1.
Breed's Hill
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Breeds Hill is a glacial drumlin located in the Charlestown section of Boston, Massachusetts. It is best known as the location where in 1775, early in the American Revolutionary War, much of the hill is now occupied by residential construction, but the summit area is the location of the Bunker Hill Monument and other memorials commemorating the battle. Breeds Hill is a drumlin in the Charlestown neighborhood of Boston. The hill itself is about 62 feet high, and is topped by Monument Square, the hill slopes fairly steeply to the east and west. In addition to its sites and tourist-oriented facilities, the hill is the site of a great deal of residential property, as well as supporting municipal. It is about 700 yards from Bunker Hill, a redoubt, a small and usually temporary defensive fortification, was constructed on nearby Breeds Hill, probably due to its closer proximity to Boston compared to Bunker Hill. The next morning, June 17, the British were astonished to see the rebel fortifications upon the hill, the resulting conflict was called the Battle of Bunker Hill because that is where Prescott originally intended—and was ordered—to build the fortifications. Also, some people considered Breeds Hill a part of Bunker Hill, British soldiers under Howe sent 2,400 men to attack Breeds Hill. A force of 1,500 colonists held off three British attacks, then retreated when the colonists ran out of gunpowder,450 colonists were killed or wounded, compared to 1,150 British casualties. In 1825, the Bunker Hill Monument Association began construction of the Bunker Hill Monument, decisive Day, The Battle of Bunker Hill. With Fire And Sword, The Battle of Bunker Hill and the Beginning of the American Revolution
2.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
3.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
4.
Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
5.
Contributing property
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Government agencies, at the state, national, and local level in the United States, have differing definitions of what constitutes a contributing property but there are common characteristics. Local laws often regulate the changes that can be made to contributing structures within designated historic districts, the first local ordinances dealing with the alteration of buildings within historic districts was in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931. Properties within a district fall into one of two types of property, contributing and non-contributing. A contributing property, such as a 19th Century mansion, helps make a historic district historic, while a non-contributing property, such as a medical clinic. The contributing properties are key to a districts historic associations, historic architectural qualities. A property can change from contributing to non-contributing and vice versa if significant alterations take place, the ordinance declared that buildings in the district could not have changes made to their architectural features visible from the street. By the mid-1930s, other U. S. cities followed Charlestons lead, an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution led to the 1937 creation of the Vieux Carre Commission, which was charged with protecting and preserving the French Quarter in the city of New Orleans. The city then passed an ordinance that set standards regulating changes within the quarter. Other sources, such as the Columbia Law Review in 1963, the Columbia Law Review gave dates of 1925 for the New Orleans laws and 1924 for Charleston. The same publication claimed that two cities were the only cities with historic district zoning until Alexandria, Virginia adopted an ordinance in 1946. The National Park Service appears to refute this, in 1939, the city of San Antonio, Texas, enacted an ordinance that protected the area of La Villita, which was the citys original Mexican village marketplace. In 1941 the authority of local controls on buildings within historic districts was being challenged in court. In City of New Orleans vs Pergament Louisiana state appellate courts ruled that the design, beginning in the mid-1950s, controls that once applied to only historic districts were extended to individual landmark structures. The United States Congress adopted legislation that declared the Georgetown neighborhood in Washington, by 1965,51 American communities had adopted preservation ordinances. By 1998, more than 2,300 U. S. towns, contributing properties are defined through historic district or historic preservation zoning laws, usually at the local level. Zoning ordinances pertaining to historic districts are designed to maintain a historic character by controlling demolition and alteration to existing properties. It can be any property, structure or object that adds to the integrity or architectural qualities that make the historic district, either local or federal. Definitions vary but, in general, they maintain the same characteristics, another key aspect of a contributing property is historic integrity
6.
Charlestown, Boston
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Charlestown is the oldest neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Originally called Mishawum by the Massachusett, it is located on a north of the Charles River, across from downtown Boston. Charlestown was laid out in 1629 by engineer Thomas Graves, one of its early settlers and it was originally a separate town and the first capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Charlestown became a city in 1848 and was annexed by Boston on January 5,1874, with that, it also switched from Middlesex County, to which it had belonged since 1643, to Suffolk County. It has had a substantial Irish American population since the migration of Irish people during the Great Irish Famine of the 1840s, since the late 1980s the neighborhood has changed dramatically because of its proximity to downtown and its colonial architecture. In the 21st century, Charlestowns diversity has expanded dramatically, along with growing rates of the very poor, today Charlestown is a largely residential neighborhood, with much housing near the waterfront, overlooking the Boston skyline. Charlestown is home to historic sites, hospitals and organizations. Thomas and Jane Walford were the original English settlers of the peninsula between the Charles and the Mystic and they were given a grant by Sir Robert Gorges, with whom they had settled at Wessagusset in September 1623 and arrived at what they called Mishawaum in 1624. John Endicott, first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, sent William, Richard, Thomas Walford, acting as an interpreter with the Massachusetts Indians, negotiated with the local sachem Wonohaquaham for Endicott and his people to settle there. John Winthrops company stopped here for time in 1630, before deciding to settle across the Charles River at Boston. The territory of Charlestown was initially quite large, from it, Woburn was separated in 1642, Melrose and Malden in 1649, Stoneham in 1725, and Somerville in 1842. Everett, Burlington, Medford, Arlington and Cambridge also acquired areas originally allocated to Charlestown, on June 17,1775, the Charlestown Peninsula was the site of the Battle of Bunker Hill, named for a hill at the northwest end of the peninsula near Charlestown Neck. British troops unloaded at Moulton’s Point and much of the battle took place on Breeds Hill, the town, including its wharves and dockyards, was almost completely destroyed during the battle by the British. The town was not appreciably rebuilt until the end of hostilities but, in 1786, an 87-acre Navy Yard was established in 1800, Charlestown State Prison opened in 1805. The Bunker Hill Monument was erected between 1827 and 1843 using Quincy granite brought to the site by a combination of purpose-built railway, notable businesses included the Bunker Hill Breweries and Schraffts candy company. Around the 1860s an influx of Irish immigrants arrived in Charlestown, following the war, the city commissioned Martin Milmore to construct its civil war memorial, dedicated in 1872 and still standing in the communitys Training Field. Out of its 32,040 residents,2240 voted in support of the merger and 1947 opposed, Boston residents also approved the question,5, 960–1,868. Charlestowns separate city government was dissolved the next year, during the early 1960s, the city initiated plans to demolish and redevelop sixty percent of the housing in Charlestown
7.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
Battle of Bunker Hill
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The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17,1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts and it was the original objective of both the colonial and British troops, though the majority of combat took place on the adjacent Breeds Hill. In response,1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill, during the night, the colonists constructed a strong redoubt on Breeds Hill, as well as smaller fortified lines across the Charlestown Peninsula. By daybreak of June 17, the British became aware of the presence of forces on the Peninsula. Two assaults on the positions were repulsed with significant British casualties. The colonists retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, leaving the British in control of the Peninsula, the battle had demonstrated that inexperienced militia were able to stand up to regular army troops in battle. Subsequently, the battle discouraged the British from any further attacks against well defended front lines. American casualties were much fewer, although their losses included General Joseph Warren and Major Andrew McClary. Their new approach to battle was actually giving the Americans greater opportunity to retreat if defeat was imminent, the costly engagement also convinced the British of the need to hire substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries to bolster their strength in the face of the new and formidable Continental Army. Boston, situated on a peninsula, was protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the militia, a force of about 15,000 men had surrounded the town. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the land access to Boston itself. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, in theory, they were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely. However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, if the militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city until the occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that the Knox Expedition, led by Henry Knox, the Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus at its northwest, extending about 1 mile southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of 110 feet, lay at the end of the peninsula. Breeds Hill, at a height of 62 feet, was more southerly, the town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1,000 feet separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men
10.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
11.
