1.
Bulgarian language
–
Bulgarian /bʌlˈɡɛəriən/, /bʊlˈ-/ is an Indo-European language, a member of the Southern branch of the Slavic language family. Various evidential verb forms exist to express unwitnessed, retold, with the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Bulgarian became one of the official languages of the European Union. Development of the Bulgarian language may be divided into several periods, prehistoric period – occurred between the Slavonic migration to eastern Balkans and the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia in the 860s. Old Bulgarian – a literary norm of the southern dialect of the Common Slavic language from which Bulgarian evolved. It was used by Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples to translate the Bible, Middle Bulgarian – a literary norm that evolved from the earlier Old Bulgarian, after major innovations were accepted. It was a language of literary activity and the official administration language of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Modern Bulgarian – dates from the 16th century onwards, undergoing general grammar, present-day written Bulgarian language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular. Bulgarian was the first Slavic language attested in writing, as Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, in the oldest manuscripts this language was initially referred to as языкъ словяньскъ, the Slavic language. In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was replaced by the name языкъ блъгарьскъ. In some cases, the name языкъ блъгарьскъ was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Slavonic case system, today one difference between Bulgarian dialects in the country and literary spoken Bulgarian is the significant presence of Old Bulgarian words and even word forms in the latter. Russian loans are distinguished from Old Bulgarian ones on the basis of the presence of specifically Russian phonetic changes, as in оборот, непонятен, ядро and others. As usual in cases, many other loans from French, English. Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, between 1835–1878 more than 25 proposals were put forward and linguistic chaos ensued. Eventually the eastern dialects prevailed, and in 1899 the Ministry of Education officially codified a standard Bulgarian language based on the Drinov-Ivanchev orthography, the language is mainly split into two broad dialect areas, based on the different reflexes of the Common Slavic yat vowel. This split, which occurred at some point during the Middle Ages, led to the development of Bulgarias, E. g. млеко – milk, хлеб – bread. This rule obtains in most Eastern dialects, although some have ya, or an open e sound. The literary language norm, which is based on the Eastern dialects
2.
First Bulgarian Empire
–
The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed in southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded circa 681 when Bulgar tribes led by Asparukh moved to the north-eastern Balkans, there they secured Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the Danube by defeating – possibly with the help of local South Slavic tribes – the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV. At the height of its power, Bulgaria spread from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea, as the state solidified its position in the Balkans, it entered into a centuries-long interaction, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile, with the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria emerged as Byzantiums chief antagonist to its north, resulting in several wars, Byzantium had a strong cultural influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventual adoption of Christianity in 864. After the disintegration of the Avar Khaganate, the country expanded its territory northwest to the Pannonian Plain, later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the Pechenegs and Cumans, and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars, forcing them to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia. During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Simeon I achieved a string of victories over the Byzantines, thereafter, he was recognized with the title of Emperor, and proceeded to expand the state to its greatest extent. After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the battle of Anchialus in 917, the Byzantines, however, eventually recovered, and in 1014, under Basil II, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kleidion. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire, and it was succeeded by the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185. After the adoption of Christianity, Bulgaria became the center of Slavic Europe. Old Bulgarian became the lingua franca of much of Eastern Europe, in 927, the fully independent Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recognized. The Bulgars and other tribes in the empire gradually adopted an essentially foreign Slavic language. Since the late 9th century, the names Bulgarians and Bulgarian gained prevalence and became permanent designations for the local population, the First Bulgarian Empire became known simply as Bulgaria since its recognition by the Byzantine Empire in 681. Some historians use the terms Danube Bulgaria, First Bulgarian State, during its early existence, the country was also called the Bulgar state or Bulgar qaghanate. Between 864 and 917/927, the country was known as the Principality of Bulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bulgaria, in English language sources, the country is often known as the Bulgarian Empire. The eastern Balkan Peninsula was originally inhabited by the Thracians who were a group of Proto-Indo-European tribes, the whole region as far north as the Danube River was gradually incorporated into the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD. The decline of the Roman Empire after the 3rd century AD, nonetheless, it never relinquished the claim to the whole region up to the Danube. A series of administrative, legislative, military and economic reforms somewhat improved the situation, the group of Slavs that came to be known as the South Slavs was divided into Antes and Sclaveni who spoke the same language. The Slavic incursions in the Balkans increased during the half of Justinian Is reign and while these were initially pillaging raids
3.
Glagolitic script
–
The Glagolitic script is the oldest known Slavic alphabet. It was created in the 9th century by Saint Cyril, a Byzantine monk from Thessaloniki and he and his brother, Saint Methodius, were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III in 863 to Great Moravia to spread Christianity among the West Slavs in the area. After the deaths of Cyril and Methodius, the Glagolitic alphabet ceased to be used in Moravia, the Glagolitic alphabet was preserved only by the Croats, using it from the 12th to the 20th century, mostly in liturgy. The name was not created until many centuries after the scripts creation, the verb glagolati means to speak. It has been conjectured that the name developed in Croatia around the 14th century and was derived from the word glagolity. In Old Church Slavonic the name is Ⰽⱛⱃⰺⰾⰾⱁⰲⰺⱌⰰ, Кѷрїлловица, the creation of the characters is popularly attributed to Saints Cyril and Methodius, who may have created them to facilitate the introduction of Christianity. It is believed that the letters were fitted to Bulgarian. The number of letters in the original Glagolitic alphabet is not known, in later centuries, the number of letters dropped dramatically, to fewer than 30 in modern Croatian and Czech recensions of the Church Slavic language. Twenty-four of the 41 original Glagolitic letters probably derive from graphemes of the medieval cursive Greek small alphabet but have given an ornamental design. The source of the consonantal letters is unknown. If they were added by Cyril, it is likely that they were taken from a used for Christian scripture. It is frequently proposed that the letters sha Ⱎ, tsi Ⱌ, and cherv Ⱍ were taken from the letters shin ש and tsadi צ of the Hebrew alphabet, however, Cubberley suggests that if a single prototype were presumed, the most likely source would be Armenian. Other proposals include the Samaritan alphabet, which Cyril learned during his journey to the Khazars in Cherson, an alternate theory asserts that Saint Cyril did not develop Glagolitic script, instead improving and codifying a preexisting South Slavic script derived from Linear B. Comparison of Linear A and Linear B with the Glagolitic script finds 20 Glagolitic characters aligning in form and/or phonetics with Linear A and 23 with Linear B, Glagolitic letters were also used as numbers, similarly to Cyrillic numerals. Unlike Cyrillic numerals, which inherited their numeric value from the corresponding Greek letter, the Kiev Missal, found in the 19th century in Jerusalem, was dated to the 10th century. In 886 an East Frankish bishop of Nitra named Wiching banned the script and jailed 200 followers of Methodius and they were then dispersed or, according to some sources, sold as slaves by the Franks. Many of them, however, reached Bulgaria and were commissioned by Boris I of Bulgaria to teach, after the adoption of Christianity in Bulgaria in 865, religious ceremonies and Divine Liturgy were conducted in Greek by clergy sent from the Byzantine Empire, using the Byzantine rite. As a result of Boris measures, two academies, one in Ohrid and one in Preslav, were founded, from there, the students traveled to other places and spread the use of their alphabet
4.
