1.
Metal
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A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible and ductile, about 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms, astrophysicists use the term metal to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium, the simplest two, in a star. The star fuses smaller atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, to larger ones over its lifetime. In that sense, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of all chemical elements. Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures, the atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. In bcc, each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others, in fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature, atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons, resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement. This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat, while this flow of electrons occurs, the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud. This type of bond is called a metallic bond, Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales. Examples,4 Na + O2 →2 Na2O2 Ca + O2 →2 CaO4 Al +3 O2 →2 Al2O3, the transition metals are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior. Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all, some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades. The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3, Mn2O7, and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions. Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion, however, a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee. Metals in general have high conductivity, high thermal conductivity. Typically they are malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving, in terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous. Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque, although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals, there is wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest
2.
Quantum-class cruise ship
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Quantum class is a class of cruise ships from Royal Caribbean International, previously known by the code name Project Sunshine. The first two ships of class, Quantum of the Seas and Anthem of the Seas were delivered in November 2014 and April 2015. The third ship, Ovation of the Seas, was delivered in April 2016, Quantum of the Seas spent its inaugural 2014-2015 season sailing from Cape Liberty in Bayonne, New Jersey, United States, before repositioning to China in May 2015. Beginning late June 2015, the ship began sailing three- to eight-night itineraries year-round from Shanghai to Japan, Anthem of the Seas spent its inaugural 2015 season sailing from Southampton, Hampshire, UK, before repositioning to Cape Liberty in November 2015. Ovation of the Seas will have Sydney as its port, sailing Australian. In May 2015, Royal Caribbean signed an agreement to build a fourth Quantum class ship and agreed to build a fifth ship in November of the same year. On February 11,2011, Royal Caribbean announced that they had ordered the first of a new class of ships from the Meyer Werft shipyard in Papenburg, at the time, the project was code-named Project Sunshine. Later that year, two 20. 5-megawatt ABB Azipod XO propulsion units were ordered for that ship, just under a year later, on January 31,2013, steel cutting for the first ship began with a silhouette of the ship being cut by laser. Details on the features of Quantum of the Seas were announced on April 16,2013. On September 18,2014, the name of the third Quantum-class ship was announced to be Ovation of the Seas. On May 7,2015, Royal Caribbean entered into an agreement with Meyer Werft for a fourth Quantum-class ship for delivery in 2019, subject to financing and other conditions. On November 3,2015, Royal Caribbean entered into an agreement with Meyer Werft for a fifth Quantum-class ship for delivery in 2020, the Quantum-class represented a different direction for Royal Caribbean. The Voyager and Freedom-class designs evolved into the Oasis class which was considered the pinnacle in terms of scale, although not RCIs largest ship, the Quantum-class pioneers several new innovations to the cruise line. Quantum-class ships have 16 passenger-accessible decks,8 of which feature balcony staterooms overlooking the ocean, like the Celebrity Solstice class, those staterooms above the life boats are recessed into the superstructure and dont look down directly at the ocean. There are a total of 2,090 staterooms,1,570 balcony staterooms,147 ocean-view staterooms, of those staterooms,34 are wheelchair accessible and 28 are studio staterooms for single travelers. All aft-facing staterooms are 2-story loft suites, on average, staterooms on the Quantum class are 9 percent larger than those on the preceding Oasis class. Like the earlier Freedom and Oasis-class ships, the Sports Court on deck 15 aft features a Wave Loch Flowrider surf simulator, a new feature on the Quantum-class is RipCord by iFLY, a skydiving simulator set in a recirculating indoor recreational vertical wind tunnel. Reservations for RipCord are able to be online in advance of the cruise
3.
