrade mark and almost nine in ten of them trust it. Some criticisms have been raised about fair trade systems, some research indicates that the implementation of certain fair trade standards can cause greater inequalities in some markets where these rigid rules are inappropriate for the specific market. In the Fair trade debate there are complaints of failure to enforce the fair trade standards, with producers, cooperatives, there are a large number of fair trade and ethical marketing organizations employing different marketing strategies. Most fair trade marketers believe it is necessary to sell the products through supermarkets to get a sufficient volume of trade to affect the developing world, the Fairtrade brand is by far the biggest of the fair trade coffee brands. Packers in developed countries pay a fee to The Fairtrade Foundation for the right to use the brand and logo, packers and retailers can charge as much as they want for the coffee. The coffee has to come from a fair trade cooperative. Additionally, the cooperatives are paid an additional 10c per lb premium by buyers for community development projects, the cooperatives can, on average, sell only a third of their output as fair trade, because of lack of demand, and sell the rest at world prices. The exporting cooperative can spend the money in several ways, some is spent on social projects such as building schools, health clinics and baseball pitches. Sometimes there is left over for the farmers
30.
Mohave people
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Mohave or Mojave are a Native American people indigenous to the Colorado River in the Mojave Desert. The Fort Mojave Indian Reservation includes territory within the borders of California, Arizona, the Colorado River Indian Reservation includes parts of California and Arizona and is shared by members of the Chemehuevi, Hopi, and Navajo peoples. The original Colorado River and Fort Mojave reservations were established in 1865 and 1870, both reservations include substantial senior water rights in the Colorado River, water is drawn for use in irrigated farming. In the 1930s, George Devereux, a Hungarian-French anthropologist, did fieldwork and he published extensively about their culture and incorporated psychoanalytic thinking in his interpretation of their culture. The Mojave language belongs to the River Yuman branch of the Yuman language family, in 1994 approximately 75 people in total on the Colorado River and Fort Mojave reservations spoke the language, according to linguist Leanne Hinton. The tribe has published language materials, and there are new efforts to teach the language to their children, the Mohave creator is Matevilya, who gave the people their names and their commandments. His son is Mastamho, who gave them the River and taught them how to plant, historically this was an agrarian culture, they planted in the fertile floodplain of the untamed river, following the age-old customs of the Aha macave. They have traditionally used Datura in a religious sacrament, a Mohave who is coming of age must consume the plant in a rite of passage, in order to enter a new state of consciousness. Much of early Mojave history remains unrecorded in writing, since the Mojave language was not written in precolonial times and they depended on oral communication to transmit their history and culture from one generation to the next. Disease, outside cultures and encroachment on their territory disrupted their social organization, together with having to adapt to a majority culture of another language, this resulted in interrupting the Mojave transmission of their stories and songs to the following generations. The tribal name has been spelled in Spanish and English transliteration in more than 50 variations, such as Hamock avi, Amacava, A-mac-ha ves, A-moc-ha-ve, Jamajabs, and Hamakhav. This has led to misinterpretations of the name, also partly traced to a translation error in Frederick W. Hodges 1917 Handbook of the American Indians North of Mexico. This incorrectly defined the name Mohave as being derived from hamock, according to this source, the name refers to the mountain peaks known as The Needles in English, located near the Colorado River. But, the Mojave call these peaks Huqueamp avi, which means where the took place, referring to the battle in which the God-son, Mastamho. As related to contemporary landmarks, their lands began in the north at Hoover Dam and ended about one hundred miles below Parker Dam on the Colorado River and it was intended to protect east-west European-American emigrants from attack by the Mojave. By that time, white immigrants and settlers had begun to encroach on Mojave lands, in competition for scarce resources in the desert, they sometimes got into violent conflict with the indigenous people, who were trying to protect their territory. Hoffman sent couriers among the tribes, warning that the post would be gained by force if they or their allies chose to resist, instead, the army occupied the site without armed conflict. The Mojave warriors withdrew as Hoffmans formidable armada approached, and the expedition posted camp near the future Fort Mojave
31.