Obelisk
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An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape or pyramidion at the top. These were originally called tekhenu by their builders, the Ancient Egyptians, the Greeks who saw them used the Greek obeliskos to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and ultimately English. Ancient obelisks are monolithic, that is, they consist of a single stone, though this technological capacity exists today, most modern obelisks are made of several stones, some, like the Washington Monument, are buildings. The term stele is used for other monumental, upright. Obelisks were prominent in the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrance of temples. The word obelisk as used in English today is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, a number of ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the Unfinished Obelisk found partly hewn from its quarry at Aswan. These obelisks are now dispersed around the world, and fewer than half of them remain in Egypt, the earliest temple obelisk still in its original position is the 68-foot 120-metric-ton red granite Obelisk of Senusret I of the XIIth Dynasty at Al-Matariyyah in modern Heliopolis. The obelisk symbolized the sun god Ra, and during the religious reformation of Akhenaten was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten. It was also thought that the god existed within the structure, Benben was the mound that arose from the primordial waters Nu upon which the creator god Atum settled in the creation story of the Heliopolitan creation myth form of Ancient Egyptian religion. The Benben stone is the top stone of the Egyptian pyramid and it is also related to the Obelisk. The pyramid and obelisk might have inspired by previously overlooked astronomical phenomena connected with sunrise and sunset. The Ancient Romans were strongly influenced by the form, to the extent that there are now more than twice as many obelisks standing in Rome as remain in Egypt. All fell after the Roman period except for the Vatican obelisk and were re-erected in different locations. The largest standing and tallest Egyptian obelisk is the Lateran Obelisk in the square at the west side of the Lateran Basilica in Rome at 105.6 feet tall, not all the Egyptian obelisks in the Roman Empire were set up at Rome. Herod the Great imitated his Roman patrons and set up a red granite Egyptian obelisk in the hippodrome of his new city Caesarea in northern Judea and this one is about 40 feet tall and weighs about 100 metric tons. It was discovered by archaeologists and has been re-erected at its former site and this one stood 95 feet tall and weighing 380 metric tons. Its lower half reputedly also once stood in Istanbul but is now lost, the Istanbul obelisk is 65 feet tall. Rome is the capital of the world
12.
Quincy, Massachusetts
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Quincy is the largest city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a part of Metropolitan Boston and is Bostons immediate southern suburb. Its population in 2010 was 92,271, making it the 8th largest city in the state, first settled in 1625, Quincy was briefly part of Dorchester and Boston before becoming the north precinct of Braintree in 1640. In 1792, Quincy was split off from Braintree, the new town was named after Colonel John Quincy, maternal grandfather of Abigail Adams, Quincy became a city in 1888. For more than a century, Quincy was home to a thriving industry, the city was also the site of the Granite Railway. Shipbuilding at the Fore River Shipyard was another key part of the citys economy, in the 20th century, both Howard Johnsons and Dunkin Donuts were founded in the city. It was visited in 1621 by Plymouth Colony commander Myles Standish and Squanto, four years later, a party led by Captain Wollaston established a post on a low hill near the south shore of Quincy Bay east of present-day Blacks Creek. The settlers found the area suitable for farming, as Chickatawbut and this settlement was named Mount Wollaston in honor of the leader, who left the area soon after 1625, bound for Virginia. The Wollaston neighborhood in Quincy still retains Captain Wollastons name, upon the departure of Wollaston, Thomas Morton took over leadership of the post, and the settlement proceeded to gain a reputation for debauchery with Indian women and drunkenness. In 1627, Morton was arrested by Standish for violating the code of conduct in a way harmful to the colony and he was sent back to England, only to return and be arrested by Puritans the next year. The area of Quincy now called Merrymount is located on the site of the original English settlement of 1625, the area was first incorporated as part of Dorchester in 1630 and was briefly annexed by Boston in 1634. The area became Braintree in 1640, bordered along the coast of Massachusetts Bay by Dorchester to the north and Weymouth to the east, beginning in 1708, the modern border of Quincy first took shape as the North Precinct of Braintree. Following the American Revolution, Quincy was officially incorporated as a town named for Col. John Quincy in 1792. In 1845 the Old Colony Railroad opened, the Massachusetts Historical Commission stated that the railroad was the beginning of a trend toward suburbanization, Quincy became as accessible to Boston as was Charlestown. The first suburban land company, Bellevue Land Co. had been organized in northern Quincy in 1870, Quincys population grew by over 50 percent during the 1920s. Among the citys several firsts was the Granite Railway, the first commercial railroad in the United States, Quincy granite became famous throughout the nation, and stonecutting became the citys principal economic activity. Quincy was also home to the first iron furnace in the United States, in the 1870s, the city gave its name to the Quincy Method, an influential approach to education developed by Francis W. Parker while he served as Quincys superintendent of schools. Parker, a proponent of progressive education, put his ideas into practice in the citys underperforming schools, four years later
13.