Saints Cyril and Methodius
–
Saints Cyril and Methodius were two brothers who were Byzantine Christian theologians and Christian missionaries. Through their work influenced the cultural development of all Slavs. They are credited with devising the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet used to transcribe Old Church Slavonic, after their deaths, their pupils continued their missionary work among other Slavs. Both brothers are venerated in the Orthodox Church as saints with the title of equal-to-apostles, in 1880, Pope Leo XIII introduced their feast into the calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1980, Pope John Paul II declared them co-patron saints of Europe, the two brothers were born in Thessalonica, in present-day Greece – Cyril in about 827–828 and Methodius about 815–820. Cyril was reputedly the youngest of seven brothers, he was born Constantine, Methodius was born Michael and took the name Methodius upon becoming a monk at Mysian Olympus, in northwest Turkey. Their father was Leo, a droungarios of the Byzantine theme of Thessalonica, the exact ethnic origins of the brothers are unknown, there is controversy as to whether Cyril and Methodius were of Slavic or Byzantine Greek origin, or both. The two brothers lost their father when Cyril was fourteen, and the powerful minister Theoktistos, who was logothetes tou dromou, one of the ministers of the Empire. Cyril was ordained as priest some time after his education, while his brother Methodius remained only a deacon until 867/868, Cyrils mastery of theology and command of both Arabic and Hebrew made him eligible for his first state mission. He was sent to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil to discuss the principle of the Holy Trinity with the Arab theologians and this mission was unsuccessful, as later the Khagan imposed Judaism on his people as the national religion. It has been claimed that Methodius accompanied Cyril on the mission to the Khazars, the account of his life presented in the Latin Legenda claims that he learned the Khazar language while in Chersonesos, in Taurica. In 862, the brothers began the work which would give them their historical importance and that year Prince Rastislav of Great Moravia requested that Emperor Michael III and the Patriarch Photius send missionaries to evangelize his Slavic subjects. His motives in doing so were more political than religious. Rastislav had become king with the support of the Frankish ruler Louis the German, Rastislav is said to have expelled missionaries of the Roman Church and instead turned to Constantinople for ecclesiastical assistance and, presumably, a degree of political support. The Emperor quickly chose to send Cyril, accompanied by his brother Methodius, the request provided a convenient opportunity to expand Byzantine influence. Their first work seems to have been the training of assistants, in 863, they began the task of translating the Bible into the language now known as Old Church Slavonic and travelled to Great Moravia to promote it. They enjoyed considerable success in this endeavour, however, they came into conflict with German ecclesiastics who opposed their efforts to create a specifically Slavic liturgy. For the purpose of mission, they devised the Glagolitic alphabet
5.
Cyrillic script
–
The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the alphabet for their national languages. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the official script of the European Union, following the Latin script. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet and these additional letters were used for Old Church Slavonic sounds not found in Greek. The script is named in honor of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on, modern scholars believe that Cyrillic was developed and formalized by early disciples of Cyril and Methodius. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, the new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great. West European typography culture was also adopted, Cyrillic script spread throughout the East and South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri was originally a ligature of Yer and I, iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І, Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ю, Ѩ, Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї, there were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ. The letters also had values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers, many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet, the Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improves computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, Segoe UI is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8, the development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters show a tendency to be very tall and narrow. Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early 18th century, over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type, Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography
6.
Preslav Literary School
–
The Preslav Literary School was the first literary school in the medieval Bulgarian Empire. It was established by Boris I in 885 or 886 in Bulgarias capital, in 893, Simeon I moved the seat of the school from Pliska to the new capital, Preslav. The Preslav Literary School was the most important literary and cultural centre of Bulgaria and all Slavs until the capture, a number of prominent Bulgarian writers and scholars worked at the school, including Naum of Preslav, Constantine of Preslav, Joan Exarch, Chernorizets Hrabar, etc. The school was also a centre of translation, mostly of Byzantine authors, as well as of poetry, painting and painted ceramics. The school developed the Cyrillic script, and the earliest datable Cyrillic inscriptions have been found in the area of Preslav, in the city itself, at nearby Patleina, Krepcha. History of Bulgaria Ohrid Literary School Naum of Preslav Cyrillic script Early Cyrillic alphabet Nikolov, the Perception of the Bulgarian Past in the Court of Preslav around 900 AD. - In, State and Church, Studies in Medieval Bulgaria, ed. by V. Gjuzelev and K. Petkov. American Research Center in Sofia, Sofia,2011, 157-171
7.
Bulgaria
–
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, with a territory of 110,994 square kilometres, Bulgaria is Europes 16th-largest country. Organised prehistoric cultures began developing on current Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period and its ancient history saw the presence of the Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Celts, Romans, Goths, Alans and Huns. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for five centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 led to the formation of the Third Bulgarian State, the following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both world wars. In 1946 it became a one-party socialist state as part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc, in December 1989 the ruling Communist Party allowed multi-party elections, which subsequently led to Bulgarias transition into a democracy and a market-based economy. Bulgarias population of 7.2 million people is predominantly urbanised, most commercial and cultural activities are centred on the capital and largest city, Sofia. The strongest sectors of the economy are industry, power engineering. The countrys current political structure dates to the adoption of a constitution in 1991. Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic with a high degree of political, administrative. Human activity in the lands of modern Bulgaria can be traced back to the Paleolithic, animal bones incised with man-made markings from Kozarnika cave are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans. Organised prehistoric societies in Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture, Vinča culture, the latter is credited with inventing gold working and exploitation. Some of these first gold smelters produced the coins, weapons and jewellery of the Varna Necropolis treasure and this site also offers insights for understanding the social hierarchy of the earliest European societies. Thracians, one of the three primary groups of modern Bulgarians, began appearing in the region during the Iron Age. In the late 6th century BC, the Persians conquered most of present-day Bulgaria, and kept it until 479 BC. After the division of the Roman Empire in the 5th century the area fell under Byzantine control, by this time, Christianity had already spread in the region. A small Gothic community in Nicopolis ad Istrum produced the first Germanic language book in the 4th century, the first Christian monastery in Europe was established around the same time by Saint Athanasius in central Bulgaria. From the 6th century the easternmost South Slavs gradually settled in the region, in 680 Bulgar tribes under the leadership of Asparukh moved south across the Danube and settled in the area between the lower Danube and the Balkan, establishing their capital at Pliska
8.
Marin Drinov
–
Marin Stoyanov Drinov was a Bulgarian historian and philologist from the National Revival period who lived and worked in Russia through most of his life. He was one of the originators of Bulgarian historiography and a member of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Drinov was born in Panagyurishte in 1838 and he left for Russia in 1858 to continue his education. He studied history and philology in Kiev and at the Moscow State University, travelled and worked in Austria, in 1869, he became one of the co founders and an active member of the Bulgarian Literary Society. Drinov achieved a degree and became a reader of Slavistics at Kharkiv University. During the period of Russian government of Bulgaria Drinov was Minister of Popular Enlightenment, Drinov lived in Kharkiv after 1881, continuing his scientific and educational activities until the end of his life. He died in the town in 1906 after a fight with tuberculosis. Drinov Peak on Smith Island, South Shetland Islands is named after Marin Drinov, Поглед върху произхождението на българския народ и началото на българската история. Исторически преглед на Българската църква от самото ѝ начало и до днес, Виена,1869 Заселение Балканскаго полуострова славянами Южные славяне и Византия в Х веке Дринов, М. Новый церковно-славянский памятник с упоминанием о славянских первоучителях, – Журнал Министерства Народного Просвящения, Ч.238. О некоторых трудах Димитрия Хоматиана, как историческом материале, О некоторых трудах Димитрия Хоматиана, как историческом материале. на Иван Дуйчев, София,1971 Сборниче за юбилея на професора Марин С, Нареди и издаде Българското книжовно дружество в София. С.1900 Изследвания в чест на Марин Стоянов Дринов, gjuzelev, V. Marin Drinov - Begründer der bulgarischen Slawistik und Mediävistik, Palaeobulgarica, XVII, №4, 107-126. An article on Marin Drinov by Nikola Filipov Rulex. ru article on Marin Drinov Chisholm, Hugh, works by or about Marin Drinov in libraries
9.