Branches
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A branch or tree branch is a woody structural member connected to but not part of the central trunk of a tree. Large branches are known as boughs and small branches are known as twigs, due to a broad range of species of trees, branches and twigs can be seen in many different shapes and sizes. While branches can be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal. The term twig often refers to a terminus, while bough refers only to branches coming directly from the trunk, because of the enormous quantity of branches in the world, there are a variety of names in English alone for them. In general however, unspecific words for a branch have been replaced by the branch itself. A bough can also be called a limb or arm, and though these are arguably metaphors, a crotch or fork is an area where a trunk splits into two or more boughs. A twig is frequently referred to as a sprig as well, other words for twig include branchlet, spray, and surcle, as well as the technical terms surculus and ramulus. Branches found under larger branches can be called underbranches, some branches from specific trees have their own names, such as osiers and withes or withies, which come from willows. Often trees have certain words which, in English, are naturally collocated, such as holly and mistletoe, similarly, the branch of a cherry tree is generally referred to as a cherry branch, while other such formations carry no such alliance. A good example of this versatility is oak, which could be referred to as variously an oak branch, an oaken branch, a branch of oak, or the branch of an oak. Once a branch has been cut or in any other way removed from its source, it is most commonly referred to as a stick, thin, flexible sticks are called switches, wands, shrags, or vimina. In Old English, there are words for branch, including seten, stofn, telgor. There are also numerous words, such as blēd, bōgincel, ōwæstm. Numerous other words for twigs and boughs abound, including tān, latin words for branch are ramus or cladus. The second term is a found in other modern words such as cladodonts or cladogram. Basal shoot Plant stem Root Shoot Stolon Switch Trunk Turion Twig Wand
32.
Pygmy peoples
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A pygmy is a member of an ethnic group whose average height is unusually short, anthropologists define pygmy as a member of any group where adult men are on average less than 150 cm tall. A member of a slightly taller group is termed pygmoid, the term is most associated with peoples of Central Africa, such as the Aka, Efé and Mbuti. If the term pygmy is defined as a groups men having an average height below 1, in Greek mythology the word describes a tribe of dwarfs, first described by Homer, the ancient Greek poet, and reputed to live in India and south of modern-day Ethiopia. The term pygmy is considered pejorative. However, there is no term to replace it. Many prefer to be identified by their ethnicity, such as the Aka, Baka, Mbuti, the term Bayaka, the plural form of the Aka/Yaka, is sometimes used in the Central African Republic to refer to all local pygmies. Likewise, the Kongo word Bambenga is used in Congo, various theories have been proposed to explain the short stature of pygmies. Some studies suggest that it could be related to adaptation to low light levels in rainforests. Most Pygmy communities are partially hunter-gatherers, living partially but not exclusively on the products of their environment. They trade with neighbouring farmers to acquire cultivated foods and other material items and it is estimated that there are between 250,000 and 600,000 Pygmies living in the Congo rainforest. However, although Pygmies are thought of as forest people, the groups called Twa may live in swamp or desert. There are at least a dozen Pygmy groups, sometimes unrelated to each other and this view has no archaeological support, and ambiguous support from genetics and linguistics. Some 30% of Aka language is not Bantu, and a percentage of Baka language is not Ubangian. Much of pygmy vocabulary is botanical, dealing with collecting, or is otherwise specialized for the forest. It has been proposed that this is the remnant of an independent western Pygmy language, however, this type of vocabulary is subject to widespread borrowing among the Pygmies and neighboring peoples, and the Baaka language was only reconstructed to the 15th century. African pygmy populations are diverse and extremely divergent from all other human populations. Their uniparental markers represent the second-most ancient divergence right after those found in Khoisan peoples. Recent advances in genetics shed some light on the origins of the pygmy groups
33.