Graphite
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Graphite, archaically referred to as plumbago, is a crystalline form of carbon, a semimetal, a native element mineral, and one of the allotropes of carbon. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions, therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. Highly ordered pyrolytic graphite or more correctly highly oriented pyrolytic graphite refers to graphite with a spread between the graphite sheets of less than 1°. The name graphite fiber is sometimes used to refer to carbon fibers or carbon fiber-reinforced polymer. Graphite occurs in rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism. It also occurs in rocks and in meteorites. Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline, in meteorites it occurs with troilite and silicate minerals. Small graphitic crystals in meteoritic iron are called cliftonite, Graphite is not mined in the United States, but U. S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134 kt valued at $1.07 billion. Graphite has a layered, planar structure, the individual layers are called graphene. In each layer, the atoms are arranged in a honeycomb lattice with separation of 0.142 nm. Atoms in the plane are bonded covalently, with three of the four potential bonding sites satisfied. The fourth electron is free to migrate in the plane, making graphite electrically conductive, however, it does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane. Bonding between layers is via weak van der Waals bonds, which allows layers of graphite to be easily separated, the two known forms of graphite, alpha and beta, have very similar physical properties, except for that the graphene layers stack slightly differently. The alpha graphite may be flat or buckled. The alpha form can be converted to the form through mechanical treatment. The acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, since phonons propagate quickly along the tightly-bound planes, graphites high thermal stability and electrical and thermal conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications. However, in oxygen containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form CO2 at temperatures of 700 °C, Graphite is an electric conductor, consequently, useful in such applications as arc lamp electrodes. It can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers and these valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity
4.
Bumper (car)
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A bumper is a structure attached to or integrated with the front and rear ends of a motor vehicle, to absorb impact in a minor collision, ideally protecting occupants and minimizing repair costs. Invented by Briton Frederick Simms in 1901, bumpers ideally minimize height mismatches between vehicles and protect pedestrians from injury, bumpers were at first just rigid metal bars. On the 1968 Pontiac GTO, General Motors brought forth an Endura body-colored plastic front bumper designed to absorb low-speed impact without permanent deformation and it appeared in a television commercial where John DeLorean hit the new car with a sledgehammer and no damage resulted. Similar elastomeric bumpers were available on the front and rear of the 1970-71 Plymouth Barracuda, current design practice is for the bumper structure on modern automobiles to consist of a plastic cover over a reinforcement bar made of steel, aluminum, fiberglass composite, or plastic. Bumpers of most modern automobiles have been made of a combination of polycarbonate, a bumper valance or valance panel is a trim piece located in the lower part of the front or rear bumper. Bumper valances are intended to improve efficiency of the vehicle by directing airflow in the same way that an air dam does. Bumper valances may also include the lip at the bottom. However, in many cases valance panel plays a role by covering a lower part of the radiator in the front of the vehicle or concealing the gap between dual exhaust pipes in the rear. Bumpers offer protection to other components by dissipating the kinetic energy generated by an impact. This energy is a function of mass and velocity squared. The kinetic energy is equal to 1/2 the product of the mass, until 1959, such rigidity was seen as beneficial to occupant safety among automotive engineers. Modern theories of vehicle crashworthiness point in the direction, towards vehicles that crumple progressively. A completely rigid vehicle might have excellent bumper protection for vehicle components, bumpers are increasingly being designed to mitigate injury to pedestrians struck by cars, such as through the use of bumper covers made of flexible materials. Front bumpers, especially, have lowered and made of softer materials, such as foams and crushable plastics. The height and placement of bumpers may be specified, to ensure that when vehicles of different heights are in an accident. Bumpers cannot fully protect against moderate or high speed collisions, underride collisions, in which a smaller vehicle such as a passenger sedan slides under a larger vehicle such as a tractor-trailer often result in severe injuries or fatalities. The platform bed of a typical tractor-trailer is at the height of seated adults in a typical passenger car. Around 500 people are killed this way in the United States annually and they are required to be not more than 22 in from the road
5.