Granite Railway
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The Granite Railway was one of the first railroads in the United States, built to carry granite from Quincy, Massachusetts to a dock on the Neponset River in Milton. From there boats carried the stone to Charlestown for construction of the Bunker Hill Monument. The Granite Railway is popularly termed the first commercial railroad in the United States, the last active quarry closed in 1963, in 1985, the Metropolitan District Commission purchased 22 acres, including Granite Railway Quarry, as the Quincy Quarries Reservation. In 1825, after a search throughout New England, Solomon Willard selected the Quincy site as the source of stone for the Bunker Hill Monument. After many delays and much obstruction, the railway itself was granted a charter on March 4,1826, businessman and state legislator Thomas Handasyd Perkins organized the financing of the new Granite Railway Company, owning a majority of its shares, and he was designated its president. The railroad was designed and built by railway pioneer Gridley Bryant, Bryant used developments that had already been in use on the railroads in England, but he modified his design to allow for heavier, more concentrated loads and a three-foot frost line. The railway ran three miles from quarries to the Neponset River and its wagons had wheels 6 ft in diameter and were pulled by horses, although steam locomotives had been in operation in England for two decades. The wooden rails were plated with iron and were laid 5 ft apart, by 1837 these wooden rails had been replaced by granite rails, once again capped with iron. In 1830, a new section of the called the Incline was added to haul granite from the Pine Ledge Quarry to the railway level 84 ft below. Wagons moved up and down the 315-foot long incline in a conveyor belt. The incline continued in operation until the 1940s, the railway introduced several important inventions, including railway switches or frogs, the turntable, and double-truck railroad cars. Gridley Bryant never patented his inventions, believing they should be for the benefit of all, the novelty of the new railroad attracted tourists who journeyed out from Boston to witness the revolutionary technology in person. Notable visitors such as statesman Daniel Webster and English actress Fanny Kemble were early witnesses to the new railway, miss Kemble described her 1833 visit in her journal. The Granite Railway was the site of one of the first fatal accidents in the United States, on July 25,1832. Achuas, of Cuba, derailed as he and three tourists were taking a tour. The accident occurred while the wagon—empty of stone but now carrying the four passengers—was ascending the Incline on its return trip, the occupants of the car were thrown over a cliff, approximately 35 ft. Mr. Achuas was killed and the three passengers were badly injured. This portion of the Old Colony Railroad through Quincy and Milton was later absorbed into the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad and later closed
14.
Joseph Warren
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Dr. Warren participated in the next days Battles of Lexington and Concord, which are commonly considered to be the opening engagements of the American Revolutionary War. Warren had been commissioned a Major General in the colonys militia shortly before the June 17,1775 Battle of Bunker Hill. Rather than exercising his rank, Warren served in the battle as a private soldier and his death, immortalized in John Trumbulls painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunkers Hill, June 17,1775, galvanized the rebel forces. He has been memorialized in the naming of towns, counties and other locations in the United States, by statues. Joseph Warren was born in Roxbury, Province of Massachusetts Bay, to Joseph Warren, genealogists can trace his more distant ancestry back to a Norman baron who was an uncle of William the Conqueror. His father was a farmer who died in October 1755 when he fell off a ladder while gathering fruit in his orchard. After attending the Roxbury Latin School, Joseph enrolled in Harvard College, graduating in 1759 and he studied medicine and married 18-year-old heiress Elizabeth Hooten on September 6,1764. She died in 1772, leaving him four children, Elizabeth, Joseph, Mary. While practicing medicine and surgery in Boston, he joined the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew and he was Master of the Lodge in 1769 at the same time that Paul Revere was its Secretary. Warren was appointed Grand Master of the newly established Provincial Grand Lodge of Massachusetts in that same year and he also became involved in politics, associating with John Hancock, Samuel Adams, and other leaders of the broad movement labeled Sons of Liberty. Warren conducted an autopsy on the body of young Christopher Seider in February 1770, in 1774, he authored a song, Free America, which was published in colonial newspapers. The poem was set to a traditional British tune, The British Grenadiers, as Bostons conflict with the royal government came to a head in 1773–75, Warren was appointed to the Boston Committee of Correspondence. He twice delivered orations in commemoration of the Massacre, the time in March 1775 while the town was occupied by army troops. Warren drafted the Suffolk Resolves, which were endorsed by the Continental Congress, to advocate resistance to Parliaments Coercive Acts and he was appointed President of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, the highest position in the revolutionary government. In mid-April 1775, Warren and Dr. Benjamin Church were the two top members of the Committee of Correspondence left in Boston. It had been known for weeks that General Gage in Boston had plans to destroy munitions stored in Concord by the colonials, Warren received the additional information from a highly placed informant that the troops also had orders to arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock. Warren sent William Dawes and Paul Revere on their famous midnight rides to warn Hancock, when the enemy were returning from Concord, he was among the foremost in hanging upon their rear and assailing their flanks. During this fighting Warren was nearly killed, a ball striking part of his wig
15.
Freedom Trail
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The Freedom Trail is a 2. 5-mile-long path through downtown Boston, Massachusetts that passes by 16 locations significant to the history of the United States. Marked largely with brick, it winds between Boston Common to the Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, stops along the trail include simple explanatory ground markers, graveyards, notable churches and buildings, and a historic naval frigate. While most of the sites are free or suggest donations, the Old South Meeting House, the Old State House, the Freedom Trail was originally conceived by local journalist William Schofield, who in 1951 suggested building a pedestrian trail to link together important local landmarks. Boston mayor John Hynes decided to put Schofields idea into action, by 1953,40,000 people were walking the trail annually. Some observers have noted the tendency of the Freedom Trails narrative frame to omit certain historical locations, such as the sites of the Boston Tea Party, members of the Boy Scouts of America who hike or camp along the Freedom Trail may be eligible for the Historic Trails Award
16.