Beaver
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The beaver is a large, primarily nocturnal, semiaquatic rodent. Castor includes two extant species, the North American beaver and Eurasian beaver, Beavers are known for building dams, canals, and lodges. They are the second-largest rodent in the world and their colonies create one or more dams to provide still, deep water to protect against predators, and to float food and building material. The North American beaver population was more than 60 million. Beavers, along with pocket gophers and kangaroo rats, are castorimorph rodents, Beavers are known for their natural trait of building dams on rivers and streams, and building their homes in the resulting pond. Beavers also build canals to float building materials that are difficult to haul over land and they use powerful front teeth to cut trees and other plants that they use both for building and for food. In the absence of existing ponds, beavers must construct dams before building their lodges, first they place vertical poles, then fill between the poles with a crisscross of horizontally placed branches. They fill in the gaps between the branches with a combination of weeds and mud until the dam impounds sufficient water to surround the lodge and this serves as a warning to beavers in the area. Once a beaver has sounded the alarm, nearby beavers will dive, Beavers are slow on land, but are good swimmers, and can stay under water for as long as 15 minutes. Beavers are herbivores, and prefer the wood of quaking aspen, cottonwood, willow, alder, birch, maple and they also eat sedges, pondweed, and water lilies. Beavers do not hibernate, but store sticks and logs in a pile in their ponds, some of the pile is generally above water and accumulates snow in the winter. This insulation of snow often keeps the water freezing in and around the food pile. Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and a broad, scaly tail and they have poor eyesight, but keen senses of hearing, smell, and touch. A beavers teeth grow continuously so that they not be worn down by chewing on wood. Their four incisors are composed of hard orange enamel on the front, the chisel-like ends of incisors are maintained by their self-sharpening wear pattern. The enamel in a beavers incisors contains iron and is resistant to acid than enamel in the teeth of other mammals. Beavers continue to grow throughout their lives, adult specimens weighing over 25 kg are not uncommon. Females are as large as or larger than males of the same age, Beavers live up to 24 years of age in the wild
34.
Wikiup
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A wigwam, wickiup or wetu is a domed dwelling formerly used by certain Native American and First Nations tribes, and still used for ceremonial purposes. Wetu is the Wampanoag term for a wigwam dwelling and these terms can refer to many distinct types of Native American structures regardless of location or cultural group. The wigwam is not to be confused with the Native Plains tipi, which has a different construction, structure. The domed, round shelter was used by many different Native American cultures, the curved surfaces make it an ideal shelter for all kinds of conditions. These structures are formed with a frame of arched poles, most often wooden, details of construction vary with the culture and local availability of materials. Some of the materials used include grass, brush, bark, rushes, mats, reeds. Men built the wigwams and the put on the coverings. Wigwams were most often seasonal structures although the term is applied to rounded, wigwams usually take longer to put up than tipis and their frames are usually not portable like a tipi. A typical wigwam in the Northeast had a surface which can hold up against the worst weather. Young green tree saplings of just about any type of wood and these tree saplings were then bent by stretching the wood. While these saplings were being bent, a circle was drawn on the ground, the diameter of the circle varied from ten to sixteen feet. The bent saplings were then placed over the circle, using the tallest saplings in the middle. The saplings formed arches all in one direction on the circle, the next set of saplings were used to wrap around the wigwam to give the shelter support. When the two sets of saplings were finally tied together, the sides and roof were placed on it, the sides of the wigwam were usually bark stripped from trees. The male of the family was responsible for the framing of the wigwam, mary Rowlandson uses the term Wigwam in reference to the dwelling places of the Native Americans that she stayed with while in their captivity during King Philips War in 1675. During the American revolution the term wigwam was used by British soldiers to describe a variety of makeshift structures. Wickiups were used by different indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, Southwest and they were single room, dome-shaped dwellings, with a great deal of variation in size, shape, and materials. The Acjachemen, a people of California, built cone-shaped huts made of willow branches covered with brush or mats made of tule leaves
35.