Yat
–
Yat or jat is the thirty-second letter of the old Cyrillic alphabet, as well as the name of the sound it represented. Its name in Old Church Slavonic is jět’ or iat’, in the common scientific Latin transliteration for old Slavic languages, the letter is represented by e with caron, ě. There is also version of Yat, the iotified Yat, which is a Cyrillic character combining a Decimal I. There was no value for this letter and it was not in the Glagolitic alphabet. It was encoded in Unicode 5.1 at positions U+A652, Yat represented a Common Slavic long vowel. It is generally believed to have represented the sound, which was a reflex of earlier Proto-Slavic */ē/, */oj/ and that the sound represented by yat developed late in the history of Common Slavic is indicated by its role in the Slavic second palatalization of the Slavic velar consonants. Significantly, from the earliest texts, there was confusion between the yat and the Cyrillic iotified a ⟨ꙗ⟩. One explanation is that the dialect of Thessaloniki, and other South Slavic dialects shifted from /ě/ to /ja/ independently from the Northern and Western branches, the confusion was also possibly aggravated by the fact that Cyrillic Little Yus ⟨ѧ⟩ looks very similar to the older Glagolitic alphabets yat ⟨ⱑ⟩. An extremely rare iotated yat form ⟨ꙓ⟩ also exists, in various modern Slavic languages, yat has reflexed into various vowels. For example, the old Slavic root běl became bel /bʲel/ in Standard Russian, bil /bʲil/ in Ukrainian, bjal in Bulgarian, biel / biały in Polish, bílý in Czech and biely in Slovak. Older, unrelated reflexes of yat exist, for example, old word телѣгы became modern Russian телеги, due to these reflexes, yat no longer represented an independent phoneme but an already existing one, represented by another Cyrillic letter. As a result, children had to memorize by rote whether or not to write yat and it has, since 1991, found some favor in advertising. In Bulgarian, the different reflexes of the yat form the so-called yat border, the yat border is the most important Bulgarian isogloss. West of that isogloss, old yat is always realized as /ɛ/, east of it, the reflexes of yat prototypically alternate between /ja/ or /ʲa/ and /ɛ/. After World War II, Literary Bulgarian was based on the pronunciation of the eastern dialects, some examples of the alternation in the standard language follow, mlyako → mlekar, mlechen, etc. syadam → sedalka, sedalishte, etc. svyat → svetoven, svetski, etc. From the liberation of Bulgaria until 1945, the standard Bulgarian orthography did not reflect this alternation and this was regarded as a way to maintain unity between Eastern and Western Bulgarians, as much of what was then seen as Western Bulgarian dialects was under foreign control. In 1947 the letter was removed from the Bulgarian alphabet and the spelling was changed to conform to the Eastern pronunciation, in Russian, written confusion between the yat and е appears in the earliest records, when exactly the distinction finally disappeared in speech is a topic of debate. Some scholars, for example W. K. Matthews, have placed the merger of the two sounds at the earliest historical phases, attributing its use until 1918 to Church Slavonic influence
10.
Yus
–
Little yus and big yus, or jus, are letters of the Cyrillic script representing two Common Slavonic nasal vowels in the early Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabets. Each can occur in iotified form, formed as ligatures with the decimal i, other yus letters are blended yus, closed little yus and iotified closed little yus. Phonetically, little yus represents a front vowel, possibly, while big yus represents a nasalized back vowel. This is also suggested by the appearance of each as a digraph of Am. The names of the letters do not imply capitalization, as little and big yus exist in majuscule and minuscule variants. All modern Slavic languages that use the Cyrillic alphabet have lost the nasal vowels, big Yus was a part of the Bulgarian alphabet until 1945. However, by time, in the eastern dialects the back nasal was pronounced the same way as ъ. Because the language is based mainly on them, the western pronunciations were deemed unliterary, there are some Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects spoken around Thessaloniki and Kastoria in northern Greece that still preserve a nasal pronunciation. To the younger people this pronunciation was completely alien, they would think that the old ladies were speaking Greek. In Polish, which is a Slavic language written with Latin alphabet, the iotated forms are written ię, ią, ję, ją in Polish. However, the phonemes written ę and ą are not directly descended from those represented by little and big yus, little and big yuses can also be found in the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, used until about 1860. Little yus was used for /ja/ and big yus for /ɨ/, Я я, Cyrillic letter Ya Ѣ ѣ, Cyrillic letter Yat Ę Ą
11.
2007 enlargement of the European Union
–
The 2007 enlargement of the European Union saw Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union on 1 January 2007. Together with the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, it is considered part of the wave of enlargement of the European Union. Romania was the first country of post-communist Europe to have relations with the European Community. In 1974, a treaty included Romania in the Communitys Generalized System of Preferences, since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, European Union membership has been the main goal of every Romanian Government and practically every political party in Romania. Along with its official EU application, Romania submitted the “Snagov Declaration”, the objective of joining the EU has also influenced Romanias regional relations. As a result, Romania has imposed visa regimes on a number of states, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Serbia, Montenegro, Turkey and Moldova. Within the framework of integration meetings held between the EU member states and Bulgaria, an Association Committee was held on 22 June 2004, there was also, according to the report, limited progress regarding the integration of the Roma community. The findings were reflected in the 2004 Regular Report, the Brussels European Council of December 172004 confirmed the conclusion of accession negotiations with Bulgaria. With this accession, Cyrillic became the official alphabet of the EU, after the Latin. Cyrillic will also be featured on the banknotes and the national side of the Bulgarian euro coins. For details, see Linguistic issues concerning the euro, the issue was decisively resolved in favour of Bulgaria at the 2007 EU Summit in Lisbon, allowing Bulgaria to use the Cyrillic spelling евро on all official EU documents. The date of accession,1 January 2007, was set at the Thessaloniki Summit in 2003, Bulgaria, Romania and the EU-25 signed the Treaty of Accession on 25 April 2005 at Luxembourgs Neumuenster Abbey. The 26 September 2006 monitoring report of the European Commission confirmed the date as 1 January 2007. The last instrument of ratification of the Treaty of Accession was deposited with the Italian government on 20 December 2006 thereby ensuring it came into force on 1 January 2007. Some member states of the EU required Bulgarians and Romanians to acquire a permit to work, in the Treaty of Accession 2005, there is a clause about a transition period so each old EU member state can impose such 2+3+2 transitional periods. Restrictions were planned to remain in place until 1 January 2014 –7 years after their accession, while both countries were admitted, concerns about corruption and organised crime were still high. As a result, although they joined, they were subject to monitoring from the Commission through a Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification, the accession treaty granted Bulgaria and Romania a seat, like every other state, on the Commission. Bulgaria nominated Meglena Kuneva, from NDSV who was given the post of Commissioner for Consumer Protection in the Barroso Commission and she was nominated in 2006 by the then current Bulgarian Prime Minister Sergei Stanishev
12.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
13.
Latin script
–
Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
14.