Boston National Historical Park
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The Boston National Historical Park is an association of sites that showcase Bostons role in the American Revolution. It was designated a park on October 1,1974. Seven of the eight sites are connected by the Freedom Trail, all eight properties are National Historic Landmarks. Five of the sites make up the park are neither owned nor operated by the National Park Service. The park service operates visitor centers in Faneuil Hall and at the Charlestown Navy Yard, the property is owned and administered by the National Park Service. The park service operates the nearby Bunker Hill Museum. The Charlestown Navy Yard is located on the edge of Charlestown on the banks of the Charles River. Used during the American Revolutionary War as a shipyard, it continued to serve as a base of the United States Navy until 1975, when the Navy turned the property over to the National Park Service. The Yard is home to the USS Constitution, and the USS Cassin Young, Dorchester Heights was fortified by General George Washington in March 1776, compelling the British to withdraw from Boston and ending the Siege of Boston. A monument was erected on the site in 1902, located in South Boston, Dorchester Heights is the only site in the park that is not on the Freedom Trail. Faneuil Hall was first constructed in the 1740s, and was the site of important pro-independence speeches, the hall is owned and operated by the city of Boston, with the park service offering talks in the Great Hall. The church, the oldest operating in Boston, has an Episcopalian congregation and it served as a church until 1877, when it became a museum operated by a nonprofit organization dedicated to its preservation. The Old State House is the oldest municipal building in Boston, built in 1713, it was the seat of the colonial government, and afterward the state government, until 1798. The Boston Massacre took place just in front of the building, in 1881 it was saved from destruction by the Bostonian Society, which was formed specifically to preserve it. The society still operates the City owned building as a museum, the Boston Massacre is reenacted regularly under the societys auspices. Now owned and operated by the Paul Revere Memorial Association, the Paul Revere House is one of the oldest surviving buildings in Boston and it was built in 1680, and was purchased by Paul Revere in 1770. The National Park Service, in addition to managing its properties that are part of the park, operates visitor centers at Faneuil Hall and it offers guided tours of the Freedom Trail. The Navy offers tours of the USS Constitution
17.
William Prescott
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William Prescott was an American colonel in the Revolutionary War who commanded the rebel forces in the Battle of Bunker Hill. It is debated whether Prescott or someone earlier coined this memorable saying, Prescott was born in Groton, Massachusetts, when East Pepperell was considered Groton, to Benjamin Prescott and Abigail Oliver Prescott. He married Abigail Hale on April 13,1758, and they had one child, Prescott owned a house in Pepperell, Massachusetts, on Prescott Street. Prescott served in the militia in King Georges War where he served in the 1745 Siege of Louisbourg under William Pepperrell. He may have played a role in the naming of the town of Pepperell, Massachusetts, in 1755, when the French and Indian War widened, he saw action at the Battle of Fort Beausejour. He turned down an offer to join the British Army for his service in that war, in 1774, when Massachusetts towns began forming militia companies, Prescott was made a colonel commanding the Pepperell company. The alarm that was raised on the evening of April 18,1775, Prescott immediately alerted the companies of Pepperell, Hollis, and Groton, and rode toward Concord. The companies arrived too late to participate in the days battles, the actual defenses were built on Breeds Hill, as it was lower and closer to the harbor. The British began firing from the ship Lively at 4 a. m. in spirited battle, Prescotts men twice threw back British assaults on the redoubt. When the British made an attempt, his men were almost out of ammunition, after an initial volley. He was one of the last men to leave the redoubt, while the British successfully captured Bunker Hill, the poorly organized colonial forces inflicted significant casualties, and the British were unable to capitalize their victory. They lost 50 percent of the commanded by General Howe. Prescott is widely seen as having played a key role in the battle, when the Second Continental Congress established the Continental Army it sent George Washington to take command of the forces besieging Boston. Prescott received a commission, and his unit became the 7th Continental Regiment. The regiment saw service in the 1776 defense of New York. S and his departure from military service may have been due to injuries sustained in an accident on his farm. Prescott served in the Massachusetts General Court in later years and he also served in the militia called out in 1786 to suppress Shays Rebellion. His brother Oliver Prescott was said to be influential in the suppression of that outbreak, William died in 1795 in Pepperell and is buried there in Walton Cemetery, surrounded by the graves of Pepperell men he led at Bunker Hill. Prescotts likeness was made into a statue for a memorial for the Battle of Bunker Hill, the former town of Prescott, Massachusetts, was named in his honor
18.
Israel Putnam
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Israel Putnam was an American army general officer, popularly known as Old Put, who fought with distinction at the Battle of Bunker Hill during the American Revolutionary War. His reckless courage and fighting spirit became known far beyond Connecticuts borders through the circulation of folk legends in the American colonies and states celebrating his exploits. He had previously served notably as an officer with Rogers Rangers during the French and Indian War and he was saved from the ritual burning given to enemies by intervention of a French officer, with whom the Mohawk were allied. Israel Putnam was born in 1718 in Salem Village, Massachusetts to Joseph and Elizabeth Putnam and his parents opposed the Salem witch trials. One of her sisters was also executed in the hysteria of the time, Putnam married twice, first to Hannah Pope in 1739, the mother of his children. Two years after her death in 1765, he married Deborah Lothrop, in 1740 at the age of 22, the young Putnam moved west to Mortlake, where land was cheaper and easier for young men to buy. According to oral tradition, Putnam killed the last wolf in Connecticut in 1743 with the help of a group of farmers from Mortlake seeking to safeguard their sheep. The tradition describes Putnam crawling into a den with a torch, a musket, while in the den, he allegedly killed the she-wolf. A section of the Mashamoquet Brook State Park including the den in modern-day Pomfret is named Wolf Den, the name Wolf Den Road in adjacent Brooklyn, Connecticut also attests to the days of wolves. Putnam took part in the French and Indian War as a member of Rogers Rangers and he was promoted to captain in 1756 and to major in 1758. In 1757, the Rangers were stationed on an island off Fort Edward, the following February, Putnam and his Rangers were still on Rogers Island when fire broke out in the row of barracks nearest the magazine. In spite of his wounds, he continued to fight the fire. He was laid up for a due to burns and exposure. Putnam was captured on August 8,1758 by the Kahnawake Indians from a settlement south of Montreal during a military campaign near Crown Point in New York. He was saved from being burned alive by a rain storm. In 1759, Putnam led a regiment into The Valley of Death in the attack on Fort Carillon, in 1762, he survived a shipwreck during the British expedition against Cuba that led to the capture of Havana. Major Putnam is believed to have brought back Cuban tobacco seeds to New England and this reportedly resulted in the development of the renowned Connecticut Wrapper. In 1763 during Pontiacs Rebellion, Putnam was sent with reinforcements to relieve Pontiacs siege of Fort Detroit and he returned to Brooklyn, Connecticut to settle
19.