Wattle and daub
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Wattle and daub has been used for at least 6,000 years and is still an important construction material in many parts of the world. Many historic buildings include wattle and daub construction, and the technique is becoming popular again in developed areas as a low-impact sustainable building technique. The wattle is made by weaving thin branches or slats between upright stakes, the wattle may be made as loose panels, slotted between timber framing to make infill panels, or it may be made in place to form the whole of a wall. Daub is usually created from a mixture of ingredients from three categories, binders, aggregates and reinforcement. Binders hold the mix together and can include clay, lime, chalk dust, aggregates give the mix its bulk and dimensional stability through materials such as earth, sand, crushed chalk and crushed stone. Reinforcement is provided by straw, hair, hay or other fibrous materials, the daub may be mixed by hand, or by treading – either by humans or livestock. It is then applied to the wattle and allowed to dry, in some regions this building method has itself been overtaken by drywall construction using plasterboard sheets. The wattle and daub technique was used already in the Neolithic period and it was common for houses of a Linear pottery and Rössen cultures of Central Europe, but is also found in Western Asia as well as in North America and South America. In Africa it is common in the architecture of houses such as those of the Ashanti people. Its usage dates back at least 6000 years, there are suggestions that construction techniques such as lath and plaster and even cob may have evolved from wattle and daub. Fragments from prehistoric wattle and daub buildings have found in Africa, Europe, Mesoamerica. A review of English architecture especially reveals that the sophistication of this craft is dependent on the styles of timber frame housing. As discussed earlier, there were two choices for wattle and daub paneling, square paneling and close-studded paneling. Close-studding panels create a more narrow space between the timbers, anywhere from 7 to 16 inches. For this style of panel, weaving is too difficult, so the wattles run horizontally and are known as ledgers, the ledgers are sprung into each upright timber through a system of augered holes on one side and short chiseled grooves along the other. The holes are drilled at an angle towards the outer face of each stud. This allows room for upright hazels to be tied to ledgers from the inside of the building, the horizontal ledgers are placed every two to three feet with whole hazel rods positioned upright top to bottom and lashed to the ledgers. These hazel rods are generally tied a finger widths apart with 6-8 rods each with a 16-inch width, gaps allow key formation for drying
36.
Feces
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Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
37.
Cow
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
38.
Inuit
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Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
39.
Igloo
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An igloo, also known as a snow house or snow hut, is a type of shelter built of snow, typically built when the snow can be easily compacted. Although igloos are stereotypically associated with all Inuit, they were associated with people of Canadas Central Arctic. Other Inuit people tended to use snow to insulate their houses, snow is used because the air pockets trapped in it make it an insulator. On the outside, temperatures may be as low as −45 °C, several dialects throughout the Canadian Arctic use iglu for all buildings, including snowhouses, and it is the term used by the Government of Nunavut. An exception to this is the used in the Igloolik region. Iglu is used for buildings, while igluvijaq, is specifically used for a snowhouse. Outside Inuit culture, however, igloo refers exclusively to shelters constructed from blocks of compacted snow, there are three traditional types of igloos, all of different sizes and used for different purposes. The smallest were constructed as shelters, usually only used for one or two nights. These were built and used during hunting trips, often on sea ice. Intermediate-sized igloos were for semi-permanent, family dwelling and this was usually a single room dwelling that housed one or two families. Often there were several of these in an area, which formed an Inuit village. The largest igloos were built in groups of two. One of the buildings was a structure built for special occasions. These might have had up to five rooms and housed up to 20 people, a large igloo might have been constructed from several smaller igloos attached by their tunnels, giving common access to the outside. These were used to hold community feasts and traditional dances, the stresses of snow as it ages and compresses against the igloo will not cause it to buckle because in an inverted paraboloid or catenoid the pressures are exclusively compressive. This design originates from the Central Inuit, in applied mechanics, the equation for this type of structure is written y = a where y is the height to any point in the surface, x is the horizontal distance to the same point, and a is a constant. The maximum compressive stress at the base of the igloo can be obtained by multiplying S, /yd times the unit weight y. Igloos gradually become shorter with time due to the creep of the snow
40.