Greek alphabet
–
It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to the monotonic system, examples In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic, among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants and aspirated plosives in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. This leads to groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the spellings in most of these cases. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers, Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, in other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components, among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above, there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/, the Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced, and respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for and respectively, ⟨τζ⟩ stands for, in addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal, thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩ and these signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. The letter rho, although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position, if a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the iota subscript. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩, another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis, indicating a hiatus. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as monotonic, was adopted for use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script, the form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ respectively, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively
15.
Romanization of Bulgarian
–
Romanization of Bulgarian is the practice of transliteration of text in Bulgarian from its conventional Cyrillic orthography into the Latin alphabet. Official use of romanization by Bulgarian authorities is found, for instance, in identity documents, several different standards of transliteration exist, one of which was chosen and made mandatory for common use by the Bulgarian authorities in a law of 2009. The various romanization systems differ with respect to 12 out of the 30 letters of the modern Bulgarian alphabet. The remaining 18 have constant mappings in all romanization schemes, а→a, б→b, в→v, г→g, д→d, е→e, з→z, и→i, к→k, л→l, м→m, н→n, о→o, п→p, р→r, с→s, т→t, ф→f. Differences exist with respect to the following, letters involving the glide sound /j/, letters denoting palatal/alveolar fricatives and affricates. Also, Cyrillic x may be rendered as either <h>, <x> or <kh>, the rendering of щ as <št> or <sht> is specific to Bulgarian and differs from the conventions for the East Slavic languages, where it is rendered mostly as <šč> or <shch>. The letter ъ, which in Bulgarian denotes a special schwa-like vowel and this sound, which occurs in the first syllable of the country name Bulgaria, is variously rendered as <ă>, <ŭ>, <a>, <u>, or, in more extreme cases, <y> or <ə>. Moreover, Cyrillic у, which is rendered as Latin <u>, is sometimes rendered instead as <ou> to distinguish it from ъ. Three different systems have been adopted officially by Bulgarian authorities at overlapping times and it is identical to that codified in the ISO norm ISO/R9,1968. This system uses diacritic letters as well as <j> and <c> and it was adopted in 1973 as the Bulgarian state standard BDS1596,1973 which, although still valid formally is no longer used in practice, having been superseded by the 2009 Transliteration Law. The second system was a French-oriented transliteration of personal and place names in the documents issued by the Bulgarian Ministry of Interior for travel abroad and these systems characteristically use <ch, sh, zh> rather than <č, š, ž>, and <y> rather than <j>. One such system was proposed in Danchev et al. s English Dictionary of Bulgarian Names of 1989, the new official Bulgarian system does not allow for unambiguous mapping back into Cyrillic, since unlike most other systems it does not distinguish between ъ and а. A modification of the using a diacritic was proposed in the authoritative New Orthographic Dictionary of the Bulgarian Language in 2002. However, that proposal was not adopted for usage. An exception to the rules was introduced by the Bulgarian authorities in 2006, mandating the transliteration of word-final -ия as -ia rather than -iya in given names, the Streamlined system was adopted by UN in 2012, and by BGN and PCGN in 2013. For that purpose, certain Cyrillic letters and combinations of letters are transliterated as follows, ъ→a, ь→y, зх→z|h, йа→y|a, йу→y|u, сх→s|h, тс→t|s, тш→t|sh, тщ→t|sht, шт→sh|t, шц→sh|ts, ия →i|a. The standard transliteration form of a text is obtained from its unambiguously reversible one by simply removing the additional symbols. Some people and companies prefer to use or retain personalized spellings of their own names in Latin, examples are politicians Ivan Stancioff and Simeon Djankov, and beer brand Kamenitza
16.
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
17.
Soft sign
–
The soft sign also known as the front yer or front er, is a letter of the Cyrillic script. In Old Church Slavonic, it represented a short front vowel, as with its companion, the back yer ⟨ъ⟩, the vowel phoneme that it designated was later partly dropped and partly merged with other vowels. In the modern Slavic Cyrillic writing systems, it does not represent an individual sound and it was also used in the Soviet Union in the Latinized Karelian alphabet, made official in 1931 and used until re-Cyrillicization of Karelian in 1937. The soft sign is written after a consonant and indicates its softening. Less commonly, the sign just has a grammatically determined usage with no phonetic meaning. The Cyrillic alphabet of Serbo-Croatian has had no sign as a distinct letter since the mid-19th century. The modern Macedonian writing system, based on the Serbian variant, has had no soft sign since its creation, between a consonant and a vowel, the soft sign bears also a function of iotation sign, in Russian, vowels after the soft sign are iotated. The feature, quite consistent with Russian orthography, promulgated a confusion between palatalization and iotation, especially because ⟨ь⟩ usually precedes so-called soft vowels. The latter case, though, is used in Russian and can be seen as a replacement of phonetically identical ⟨ьё⟩. In Ukrainian and Bulgarian, the spelling ⟨ьо⟩ indicates palatalization, not iotation, ⟨ъ⟩, an unpalatalization sign, also denotes iotation, as in the case of ⟨ъя⟩, ⟨ъе⟩, ⟨ъё⟩ and ⟨ъю⟩ in Russian. Similarly, the sign may denote iotation in Belarusian and Ukrainian. Ukrainian uses a different repertoire of vowel letters from those of Russian and Belarusian. Among Slavic languages, the sign has the most limited use in Bulgarian, since 1945. In Slavistic transcription, Ь and Ъ are used to denote Proto-Slavic extra-short sounds /ĭ/ and /ŭ/ respectively, similarly, the ⟨оь⟩ digraph was introduced for or, and ⟨уь⟩ for, plus iotated forms such as ⟨юь⟩ and ⟨яь⟩ as required. There were proposals to use the same for Turkic languages, as a replacement to Cyrillic Schwa for or /æ/. Unlike Schwa, which is not represented in many Cyrillic character repertoires such as Windows-1251, under normal orthographic rules, it has no uppercase form, as no word begins with the letter. However, Cyrillic type fonts normally provide a form for setting type in all caps or for using it as an element of various serial numbers. In the romanization of Cyrillic words, soft signs are replaced with the prime symbol ′
18.
Russian cursive
–
The Russian cursive is the handwritten form of the modern Russian Cyrillic script, used instead of the block letters seen in printed material. In addition, Russian italics for the letters are often based on the Russian cursive. Most handwritten Russian, especially personal letters and schoolwork, uses the cursive alphabet, in Russian schools most children are taught from first grade how to write with this script. It became the counterpart of so-called civil printed script of books. In order, modern Cyrillic italic typefaces are based mostly on the shape of the letters. The resulting cursive bears many similarities with the Latin cursive, one must not confuse the historical Russian chancery hand, the contemporary Russian cursive and the contemporary Russian stenography. The latter is completely different from the two, though it is sometimes called ско́ропись like the former. Russian cursive is much like contemporary calligraphic Latin cursive, therefore, certain combinations of these Russian letters cannot be unambiguously deciphered without knowing the language or without a broader context. For example, in the words волшебник, magician and домик, little house the combinations лш, there are examples of different words that become absolutely identical in their cursive form, e. g. мщу, revenge and лицу, a face. In some forms of cursive the distinction between т and ш may become elusive, because both are written in the shapes of either m or ɯ. To alleviate this case of ambiguity, a bar can be written above the character if it is т. Also, writing т in its printed form rather than its usual m shape is common, the letter д may also be written in the shape of ∂. Several letters in Russian cursive are different from the used in the Serbian and Macedonian languages. Thus, Serbian/Macedonian г and п are written like the cursive Latin i and u with macron, cursive Russian alphabet Russian cursive writing practice sheet PDF
19.