John Stark
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John Stark was a New Hampshire native who served as an officer in the British Army during the French and Indian war and a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He became widely known as the Hero of Bennington for his service at the Battle of Bennington in 1777. John Stark was born in Londonderry, New Hampshire in 1728 and his father was born in Glasgow, Scotland to parents who were from Wiltshire, England, who met his wife when he moved to Derry in Ireland. When he was eight years old, he and his moved to Derryfield. Stark was married to Elizabeth Molly Page, with whom he had 11 children including his eldest son Caleb Stark, while a prisoner of the Abenaki, he and his fellow prisoner Amos Eastman were made to run a gauntlet of warriors armed with sticks. Stark grabbed the stick from the first warriors hands and proceeded to attack him, the chief was so impressed by this heroic act that Stark was adopted into the tribe, where he spent the winter. Alternatively, in The Invasion Within, Axtell describes how colonists were often abducted by Indians, the following spring a government agent sent from the Province of Massachusetts Bay to work on the exchange of prisoners paid his ransom of $103 Spanish dollars and $60 for Amos Eastman. Stark and Eastman then returned to New Hampshire safely, Stark served as a second lieutenant under Major Robert Rogers during the French and Indian War. His brother William Stark served beside him in Rogers Rangers, as a member of the daring Rogers Rangers, Stark gained valuable combat experience and a detailed knowledge of the northern frontier of the American colonies. While serving with the rangers in 1757, Stark went on a scouting mission toward Fort Carillon in which the rangers were ambushed, General Jeffery Amherst, in 1759 ordered Rogers Rangers to journey from Lake George to the Abenaki village of St. Francis, deep in Quebec. The Rangers went north and attacked the Indian town, Stark, Rogers second-in-command of all ranger companies, refused to accompany the attacking force out of respect for his Indian foster-parents residing there. He returned to New Hampshire to his wife, whom he had married the previous year, at the end of the war, Stark retired as a captain and returned to Derryfield, New Hampshire. The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, signaled the start of the American Revolutionary War, as soon as Stark could muster his men, he ferried and marched them south to Boston to support the blockaded rebels there. He made his headquarters in the confiscated Isaac Royall House in Medford, on June 16, the rebels, fearing a preemptive British attack on their positions in Cambridge and Roxbury, decided to take and hold Breeds Hill, a high point on the Charlestown peninsula near Boston. On the night of the 16th, American troops moved into position on the heights, as dawn approached, lookouts on HMS Lively, a 20-gun sloop of war noticed the activity and the sloop opened fire on the rebels and the works in progress. This in turn drew the attention of the British admiral, who demanded to know what the Lively was shooting at, subsequent to that, the entire British squadron opened fire. He ordered Major General William Howe to prepare to land his troops, thus began the Battle of Bunker Hill. American Col. William Prescott held the hill throughout the initial bombardment with only a few hundred American militia
20.
William Ticknor
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William Davis Ticknor I was an American publisher in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, and a founder of the publishing house Ticknor and Fields. William Davis Ticknor was born on August 6,1810, on the outskirts of Lebanon, New Hampshire and his parents, William and Betsey Ticknor, were prosperous farmers. His cousin was the writer and historian George Ticknor. As a boy, Ticknor worked on the farm during the summers. In 1827 at age seventeen he left home and went to Boston and he was first employed in the brokerage house of his uncle Benjamin. When his uncle died a few later he was offered a position at the Columbian Bank. In 1832 he went into partnership with John Allen forming the house of Allen. The following year Allen withdrew and Ticknor carried on the house under the name William D. Ticknor and Company, in 1837 he published the national monthly American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge. On December 25,1832 he married Miss Emeline Staniford Holt and they had seven children together, only five survived into adulthood. Their three sons Howard Malcom, Benjamin Holt and Thomas Baldwin all graduated from Harvard and entered into their father’s firm, during the Civil War his son Benjamin Holt Ticknor enlisted in the Forty-Fifth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteers and was commissioned as second lieutenant of Company G until May 1863. He was then commissioned as lieutenant in the Second Massachusetts Heavy Artillery. He was later commissioned at captain of Company E and was in command of the camp at Readville. He resigned from service shortly after his father’s death, in 1845 the imprint of the firm was changed to Ticknor, Reed and Fields after John Reed and James Thomas Fields were admitted as partners. It continued under this imprint until 1854 when John Reed withdrew, with the widely varying but well matched talents of the two partners Ticknor and Fields grew to become one of the leading publishing houses in the 19th century. Ticknor was the first American publisher to pay authors for the rights to their works beginning with a check to Tennyson in 1842. The firm also published the Atlantic Monthly, Our Young Folks, shortly after the firm was contracted for Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter Ticknor became a close friend and advisor to Hawthorne. In the spring of 1864 Hawthornes health was failing, both Ticknor and Sophia Hawthorne insisted on a restorative health trip. During their trip, Ticknors health suddenly failed and he caught what he assumed was a cold before leaving Boston and Hawthorne later wrote home that his friend had eaten bad oysters
21.
Thomas Handasyd Perkins
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Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, or T. H. Perkins, was a wealthy Boston merchant and an archetypical Boston Brahmin. Starting with bequests from his grandfather and father-in-law, he amassed a huge fortune, as a young man he was a slave trader in Haiti, a Maritime Fur Trader, trading furs from the American Northwest to China, and then a major smuggler of Turkish opium into China. His parents, James Perkins and Elizabeth Peck, had ten children in eighteen years, when Perkins was twelve, he was in the crowd which first heard the Declaration of Independence read to the citizens of Boston. The family had planned to send Perkins to Harvard College, until 1793 Perkins engaged in the slave trade at Cap-Haïtien Haiti. In 1785, when China opened the port of Canton to foreign businesses and he sailed on the Astrea to Canton in 1789 with a cargo including ginseng, cheese, lard, wine, and iron. On the trip back it carried tea and silk cloth, in 1815 Perkins and his brother James opened a Mediterranean office to buy Turkish opium for resale in China. Perkins was also an industrial investor within Massachusetts. In addition, Perkins was politically active in the Federalist Party, serving terms as state senator, additionally, he invested in many of the mills on Lowell, MA including Appleton Mills. In later years Perkins became a philanthropist and he was also a major benefactor to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, McLean Hospital, and helped found the Massachusetts General Hospital. Upon retirement, Perkins built a home on Swan Island in the Kennebec River near Richmond. He helped the island achieve independent municipal status by paying legal fees for its charter and it is now Perkins Township, a ghost town. Colonel Perkins died on January 11,1854 in Brookline, Massachusetts, Perkins married Sarah Sally Elliott on March 25,1788, in Boston, Massachusetts. They had three children, Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, Jr. whose daughter Louisa married the Boston painter William Morris Hunt, Elizabeth Perkins Cabot, and Caroline Perkins Gardiner. His nephew John Perkins Cushing was active in Perkins China business for 30 years and his great nephew Charles Callahan Perkins became a well known artist, author and philanthropist like his grandfather James Perkins. Carl Seaburg and Stanley Paterson, Merchant Prince of Boston, bulletin of the Business Historical Society, Vol.6, No.2. Massachusetts Historical Society Thomas Handasyd Perkins papers, 1783-1892 guide Portrait of James Perkins, brother of T. H. Perkins
22.