Quinzhee
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A quinzhee or quinzee /ˈkwɪnziː/ is a snow shelter made by gathering a large pile of snow and then hollowing it out. This is in contrast to an igloo, which is made from blocks of hard snow, the word is of Athabaskan origin, and entered the English language by 1984. A quinzhee can be made for camping and survival purposes or for fun. A similar but more elaborate snow-house is called a lumitalo, an igloo is made by cutting blocks from packed snow and stacking them. A quinzhee is made by making a pile of snow, then hollowing out the inside, Quinzhees typically have an inside height after excavation which allows for sitting or crouching but not standing. The snow for a quinzhee need not be of the quality as required for an igloo. Quinzhees are not usually meant as a form of permanent shelter, the construction of a quinzhee is much easier than the construction of an igloo, although the overall result is somewhat less sturdy and more prone to collapsing in harsh weather conditions. Quinzhee are typically built on an area where snow is in abundance. Builders break up layers of fallen snow into powder and thoroughly mix bottom and top layers of snow to increase sintering. Snow is typically piled 1.5 to 2 meters high in a dome 3 to 4 meters in diameter. It is then left for at least 2 hours to sinter, packing is not necessary, but may speed the bonding process and strengthen the structure. Many builders insert small sticks of the length, approximately 30 to 35 cm toward the center of the structure to be used as thickness guides when digging out the interior. According to Halfpenny and Ozane, the wall at the base should be at least 30 cm wide, many users find wall-base thicknesses to be >60 cm. Excavation may be accomplished more quickly if large blocks of snow are carved and slid out through a large. Strength increases when all interior wall and ceiling surfaces follow an arched curve, once excavation is complete the excavation door can be permanently blocked using previously excavated blocks, and a smaller permanent door can be cut in the most desirable spot. Time and effort are required to hollow out the center of a Quinzhee, though these can be reduced by piling snow around a hollow structure, allowing the interior temperature to rise above freezing point risks weakening the shelter significantly, especially if the outside air temperature is near freezing. A small hole for air circulation should be poked through the ceiling, to avoid dripping melt-water irregular or bumpy surfaces are often smoothed to direct the flow of water down the walls to gather around the edges. A non-airtight fabric door cover will minimize the amount of air coming into the quinzhee
41.
Ice hotel
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An ice hotel is a temporary hotel made up of snow and sculpted blocks of ice. They could be visited by travelers that are comfortable with the outdoors. Ice hotels are dependent on sub-freezing temperatures and they are constructed from ice and snow and typically have to be rebuilt every year. Ice hotels exist in countries, and they have varying construction styles, services and amenities. Ice hotels are promoted for adventurous travelers who are interested in novelties, customers have to be prepared to sleep in beds made of snow or ice, but in the warmth of furs, blankets and sleeping bags designed to withstand extremely cold temperatures. Temperature in the rooms is below zero Celsius, but much warmer than outside, staying at an ice hotel is expensive as prices for a night range from around US $300 to $3,000. Some ice hotels may be destination hotels, lobbies are often filled with ice sculptures, and food and drinks are specially chosen for the circumstances. For instance, glasses in an ice bar can be made of ice, an ice bar, sometimes associated with an ice hotel, is a drinking establishment primarily made of ice. Ice hotels are dependent upon sub-freezing temperatures during construction and operation and this imposes time constraints on construction and makes the hotels season short. Construction typically begins between November and March when snow can be compacted and thick levels of ice form, although constructing an ice hotel is more labor-intensive than a regular building, building materials are cheaper. Ice hotels have to be reconstructed every year, sometimes steel framing is used in their construction. The Hôtel de Glace first opened in January 2001,85 rooms are furnished with ice beds covered with deer furs and mattresses and equipped with arctic sleeping bags. It was originally located on the shores of Lac-Saint-Joseph, Quebec,31 minutes north of Quebec City and it operates from the first week in January to the last week in March. It has the adjacent Le Quatre Temps restaurant, an ice bar named Absolut Ice Bar, construction involves the use of blocks of ice and snow. In 2005, construction involved 400 tons of ice blocks, trucked in from Montreal. Beds are constructed of ice, which are topped with a wooden boxspring and mattress, the hotel offers paid tours, the participants of which are allowed to use the ice bar until midnight. Ice Hotel was previously the only ice hotel in North America, Ice Hotel Snow Village is a half-hectare village and 30-room ice hotel located in Parc Jean-Drapeau, east of Montreal, in Quebec, Canada that first opened in 2012. It has suites, standard rooms and igloos, an ice restaurant, ice bar and patio, ice chapel and it is constructed from man-made snow created by snowmaking machines, which is blown onto frames that are removed when construction is complete
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Tourist attraction