Roman type
–
In Latin-script typography, roman is one of the three main kinds of historical type, alongside blackletter and italic. During the early Renaissance, roman and italic type were used separately, today, roman and italic type are mixed, and most typefaces are composed of an upright roman style with an associated italic or oblique style. Popular roman typefaces include Bembo, Baskerville, Caslon, Jenson, Times New Roman, History of western typography Gaelic type Bringhurst, Robert, The Elements of Typographic Style. Often referred to simply as Bringhurst, Elements is widely respected as the current English-language authority on typographic style, nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering, Dover Publications, Inc. The Dover edition is an abridged and corrected republication of the originally published in 1950 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. under the title Lettering, The History
20.
Shcha
–
Shcha is a letter of the Cyrillic script. In Russian, it represents the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative /ɕ/, like the pronunciation of ⟨sh⟩ in sheep, in Ukrainian and Rusyn, it represents the consonant cluster /ʃt͡ʃ/. In Bulgarian, it represents the consonant cluster /ʃt/, in Kurdish, it represents the consonant /d͡ʒ/. In English, Shcha is romanized as ⟨shch⟩ or ⟨šč⟩, both reflecting the historical Russian pronunciation of the letter, the letter Щ in Russian and Ukrainian corresponds to ШЧ in related words in Belarusian. The Cyrillic letter Shcha was derived from the Glagolitic letter Shta Ⱋ, the name in the Early Cyrillic alphabet was шта and is preserved in modern Bulgarian, it is pronounced штъ. The form of the letter Shcha is the letter Cyrillic Sha with a descender (cf. the Cyrillic letters De, Tse, Ka with descender, and En with descender. Ш ш, Cyrillic letter Sha С́ с́, Montenegrin Cyrillic letter Sje The dictionary definition of Щ at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of щ at Wiktionary
21.
Yu (Cyrillic)
–
Yu is a letter of the Cyrillic script used in East Slavic and Bulgarian alphabets. In English, Yu is commonly romanized as ⟨yu⟩, in turn, ⟨ю⟩ is used, where is available, in transcriptions of English letter ⟨u⟩, and also of the ⟨ew⟩ digraph. The sound, like ⟨u⟩ in French and ⟨ü⟩ in German and it is a so-called iotated vowel, pronounced in isolation as /ju/, like the pronunciation of ⟨you⟩ in youth. After a consonant, no sound is pronounced, but the consonant is softened. The exact pronunciation of the sound of ⟨ю⟩, in Russian depends also on the succeeding sound because of allophony. Before a soft consonant, it is, the close central rounded vowel, if a hard consonant ⟨ю⟩ or nothing or at the end of a word, the result is a back vowel, as in Lewis. Apart from the form I-O, in early Slavonic manuscripts the letter appears also in a mirrored form O-I and it is the latter form that is probably the original, precisely displaying the Greek combination omicron-iota. At the time that the Greek alphabet was adapted to the Slavonic language giving rise to the Cyrillic alphabet, it denoted the close front rounded vowel /y/ in educated Greek speech. This digraphic representation of /y/ was so basic for speakers of Greek that the letter upsilon representing the same sound came to be called υ ψιλόν simple υ in contrast to complex οι. The close front rounded vowel does not appear in East Slavic, there was another way for it to lead to the modern form. By the analogy to several iotated letters Ѥ, ІА, Ѩ and Ѭ, also, the iotified big Yus ⟨Ѭ⟩ merged itself to ⟨ю⟩ in East Slavic languages
22.
Ya (Cyrillic)
–
Ya is a letter of the Cyrillic script, the civil script variant of Old Cyrillic Little Yus. Among modern Slavonic languages, it is used in East Slavic and it is also used in the Cyrillic alphabets used by Mongolian and many Uralic, Caucasian and Turkic languages of the former Soviet Union. It is a so-called iotated vowel and typically sounds as /ja/ in initial or post-vocalic position, when ⟨я⟩ follows a soft consonant, no /j/ sound occurs between the consonant and the vowel. Exact pronunciation of the sound of ⟨я⟩ depends also on the succeeding sound due to allophony in Slavic languages. Before a soft consonant it is, the near-open front unrounded vowel – like in bat, if a hard consonant follows ⟨я⟩, or none, then the result is an open vowel, usually – like in French la. In non-stressed positions the reduction depends on language and dialect, the standard Russian language reduces this vowel to, but in yakanye dialects ⟨я⟩ does not reduce at all, although other instances of the /a/ phoneme do reduce. In Bulgarian the vowel sound is reduced to /ɐ/ in unstressed syllables, the letter ѧ, known as little jus originally stood for a front nasal vowel, conventionally transcribed as ę. The history of the letter according to the development of this sound in the different areas where Cyrillic was used. In Serbia, became at an early period and the letter ѧ ceased to be used. The letter continued to be used, but its distribution, particularly in regard to the other jusy, was governed as much by orthographical convention as by phonetic value or etymology. However, Cyrillic already had a character with this function, namely ꙗ, the alphabet in Meletij Smotrickijs grammar of 1619 accordingly lists ꙗ и҆лѝ ѧ, he explains that ꙗ is used initially and ѧ elsewhere. This reflects the practice of earlier scribes and was codified by the Muscovite printers of the seventeenth century. However, in vernacular and informal writing of the period, the two letters may be used completely indiscriminately and it was similarly adopted for the standardised orthographies of modern Ukrainian and Belarusian. By the early century, under Russian influence, я came to be used for /ja/, retaining its use for /jɐ/ but was no longer used for other purposes. In Russian, the letter has little use in loanwords and orthographic transcriptions of foreign words, a notable exception is the use of ⟨ля⟩ Russian pronunciation, to transcribe /la/, mostly from Romance languages, German and Arabic. This makes ⟨л⟩ to match better than its dark l pronunciation in ⟨ла⟩, although is a distinctive pronunciation of ⟨я⟩ in Russian, the letter is almost never used to transcribe that sound, unlike the use of ⟨ю⟩ to approximate close front and central rounded vowels. Nonetheless, ⟨я⟩ is used for Estonian ⟨ä⟩ – for instance, Pärnu is written ⟨Пярну⟩ in Russian, faux Cyrillic The dictionary definition of Я at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of я at Wiktionary
23.
Sidewalk
–
A sidewalk or pavement, also known as a footpath or footway, is a path along the side of a road. A sidewalk may accommodate moderate changes in grade and is separated from the vehicular section by a curb. There may also be a strip or road verge either between the sidewalk and the roadway or between the sidewalk and the boundary. In some places, the term may also be used for a paved path, trail or footpath that is not next to a road, for example. The term sidewalk is usually preferred in most of North America, the term pavement is more common in the United Kingdom, as well as parts of the Mid-Atlantic United States such as Philadelphia and New Jersey. Many Commonwealth countries use the term footpath, the professional, civil engineering and legal term for this in North America is sidewalk while in the United Kingdom it is footway. In the United States, the sidewalk is used for the pedestrian path beside a road. Shared use paths or multi-use paths are available for use by pedestrians and bicyclists. Walkway is a comprehensive term that includes stairs, ramps, passageways. In the UK, the footpath is mostly used for paths that do not abut a roadway. The term shared-use path is used where cyclists are able to use the same section of path as pedestrians. There is evidence that sidewalks were built in ancient times and it was claimed that the Greek city of Corinth was paved by the 4th-century, and the Romans were particularly prolific sidewalk builders – they called them semitas. However, by the Middle Ages, narrow roads had reverted to being used by pedestrians and wagons without any formal separation between the two categories. Early attempts at ensuring the maintenance of foot-ways or sidewalks were often made, such as the 1623 Act for Colchester. Following the Great Fire of London in 1666, attempts were made to bring some order to the sprawling city. Purbeck stone was used as a durable paving material. Bollards were also installed to protect pedestrians from the traffic in the middle of the road, the Corporation was also made responsible for the regular upkeep of the roads, including their cleaning and repair, for which they charged a tax from 1766. By the late 19th-century large and spacious sidewalks were constructed in European capitals
24.