Daniel Webster
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Daniel Webster was an American politician who twice served in the United States House of Representatives, representing New Hampshire and Massachusetts, served as a U. S. Senator from Massachusetts and was twice the United States Secretary of State, under Presidents William Henry Harrison and John Tyler and he and James G. Blaine were the only two people to serve as Secretary of State under three presidents. Webster also sought the Whig Party nomination for President three times, in 1836,1840 and 1852. As a diplomat he is best known for negotiating the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842 with Great Britain, Webster was an outstanding spokesman for American nationalism with powerful oratory that made him a key Whig leader. He spoke for conservatives and led the opposition to Democrat Andrew Jackson and he was a spokesman for modernization, banking, and industry, but not for the common people who composed the base of his opponents in Jacksonian democracy. He was a thoroughgoing elitist, and he reveled in it, chiefly recognized for his Senate tenure, Webster was a key figure in the institutions Golden days. Webster was the Northern member of the Great Triumvirate, with his colleagues Henry Clay from the West and his Reply to Hayne in 1830 has been regarded as one of the greatest speeches in the Senates history. As with his fellow Whig Henry Clay, Webster wanted to see the Union preserved and they both worked for compromises to stave off the sectionalism that threatened war between the North and the South. Websters support for the Compromise of 1850, devised in part by Clay, in 1957, a Senate committee selected Webster as one of the five greatest U. S. Senators with Clay, Calhoun, Robert La Follette, and Robert A. Taft, Daniel Webster was born on January 18,1782, in Salisbury, New Hampshire, the present-day city of Franklin. He was the son of Abigail and Ebenezer Webster and he and his nine siblings grew up on their parents farm, a small parcel of land granted to his father. His ancestors were among the settlers of Salisbury. Webster attended Phillips Exeter Academy, a school in Exeter. He was chosen Fourth of July orator in Hanover, the town, in 1800. After he graduated from Dartmouth, Webster was apprenticed to the lawyer Thomas W. Thompson in Salisbury, in 1802 Webster began as the headmaster of the Fryeburg Academy, Maine, where he served for one year. When Ezekiels education could no longer be sustained, Webster returned to his apprenticeship, in 1804 he left New Hampshire and got a position in Boston under the prominent attorney Christopher Gore. Clerking for Gore – who was involved in international, national, in 1805 Webster was admitted to the bar. He returned to New Hampshire to set up a practice in Boscawen and he began to speak locally in support of Federalist causes and candidates
23.
George Ticknor
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George Ticknor was an American academician and Hispanist, specializing in the subject areas of languages and literature. He is known for his work on the history and criticism of Spanish literature. Ticknor was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1805 George entered the junior class at Dartmouth College, where he graduated in 1807. During the next three years he studied Latin and Greek with Rev. Dr John Sylvester John Gardiner, rector of Trinity Church, Boston, in 1810 Ticknor began the study of law, and he was admitted to the bar in 1813. He opened an office in Boston, but practiced for one year, satisfying himself that his vocation, or at least his taste. Ticknor was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1817, while still in Europe, he became Smith professor of French and Spanish languages and literatures, and professor of belles-lettres at Harvard University. In 1819 he returned to the United States, bringing him a valuable library. This in time grew to be one of the largest private collections in the country and this is especially true of the collection of Spanish literature, which rivaled the best private ones in Europe. And it was strong in Portuguese literature as well. He suggested valuable improvements in the system of discipline, for which he had derived the hints from the German universities and he also entered into a critical analysis of such writers as Dante, Goethe, Milton, and Shakespeare. Ticknor moved into half of the built by Thomas Amory at the corner of Beacon and Park Streets in 1829. In 1835 he resigned his chair after holding it for 15 years and his successor, in 1836, in the professorship at Harvard was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Both Friedrich Bouterwek and Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi had worked with limited or secondhand resources, Ticknor developed in his college lectures the scheme of his more permanent work, which he published as the History of Spanish Literature. The book is not merely a story of Spanish letters, but, more broadly, of Spanish civilization, the History is exhaustive and exact in scholarship, and direct and unpretentious in style. It gives many illustrative passages from representative works, and copious bibliographical references and it was soon translated into Spanish by Pascual de Gayangos y Arce and de Vedia, into French by Magnabal, and German by Nikolaus Heinrich Julius and Ferdinand Wolf. He was especially active in the establishment of the Boston Public Library, and served in 1852 –1866 on its board of trustees, of which he was president in 1865. On its behalf he spent fifteen months abroad in 1856 –1857, at his own expense, and to it he gave at various times money and books, a special feature of his plan was a free circulating department. He also left his own collection of books to the Boston Public Library, Amory-Ticknor House History of Spanish literature
24.
Amos Lawrence
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Amos Lawrence was an American merchant and philanthropist. He was the son of Samuel Lawrence, a Revolutionary War officer, and one of the founders of Groton Academy, Samuel was in turn descended from John Lawrence of Wissett in Suffolk, England, who was one of the first settlers of Groton. In 1799, Amos Lawrence became a clerk at a store in Dunstable, Massachusetts. After the completion of his apprenticeship, in April 1807, Amos went to Boston with $20 of his savings. In 1808, his brother Abbott entered his employ as chief clerk, the firm continued until Amoss death and became the greatest wholesale mercantile house in the United States. It was successful even in the times of 1812-1815, and afterwards engaged particularly in selling woolen. The firm did much for the establishment of the textile industry in New England. In 1830, it came to the aid of financially distressed mills of Lowell, in that year, the Suffolk, Tremont and Lawrence companies were established in Lowell, and Luther Lawrence, the eldest brother, represented the firms interests there. In 1831 when his health failed, Amos Lawrence retired from involvement in the firm. The later years of Amoss life were spent mostly in furthering various philanthropic enterprises, according to his records, from 1829 until his death, Amos Lawrence gave over $639,000 to charitable causes. In 1842, he decided not to allow his property to any further. His private donations were numerous, requiring several rooms in his house to coordinate them, among other things, Amos Lawrence donated libraries to academic institutions, established a childrens hospital in Boston, and gave $10,000 for the completion of the Bunker Hill Monument. He gave to many good causes on a scale, taking especial delight in occasionally giving books from a bundle in his sleigh or carriage as he drove. Upon his death in 1852, his fortune was estimated at $8,100, the family firm, with Lawrences brother Abbott Lawrence at its head, founded Lawrence, Massachusetts. His grandson, Bishop William Lawrence, was the longtime Episcopal bishop of Massachusetts, the Poor Boy and Merchant Prince, Or Elements of Success Drawn From the Life and Character of the Late Amos Lawrence. Works by Amos Lawrence at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Amos Lawrence at Internet Archive
25.