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Factory tours, industrial heritage, creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks, tourist attractions are also created to capitalise on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland. Ghost sightings also make tourist attractions, ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighbourhood of Brixton in London, England. In the US, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the side of highways and roadways, tourist attractions often provide free promotional brochures and flyers in information centres, fast food restaurants, hotel and motel rooms or lobbies, and rest area. Such places are known as tourist traps. Within cities such transport tourist attractions as rides by boats and buses are very popular, novelty attractions are not limited to the American Midwest, but are part of Midwestern culture. It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some tourist traps, siem Reap town for example is a popular tourist destination in Cambodia, mainly owed to its proximity to Angkor temples. A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that also depends on tourism as its source of revenue, according to the World Tourism Organization, •698 million people travelled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more US$478 billion. Lists of tourist attractions Attractions at DMOZ
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Mudbrick
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A mudbrick is a brick, made of a mixture of loam, mud, sand and water mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw. In warm regions with little timber available to fuel a kiln. In some cases brickmakers extended the life of mud bricks by putting fired bricks on top or covering them with stucco, the Great Mosque of Djenné, in central Mali, is the worlds largest mudbrick structure. This plaster must be reapplied annually, the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh constructed, and lived in, mud brick houses between 7000–3300 BC. Mud bricks used at more than 15 reported sites in 3rd millennium BC are attributed as major cultural trait in the ancient Indus valley civilization, mudbricks were in use in the Middle East during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period. The Mesopotamians used sun-dried bricks in their city construction, typically these bricks were flat on the bottom and curved on the top, some bricks were formed in a square mould and rounded so that the middle was thicker than the ends. In Ancient Egypt, workers gathered mud from the Nile river, workers then tramped on the mud while straw was added to solidify the mold. In Minoan Crete at the Knossos site there is evidence that sun-dried bricks were used in the Neolithic period. Mudbricks were used to some extent in pre-Roman Egypt, and mudbrick use increased at the time of Roman influence, adobe – Often used in the making of mudbricks. Cob Earth structure Loam Rammed earth Possehl, Gregory L. Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Earth Architecture, website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture. Very experienced experts are contactable and there are regular demonstrations in the area, video showing mud brick making, mud brick building and biolytic sewerage in South Africa. CRAterre, Centre de recherche architectural en terre, French university research organisation dedicated to unfired earth construction
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Light clay
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Light clay is a natural building material used to infill between a wooden frame in a timber framed building using a combination of clay and straw, woodchips or some other lighter material. A mixture of clay and straw was used as a material for timber framed building from at least the 12th century in Germany. Renewed interest in building methods developed from the 1980s after which various natural building architects. Local clay, often local subsoil, is mixed into a slurry with water, wood chips can vary in size from sawdust to chip 5cm in diameter. The ratio of clay to other ingredients can be adapted to increase thermal mass or insulation properties. The mixture is provided with additional strength using wattles. When used externally it can be protected with a Lime render or a clay render
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Plaster
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Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English plaster usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, another imprecise term used for the material is stucco, which is also often used for plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces. The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement, the plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens, plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and can be moulded, either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in place with adhesive. Plaster is not a material, it is suitable for finishing, rather than load-bearing. Forms of plaster have several other uses, in medicine plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry plaster is used to make dental models, various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster is the matrix for fresco painting. Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F, when the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes, if plaster or gypsum is heated above 266 °F, hemihydrate is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water. On heating to 180 °C, the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite is produced, γ-Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants. On heating above 250 °C, the anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster is formed. A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris led calcined gypsum to be known as plaster of Paris. Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal, on movie, nowadays, theatrical plasterers often use expanded polystyrene, although the job title remains unchanged. Plaster of Paris can be used to impregnate gauze bandages to make a material called plaster bandages. It is used similarly to clay, as it is shaped when wet, yet sets into a resilient. This is the material that was used to make classic plaster orthopedic casts to protect limbs with broken bones, set Modroc is an early example of a composite material. The hydration of plaster of Paris relies on the reaction of water with the dehydrated or partially hydrated calcium sulfate present in the plaster, lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand
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