Inflection
–
An inflection expresses one or more grammatical categories with a prefix, suffix or infix, or another internal modification such as a vowel change. For example, the Latin verb ducam, meaning I will lead, includes the suffix -am, expressing person, number, the use of this suffix is an inflection. In contrast, in the English clause I will lead, the lead is not inflected for any of person, number, or tense. The inflected form of a word contains both one or more free morphemes, and one or more bound morphemes. These two morphemes together form the inflected word cars and its categories can be determined only from its context. Requiring the forms or inflections of more than one word in a sentence to be compatible with each other according to the rules of the language is known as concord or agreement. For example, in the choir sings, choir is a singular noun, languages that have some degree of inflection are synthetic languages. These can be inflected, or weakly inflected. Languages that are so inflected that a sentence can consist of a highly inflected word are called polysynthetic languages. Languages such as Mandarin Chinese that never use inflections are called analytic or isolating, in English most nouns are inflected for number with the inflectional plural affix -s, and most English verbs are inflected for tense with the inflectional past tense affix -ed. English also inflects verbs by affixation to mark the person singular in the present tense. English short adjectives are inflected to mark comparative and superlative forms, in addition, English also shows inflection by ablaut and umlaut, as well as long-short vowel alternation. For example, Write, wrote, written Sing, sang, sung Foot, feet Mouse, mice Child, children For details, see English plural, English verbs, and English irregular verbs. When a given word class is subject to inflection in a particular language, words which follow such a standard pattern are said to be regular, those that inflect differently are called irregular. For instance, many languages that feature verb inflection have both regular verbs and irregular verbs, in English, regular verbs form their past tense and past participle with the ending -d, thus verbs like play, arrive and enter are regular. However, there are a few hundred verbs which follow different patterns, such as sing–sang–sung and keep–kept–kept, irregular verbs often preserve patterns which were regular in past forms of the language, but which have now become anomalous. Example, Latin dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum > Spanish digo, decir, dije, strong vs. weak inflection—Sometimes two inflection systems exist, conventionally classified as strong and weak. Ancient Greek verbs are likewise said to have had a first aorist, suppletion—The irregular form was originally derived from a different root
25.
WikiLeaks
–
WikiLeaks /ˈwɪkiliːks/ is an international non-profit organisation that publishes secret information, news leaks, and classified media from anonymous sources. Its website, initiated in 2006 in Iceland by the organisation Sunshine Press, Julian Assange, an Australian Internet activist, is generally described as its founder, editor-in-chief, and director. The group has released a number of significant documents that have become front-page news items, early releases included documentation of equipment expenditures and holdings in the Afghanistan war and a report informing a corruption investigation in Kenya. In July of the year, WikiLeaks released Afghan War Diary. In October 2010, the released a set of almost 400,000 documents called the Iraq War Logs in coordination with major commercial media organisations. In April 2011, WikiLeaks began publishing 779 secret files relating to prisoners detained in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in November 2010, WikiLeaks collaborated with major global media organisations to release U. S. State Department diplomatic cables in redacted format. During the 2016 U. S. presidential election campaign, WikiLeaks released emails and other documents from the Democratic National Committee and from Hillary Clintons campaign manager and these releases caused significant damage to the Clinton campaign and may have contributed to the Democratic Partys loss. The U. S. intelligence community expressed high confidence that the emails had been hacked by Russia and supplied to WikiLeaks. During the campaign, WikiLeaks promoted conspiracy theories about Clinton and the Democratic Party, WikiLeaks has also been criticised for inadequately curating its content and violating the personal privacy of individuals. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers, the wikileaks. org domain name was registered on 4 October 2006. The website was established and published its first document in December 2006, sarah Harrison, Kristinn Hrafnsson and Joseph Farrell are the only other publicly known and acknowledged associates of Assange. Harrison is also a member of Sunshine Press Productions along with Assange, WikiLeaks was originally established with a wiki communal publication method, which was terminated by May 2010. As of June 2009, the website had more than 1,200 registered volunteers, despite some popular confusion, WikiLeaks and Wikipedia are not affiliated. Wikia, a for-profit corporation affiliated loosely with the Wikimedia Foundation, according to the WikiLeaks website, its goal is to bring important news and information to the public. One of our most important activities is to publish original source material alongside our news stories so readers, another of the organisations goals is to ensure that journalists and whistleblowers are not prosecuted for emailing sensitive or classified documents. The online drop box is described by the WikiLeaks website as an innovative, secure and that is why in the US Constitution the Bill of Rights says that Congress is to make no such law abridging the freedom of the press. It is to take the rights of the press outside the rights of the law because those rights are superior to the law because in fact create the law. Every constitution, every bit of legislation is derived from the flow of information, similarly every government is elected as a result of people understanding things
26.
YouTube
–
YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
27.
Skype
–
Skype is an instant messaging app that provides online text message and video chat services. Users may transmit both text and video messages and may exchange digital documents such as images, text, Skype operate based on a freemium model. Much of the service is free, but Skype Credit or a subscription is required to call a landline or a phone number. At the end of 2010, there were over 660 million worldwide users, at one point in February 2012, there were thirty four million users concurrently online on Skype. In September 2005, eBay acquired Skype for $2.6 billion, Microsoft bought Skype in May 2011 for $8.5 billion. Skype division headquarters are in Luxembourg but most of the development team and 44% of all the employees are still situated in Tallinn and Tartu. Skype allows users to communicate over the Internet by voice using a microphone, by using a webcam. Skype-to-Skype calls to other users are free of charge, while calls to landline telephones, Skype originally featured a hybrid peer-to-peer and client–server system. Skype has been powered entirely by Microsoft-operated supernodes since May 2012, the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures revealed that Microsoft had granted intelligence agencies unfettered access to supernodes and Skype communication content. The name for the software is derived from Sky peer-to-peer, which was abbreviated to Skyper. However, some of the names associated with Skyper were already taken. Dropping the final r left the current title Skype, for domain names were available. Skype was founded in 2003 by Niklas Zennström, from Sweden, the Skype software was created by Estonians Ahti Heinla, Priit Kasesalu, and Jaan Tallinn. The first public version was released on 29 August 2003. In June 2005, Skype entered into an agreement with the Polish web portal Onet. pl for an offering on the Polish market. On 10 May 2011, Microsoft Corporation acquired Skype Communications, S. à r. l for US$8.5 billion, the company was incorporated as a division of Microsoft, which acquired all Its technologies with the purchase. This was completed on 13 October 2011 and this app became downloadable from the Windows Store when the new OS launched on 26 October 2012. When the company introduced Office 2013 on 27 February 2013, it was announced that 60 Skype world minutes per month would be included in Office 365 consumer plans, on 11 November 2014, Microsoft announced that in 2015 Lync would be replaced by Skype for Business
28.