Loammi Baldwin Jr.
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Loammi Baldwin, Jr. was an American civil engineer. His father was Col. Loammi Baldwin a prominent civil engineer, Baldwin was born at North Woburn, Massachusetts living at Baldwin House aka The Baldwin Mansion, educated at Westford Academy, and graduated from Harvard College in 1800. His early inclinations were towards mechanical subjects, and during his life he made a clock which kept good time. In 1794 at age 14 he accompanied his father and two brothers on a nine-day consulting inspection visit from the canal engineer William Weston of the route of the Middlesex Canal. Later all five of Loammi Baldwin Seniors sons worked with their father on the construction of the Middlesex Canal. After graduation, he entered a law office in Groton, Massachusetts, where he constructed an engine called Torrent. In 1804 he completed his studies at Groton and opened his own law office in Cambridge, in 1807, however, he abandoned his law practice in favor of engineering. He traveled to England to inspect works and intended to do the same in France. Upon his return he began a practice in Charlestown, Massachusetts. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1810, one of his earliest engineering works was the construction of Fort Strong, a fort in Boston Harbor built for defense against the British. He served as engineer with the rank of Colonel, a title which has sometimes confused him with his father. In 1819 he was asked to complete the construction of the Milldam, from 1817 to 1820, he worked in Virginia, and in 1821 was made engineer of the Union Canal in Pennsylvania. In 1824 Baldwin returned to Europe and remained there a year, mostly in France, in 1825 he joined a small committee planning the Bunker Hill Monument and recommended the obelisk now seen there. Mr. Baldwin was twice married, first to Ann, daughter of George Williams and she was sister of Samuel Williams, an eminent American banker in London, second on June 22,1828, to Catherine, widow of Captain Thomas Beckford, of Charlestown. Child by first marriage, Samuel Williams Baldwin, born 1817, about a year before he died he had a stroke of paralysis, a second attack proved fatal. He died at Charlestown, Massachusetts on June 30,1838, at the age of fifty-eight, after Loammis stroke and death his brother, James Fowle Baldwin, with whom he had often worked, continued his work especially for a safe water supply for Boston. Genealogical and Personal Memoirs Relating to the Families of the State of Massachusetts, by William Richard Cutter, William Frederick Adams, published 1910. Loammi Baldwin Jr. article in volume 1 page 579, Loammi Baldwin, Jr. at Find a Grave Historical Sketch of Groton, Massachusetts
26.
Gilbert Stuart
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Gilbert Charles Stuart was an American painter from Rhode Island. Gilbert Stuart is widely considered one of Americas foremost portraitists and his best known work is the unfinished portrait of George Washington that is sometimes referred to as The Athenaeum, begun in 1796 and never finished. Stuart retained the portrait and used it to paint 130 copies which he sold for $100 each, throughout his career, Gilbert Stuart produced portraits of over 1,000 people, including the first six Presidents of the United States. C. The National Portrait Gallery, London, Worcester Art Museum in Massachusetts, Gilbert Stuart was born on December 3,1755 in Saunderstown, Rhode Island, a village of North Kingstown, and baptized at Old Narragansett Church on April 11,1756. Stuarts father worked in the first colonial snuff mill in America, Gilbert Stuart moved to Newport, Rhode Island at the age of six, where his father pursued work in the merchant field. In Newport, Stuart first began to show promise as a painter. In 1770, Stuart made the acquaintance of Scottish artist Cosmo Alexander, a visitor of the colonies who made portraits of local patrons and who became a tutor to Stuart. Under the guidance of Alexander, Stuart painted the famous portrait Dr. Hunters Spaniels when he was fourteen years old, the painting is also referred to as Dr. Hunters Dogs by some accounts. In 1771, Stuart moved to Scotland with Alexander to finish his studies, Stuart tried to maintain a living and pursue his painting career, but to no avail, so he returned to Newport in 1773. Stuarts prospects as a portraitist were jeopardized by the onset of the American Revolution, Stuart departed for England in 1775 following the example set by John Singleton Copley. He was unsuccessful at first in pursuit of his vocation, the relationship was beneficial, with Stuart exhibiting at the Royal Academy as early as 1777. By 1782, Stuart had met with success, largely due to acclaim for The Skater, Stuart said that he was suddenly lifted into fame by a single picture. At one point, the prices for his pictures were exceeded only by those of renowned English artists Joshua Reynolds, despite his many commissions, however, Stuart was habitually neglectful of finances and was in danger of being sent to debtors prison. In 1787, he fled to Dublin, Ireland where he painted and accumulated debt with equal vigor, Stuart ended his 18-year stay in Britain and Ireland in 1793, leaving behind numerous unfinished paintings. He returned to the United States and settled briefly in New York City, in 1795, he moved to Germantown, Pennsylvania, near Philadelphia, where he opened a studio. It was here that he gained a foothold in the art world, Stuart painted George Washington in a series of iconic portraits, each of them leading in turn to a demand for copies, and keeping Stuart busy and highly paid for years. The most famous and celebrated of these likenesses is known as The Athenaeum and is portrayed on the United States one dollar bill. Stuart, along with his daughters, painted a total of 130 reproductions of The Athenaeum, however, he never completed the original version, after finishing Washingtons face, he kept the original version to make the copies
27.