Steering wheel
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A steering wheel is a type of steering control in vehicles and vessels. Steering wheels are used in most modern vehicles, including all mass-production automobiles, as well as buses, light and heavy trucks. The steering wheel is the part of the system that is manipulated by the driver. The first automobiles were steered with a tiller, but in 1894 and that is believed to be one of the earliest employments of the principle. From 1898, the Panhard et Levassor cars were equipped as standard with steering wheels, Charles Rolls introduced the first car in Britain fitted with a steering wheel when he imported a 6 hp Panhard from France in 1898. Arthur Constantin Krebs replaced the tiller with a steering wheel for the Panhard car he designed for the 1898 Paris–Amsterdam–Paris race which ran 7–13 July 1898. Jeffery and his son, Charles T. Jeffery, developed two advanced experimental cars featuring an engine, as well as a steering wheel that was mounted on the left-hand side. However, the automaker adopted a more “conventional” rear-engine and tiller-steering layout for its first mass-produced Ramblers in 1902. The following year, the Rambler Model E was largely unchanged, except that it equipped with a tiller early in the year. By 1904, all Ramblers featured steering wheels, within a decade, the steering wheel had entirely replaced the tiller in automobiles. At the insistence of Thomas B, Jeffery, the position of the driver was also moved to the left-hand side of the car during the 1903 Rambler production. Most other car makers began offering cars with left-hand drive in 1910, soon after, most cars in the U. S. converted to left hand drive. Steering wheels for passenger automobiles are generally circular, and are mounted to the column by a hub connected to the outer ring of the steering wheel by one or more spokes. Other types of vehicles may use the design, a butterfly shape. In addition to its use in steering, the wheel is the usual location for a button to activate the cars horn. The steering wheels were rigid and mounted on non-collapsible steering columns and this arrangement increased the risk of impaling the driver in case of a severe crash. The first collapsible steering column was invented in 1934 but was never successfully marketed, by 1956, Ford came out with a safety steering wheel that was set high above the post with spokes that would flex, but the column was still rigid. In 1968, United States regulations were implemented concerning the acceptable rearward movement of the wheel in case of crash
6.
Signage
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Signage is the design or use of signs and symbols to communicate a message to a specific group, usually for the purpose of marketing or a kind of advocacy. A signage also means signs collectively or being considered as a group, the term signage is documented to have been popularized in 1975 to 1980. Signs are any kind of visual graphics created to display information to a particular audience and this is typically manifested in the form of wayfinding information in places such as streets or on the inside and outside of buildings. Signs vary in form and size based on location and intent, from more expansive banners, billboards, newer signs may also use digital or electronic displays. The main purpose of signs is to communicate, to information such that the receiver may make cognitive decisions based on the information provided. In general, signs may be classified according to the functions, Information, signs conveying information about services and facilities, such as maps, directories. Direction, signs showing the location of services, facilities, functional spaces and key areas, identification, signs indicating services and facilities, such as room names and numbers, restroom signs, or floor designations. Safety and Regulatory, signs giving warning or safety instructions, such as warning signs, traffic signs, exit signs, or signs conveying rules, Signage is distinct from labeling, which conveys information about a particular product. The French enseigne indicates its essential connection with what is known in English as a flag, signs, however, are best known in the form of painted or carved advertisements for shops, inns, etc. They are one of various methods used from time immemorial for publicly calling attention to the place to which they refer. The ancient Egyptians and Romans were known to use signs, in ancient Rome, signboards were usually made from stone or terracotta, and Greeks are known to have used signs also. Many Roman examples are preserved, among them the widely recognized bush to indicate a tavern, in some cases, such as the bush, or the three balls of pawnbrokers, certain signs became identified with certain trades and some of these later evolved into trademarks. Other signs can be grouped according to their various origins, thus, at an early period, the cross or other sign of a religious character was used to attract Christians, whereas the sign of the sun or the moon would serve the same purpose for pagans. In 1389, King Richard II of England compelled landlords to erect signs outside their premises, the legislation stated Whosoever shall brew ale in the town with intention of selling it must hang out a sign, otherwise he shall forfeit his ale. This was in order make them visible to passing inspectors of the quality of the ale they provided. Later, the adaptation of the coats of arms or badges of noble families became common. These would be described by the people without consideration of the language of heraldry, and thus such signs as the Red Lion, whereas the use of signs was generally optional, publicans were on a different footing from other traders in this respect. As early as the 14th century there was a law in England compelling them to exhibit signs, in France edicts were directed to the same end in 1567 and 1577