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
–
The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences is the National Academy of Bulgaria, established in 1869. The Academy, located in Sofia, is autonomous and has a Society of Academicians, Correspondent Members and it publishes and circulates different scientific works, encyclopedias, dictionaries and journals, and runs its own publishing house. Stefan Vodenicharov has been president of the BAS since 2012 and its budget in 2009 was 84 million leva, or 42.7 million euro. The Bulgarian Space Agency, part of the BAS, has a budget of 1 million euro, as Bulgaria was part of the Ottoman Empire, Bulgarian émigrés founded the Bulgarian Literary Society on 26 September 1869, in Brăila in the Kingdom of Romania. Stoyanov – Secretary The following year, the Literary Society began issuing the Periodical Journal, its official publication, the BLS headquarters were completed in 1892. The building was designed by architect Hermann Mayer and was expanded during the 1920s, the Bulgarian Literary Society adopted its present-day name in 1911, and Ivan Geshov became the Academys first president. The BAS became a member of the Union of Slavonic Academies and Scientific Communities in 1913, each consists of independent scientific institutes, laboratories and other sections. D. Camp Academia Bulgarian Academy of Sciences official website Institute of Solid State Physics
29.
Yahoo!
–
Yahoo Inc. is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Sunnyvale, California. Yahoo was founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994 and was incorporated on March 2,1995, Yahoo was one of the pioneers of the early internet era in the 1990s. Marissa Mayer, a former Google executive, Google Employee number 20 and it is globally known for its Web portal, search engine Yahoo. Search, and related services, including Yahoo, answers, advertising, online mapping, video sharing, fantasy sports, and its social media website. It is one of the most popular sites in the United States, according to news sources, roughly 700 million people visit Yahoo websites every month. Yahoo itself claims it attracts more than half a billion consumers every month in more than 30 languages, in January 1994 Yang and Filo were electrical engineering graduate students at Stanford University, when they created a website named Jerry and Davids guide to the World Wide Web. The site was a directory of websites, organized in a hierarchy. In March 1994, Jerry and Davids Guide to the World Wide Web was renamed Yahoo, the yahoo. com domain was created on January 18,1995. The word yahoo is a backronym for Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle or Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle, the term hierarchical described how the Yahoo database was arranged in layers of subcategories. However, Filo and Yang insist they mainly selected the name because they liked the definition of a yahoo, rude, unsophisticated. This meaning derives from the Yahoo race of beings from Gullivers Travels. Yahoo grew rapidly throughout the 1990s, like many search engines and web directories, Yahoo added a web portal. By 1998, Yahoo was the most popular starting point for web users and it also made many high-profile acquisitions. Its stock price skyrocketed during the bubble, Yahoo stocks closing at an all-time high of $118.75 a share on January 3,2000. However, after the bubble burst, it reached a post-bubble low of $8.11 on September 26,2001. Yahoo began using Google for search in 2000, over the next four years, it developed its own search technologies, which it began using in 2004. In response to Googles Gmail, Yahoo began to offer unlimited email storage in 2007, the company struggled through 2008, with several large layoffs. In February 2008, Microsoft Corporation made a bid to acquire Yahoo for $44.6 billion
30.
Microsoft
–
Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
31.
PayPal
–
PayPal is one of the worlds largest Internet payment companies. The company operates as a payment processor for online vendors, auction sites and other commercial users, established in 1998, PayPal had its IPO in 2002, and became a wholly owned subsidiary of eBay later that year. In 2014, PayPal moved $228 billion in 30 currencies across more than 190 nations, the same year, eBay announced plans to spin-off PayPal into an independent company by mid-2015 and this was completed on July 18,2015. On July 20,2015, PayPal had its second IPO, PayPal was established in December 1998 as Confinity, a company that developed security software for handheld devices founded by Max Levchin, Peter Thiel, Luke Nosek and Ken Howery. PayPal was developed and launched as a transfer service at Confinity in 1999. In March 2000, Confinity merged with X. com, a banking company founded by Elon Musk. Musk was optimistic about the success of the money transfer business Confinity was developing. Musk and then-president and CEO of X. com, Bill Harris, disagreed on this point, in October of that year, Musk made the decision that X. com would terminate its other Internet banking operations and focus on the PayPal money service. The X. com company was then renamed PayPal in 2001, Paypals IPO listed under the ticker PYPL at $13 per share and ended up generating over $61 million. Shortly after PayPals IPO, the company was acquired by eBay in July 2002 for $1.5 billion, more than 70 percent of all eBay auctions accepted PayPal payments, and roughly 1 in 4 closed auction listings were transacted via PayPal. PayPal acquired the VeriSign payment solution in 2005 to expand its e-commerce business, by the end of 2007, the company generated $1.8 billion in revenue. In November 2008, the company acquired Bill Me Later, a payments company offering transactional credit at over 9000 online merchants in the US. PayPal revenues for Q12009 were $643 million, up 11 percent year over year,42 percent of revenues in Q12009 were from international markets. PayPals Total Payment Volume, the value of transactions in Q12009 was nearly $16 billion. By 2010, PayPal had over 100 million active user accounts in 190 markets through 25 different currencies, in July 2011, fourteen alleged members of the Anonymous hacktivist group were charged with attempting to disrupt PayPals operations. The denial of service attacks occurred in December 2010, after PayPal stopped processing donations to Wikileaks, on December 5,2013,13 of the PayPal 14 pleaded guilty to misdemeanor and felony charges related to the attacks. The company continued to focus on growth and growth of its Merchant Services division. In 2011, PayPal announced that it would begin moving its business offline so that customers can make payments via PayPal in stores
32.
Facebook
–
Facebook is an American for-profit corporation and an online social media and social networking service based in Menlo Park, California. Facebook gradually added support for students at other universities. Since 2006, anyone age 13 and older has been allowed to become a user of Facebook, though variations exist in the minimum age requirement. The Facebook name comes from the face book directories often given to United States university students, Facebook may be accessed by a large range of desktops, laptops, tablet computers, and smartphones over the Internet and mobile networks. After registering to use the site, users can create a user profile indicating their name, occupation, schools attended and so on. Additionally, users may join common-interest user groups organized by workplace, school, hobbies or other topics, in groups, editors can pin posts to top. Additionally, users can complain about or block unpleasant people, because of the large volume of data that users submit to the service, Facebook has come under scrutiny for its privacy policies. Facebook makes most of its revenue from advertisements which appear onscreen, Facebook, Inc. held its initial public offering in February 2012, and began selling stock to the public three months later, reaching an original peak market capitalization of $104 billion. On July 13,2015, Facebook became the fastest company in the Standard & Poors 500 Index to reach a market cap of $250 billion, Facebook has more than 1.86 billion monthly active users as of December 31,2016. As of April 2016, Facebook was the most popular social networking site in the world, Facebook classifies users from the ages of 13 to 18 as minors and therefore sets their profiles to share content with friends only. Zuckerberg wrote a program called Facemash on October 28,2003 while attending Harvard University as a sophomore, to accomplish this, Zuckerberg hacked into protected areas of Harvards computer network and copied private dormitory ID images. Facemash attracted 450 visitors and 22,000 photo-views in its first four hours online, the site was quickly forwarded to several campus group list-servers, but was shut down a few days later by the Harvard administration. Zuckerberg faced expulsion and was charged by the administration with breach of security, violating copyrights, Zuckerberg expanded on this initial project that semester by creating a social study tool ahead of an art history final exam. He uploaded 500 Augustan images to a website, each of which was featured with a corresponding comments section and he shared the site with his classmates, and people started sharing notes. The following semester, Zuckerberg began writing code for a new website in January 2004 and he said that he was inspired by an editorial about the Facemash incident in The Harvard Crimson. On February 4,2004, Zuckerberg launched Thefacebook, originally located at thefacebook. com. com and they claimed that he was instead using their ideas to build a competing product. The three complained to The Harvard Crimson and the newspaper began an investigation and they later filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg, subsequently settling in 2008 for 1.2 million shares. Membership was initially restricted to students of Harvard College, within the first month, eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum, and Chris Hughes joined Zuckerberg to help promote the website
33.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
34.
Abkhaz alphabet
–
The Abkhaz alphabet uses letters from the Cyrillic script for the Abkhaz language which consists of 62 letters. Abkhaz did not become a written language until the 19th century, up until then, Abkhazians, especially princes, had been using Greek, Georgian, and partially Turkish languages. The Abkhaz word for alphabet is анбан, which was borrowed from Georgian ანბანი, the first dedicated Abkhaz alphabet was created in 1862 by the Russian general Peter von Uslar. It had 37 letters and was based on the Cyrillic script, in 1909, it was expanded to 55 letters by Aleksey Chochua to adjust to the extensive consonantal inventory of Abkhaz. In 1926, during the policy in the Soviet Union. It featured 76 letters and was called the Abkhaz analytical alphabet, in 1928, this was replaced by another Latin alphabet. From 1938 to 1954 the Abkhaz language was written in 3 Georgian alphabets, since 1954, the Abkhaz language has been written in a new 62-letter Cyrillic alphabet. Of these,38 are graphically distinct, the rest are digraphs with ⟨ь⟩ and ⟨ә⟩ which indicate palatalization and labialization, respectively. In 1996, the most recent reform of the alphabet was implemented, unusually, the Cyrillic plosive letters К П Т represent ejective consonants, the non-ejectives are derived from these by means of a descender at the bottom of the letter. In the case of the affricates, however, the letter are pulmonic. The modern Abkhaz orthography gives preference to the letters Г П with descender instead of hook, the characters Ԥ and ԥ are encoded in Unicode since version 5.2. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011
35.
Albanian alphabet
–
The modern Albanian alphabet is a Latin alphabet, and consists of 36 letters, Note, The vowels are shown in bold. Listen to the pronunciation of the letters, the earliest mention of Albanian writings describes them Licet Albanenses aliam omnino linguam a latina habeant et diversam, tamen litteram latinam habent in uso et in omnibus suis libris. The history of the later Albanian alphabet is closely linked with the influence of religion among Albanians, there were also attempts for an original Albanian alphabet in the period of 1750–1850. The current alphabet in use among Albanians is one of the two approved in the Congress of Manastir held by Albanian intellectuals from November 14 to 22 November 1908. A first reference for Latin letters was in a medieval Latin manuscript of 1332, the earliest document discovered so far that is written in Albanian is a manuscript from 1210 by Theodor of Shkodra, presumably written in Latin characters. The first certain document in Albanian Formula e pagëzimit, issued by Pal Engjëlli, was written in Latin characters. It was a phrase that was supposed to be used by the relatives of a dying person if they couldnt make it to churches during the troubled times of the Ottoman invasion. The Greek intellectual Anastasios Michael, in his speech to the Berlin Academy mentions an Albanian alphabet produced recently by Kosmas from Cyprus and it is assumed that this is the alphabet used later for the Gospel of Elbasan. Anastasios calls Kosmas the Cadmus of Albania, in 1857 Kostandin Kristoforidhi, an Albanian scholar and translator, drafted in Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, a Memorandum for the Albanian language. He then went to Malta, where he stayed until 1860 in a Protestant seminary, finishing the translation of The New Testament in the Tosk and he was helped by Nikolla Serreqi from Shkodër with the Gheg version of the Testament. In November 1869, a Commission for the Alphabet of the Albanian Language was gathered in Istanbul, one of its members was Kostandin Kristoforidhi and the main purpose of the Commission was the creation of a unique alphabet for all the Albanians. In January 1870 the Commission ended its work of the standardization of the alphabet, a plan on the creation of textbooks and spread of Albanian schools was drafted. However this plan was not realized, because the Ottoman Government wouldnt finance the expenses for the establishment of such schools, Sami Frashëri, Koto Hoxhi, Pashko Vasa and Jani Vreto created an alphabet. This was based on the principle of one sound one letter and this was called the Istanbul alphabet. In 1905 this alphabet was in use in all Albanian territory, North and South, including Catholic, Muslim. One year earlier, in 1904 had been published the Albanian dictionary of Kostandin Kristoforidhi, the dictionary had been drafted 25 years before its publication and was written in the Greek alphabet. The so-called Bashkimi alphabet was designed by the Society for the Unity of the Albanian Language for being written on a French typewriter, in 1908, the Congress of Monastir was held by Albanian intellectuals in Bitola, Ottoman Empire, modern-day Republic of Macedonia. The Congress was hosted by the Bashkimi club, and prominent delegates included Gjergj Fishta, Ndre Mjeda, Mithat Frashëri, Sotir Peçi, Shahin Kolonja, there was much debate and the contending alphabets were Istanbul, Bashkimi and Agimi
36.
Arabic alphabet
–
The Arabic alphabet or Arabic abjadiyah is the Arabic script as it is codified for writing the Arabic language. It is written right to left, in a cursive style. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants, as with other abjads, such as the Hebrew alphabet, scribes later devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points. The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters, there are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots above or below their central part and these dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters transliterated as b and t have the basic shape, but b has one dot below, ب. Both printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most of the letters within a word connected to the adjacent letters. There are two main collating sequences for the Arabic alphabet, abjad and hija, in this order, letters are also used as numbers, Abjad numerals, and possess the same alphanumeric code/cipher as Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. The hijā’ī or alifbā’ī order, used where lists of names and words are sorted, as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries, groups letters by similarity of shape. Loss of sameḵ was compensated for by the split of shin ש into two independent Arabic letters, ش and ﺱ which moved up to take the place of sameḵ, the six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end. This is commonly vocalized as follows, abjad hawwaz ḥuṭṭī kalaman sa‘faṣ qarashat thakhadh ḍaẓagh, the hijā’ī order is never used as numerals. Another kind of order was used widely in the Maghreb until recently when it was replaced by the Mashriqi order. The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word, letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial, final, or isolated position. While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions, generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example, أرارات has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its following one, in addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures, notably lām-alif. Notes See the article Romanization of Arabic for details on various schemes, however. Also names are transcribed as pronounced locally, not as pronounced in Literary Arabic. Regarding pronunciation, the values given are those of Modern Standard Arabic
37.
Chakma alphabet
–
The Chakma alphabet, also called Ojhapath, Ojhopath, Aaojhapath, is an abugida used for the Chakma language. The forms of the letters are similar to those of the Burmese script. The Chakma alphabet is descended from Brahmi through Pallava. Proto Chakma developed around the 6th century CE, old Chakma developed in the 8th century CE. Classical Literary Chakma was used in the 11th to 15th centuries, classical Chakma was probably a sister script of Tai Tham and Tai Lue scripts of Northern Thailand also from the 8th century CE. Chakma is of the Brahmic type, the consonant letters contain an inherent vowel, unusually for Brahmic scripts, the inherent vowel in Chakma is a long ā as opposed to short a which is standard in most other languages of India such as Hindi, Marathi or Tamil. Consonant clusters are written with characters, and a visible vowel killer shows the deletion of the inherent vowel when there is no conjunct. Four independent vowels exist,
)[c]
are used as cursive forms.