Washington Allston
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Washington Allston ARA was an American painter and poet, born in Waccamaw Parish, South Carolina. Allston pioneered Americas Romantic movement of landscape painting and he was well known during his lifetime for his experiments with dramatic subject matter and his bold use of light and atmospheric color. Allston was born on a plantation on the Waccamaw River near Georgetown. His mother Rachel Moore had married Captain William Allston in 1775, though her husband died in 1781, Moore remarried to Dr. Henry C. Flagg, the son of a shipping merchant from Newport. He was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in London in September, from 1803 to 1808, he visited the great museums of Paris and then, for several years, those of Italy, where he met Washington Irving in Rome and Coleridge, his lifelong friend. In 1809, Allston married Ann Channing, sister of William Ellery Channing, samuel F. B. Morse was one of Allstons art pupils and accompanied Allston to Europe in 1811. After traveling throughout western Europe, Allston finally settled in London, Allston was also a published writer. In London in 1813, he published The Sylphs of the Seasons, with Other Poems, republished in Boston, Massachusetts and his wife died in February 1815, leaving him saddened, lonely, and homesick for America. In 1818, he returned to the United States and lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1826. He was the uncle of the artists George Whiting Flagg and Jared Bradley Flagg, the first American exhibition of Allstons work was in 1827 when twelve of his paintings were shown at the Boston Athenæum. In 1830 Allston married Martha Remington Dana, the sister of the novelist Richard Henry Dana, Dana was a cousin of Allstons first wife. In 1841, he published Monaldi, a romance illustrating Italian life, and in 1850, a volume of his Lectures on Art, Allston died on July 9,1843, at age 63. Allston is buried in Harvard Square, in the Old Burying Ground between the First Parish Church and Christ Church, Allston was sometimes called the American Titian because his style resembled the great Venetian Renaissance artists in their display of dramatic color contrasts. His work greatly influenced the development of U. S. landscape painting, also, the themes of many of his paintings were drawn from literature, especially Biblical stories. The influential critic and editor Rufus Wilmot Griswold dedicated his famous anthology The Poets, poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,17 years after Allstons death, wrote that, One man may sweeten a whole time. I never pass through Cambridge Port without thinking of Allston and his memory is the quince in the drawer and perfumes the atmosphere. Washington Allston was the first to use the term Objective Correlative in 1840 which subsequently revived, the west Boston, Massachusetts neighborhood of Allston is named after him
28.
Solomon Willard
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Solomon Willard, was a carver and builder in Massachusetts who is remembered primarily for designing and overseeing the Bunker Hill Monument, the first monumental obelisk erected in the United States. Willard was born in Petersham, Massachusetts and trained as a carpenter with his father and he went to Boston in 1804, working during the day and reading books of architecture and drawing in the evenings. In the same year he carved the eagle for the pediment of the new Custom House, by 1821 Willard had become so successful that he gave classes in architecture and drawing in his studio near St. Pauls, there Horatio Greenough was a pupil. Willard added ship figureheads to his craft, from 1823, on November 2,1825, Willard was chosen architect and superintendent of Bunker Hill Monument, his design having been accepted by the building committee in the following year. Willard discovered satisfactory granite quarries for the stone at Quincy, Willard also invented the machinery to cut and handle the slabs of stone in what became known as the Bunker Hill Quarry, which evolved into a major industry for the town. In Framingham, Massachusetts, Willards First Baptist Church, Framingham of 1826 still stands, the Norfolk County Courthouse in Dedham, Massachusetts is also his work. In the same year he was architect of Divinity Hall. Willard also designed the Greek Revival Framingham Town Hall, the Gothic Revival Church of St. John the Evangelist on Bowdoin Street, Boston, dated to 1831, is also probably his design. Additionally, in 1840, he designed the Egyptian-styled gateway for the Old Granary Burying Ground on Tremont Street, Boston and he is credited with designing some of the first hot-air central heating in an American building. In 1829 his recent pupil, the brilliant young architect Isaiah Rogers and this was the first American hotel to have indoor plumbing and it became the prototype of a modern, first-class American hotel. He also supervised construction of the Captain Nathan Hale Monument in Coventry, Connecticut, which is a 45-foot obelisk
29.
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
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A close friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830. Born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France and he followed its martial tradition, and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American cause in its war was noble. There, he was made a general, however, the 19-year-old was initially not given troops to command. Wounded during the Battle of Brandywine, he managed to organize an orderly retreat. He served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island, in the middle of the war, he returned home to lobby for an increase in French support. He again sailed to America in 1780, and was given positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops in Virginia under his command blocked forces led by Cornwallis until other American, Lafayette returned to France and, in 1787, was appointed to the Assembly of Notables, which was convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates-General of 1789, where representatives met from the three orders of French society—the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. He helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, after the storming of the Bastille, Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard and tried to steer a middle course through the French Revolution. In August 1792, the radical factions ordered his arrest, fleeing through the Austrian Netherlands, he was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies, a position he held for most of the remainder of his life. During Frances July Revolution of 1830, Lafayette declined an offer to become the French dictator, instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when the monarch became autocratic. Lafayette died on 20 May 1834, and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States, he is sometimes known as The Hero of the Two Worlds. Lafayettes lineage was likely one of the oldest and most distinguished in Auvergne and, perhaps, males of the Lafayette family enjoyed a reputation for courage and chivalry and were noted for their contempt for danger. One of Lafayettes early ancestors, Gilbert de Lafayette III, a Marshal of France, had been a companion-at-arms of Joan of Arcs army during the Siege of Orléans in 1429, according to legend, another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during the Sixth Crusade. Lafayettes father likewise died on the battlefield, on 1 August 1759, Michel de Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while fighting a British-led coalition at the Battle of Minden in Westphalia. Lafayette became marquis and Lord of Chavaniac, but the estate went to his mother, in 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned to Paris to live with his mother and great-grandfather at the comtes apartments in Luxembourg Palace
30.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
31.
Sarah Josepha Hale
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Sarah Josepha Buell Hale was an American writer and an influential editor. She is the author of the nursery rhyme Mary Had a Little Lamb, Hale famously campaigned for the creation of the American holiday known as Thanksgiving, and for the completion of the Bunker Hill Monument. Sarah Josepha Buell was born in Newport, New Hampshire, to Captain Gordon Buell and her parents believed in equal education for both genders. Home-schooled by her mother and elder brother Horatio, Hale was otherwise an autodidact, as Sarah Buell grew up and became a local schoolteacher, in 1811 her father opened a tavern called The Rising Sun in Newport. Sarah met lawyer David Hale the same year, the couple married at The Rising Sun on October 23,1813, and ultimately had five children, David, Horatio, Frances, Sarah and William. David Hale died in 1822, and Sarah Josepha Hale wore black for the rest of her life as a sign of perpetual mourning. In 1823, with the support of her late husbands Freemason lodge. Four years later, in 1827, her first novel was published in the U. S. under the title Northwood, Life North and South and in London under the title A New England Tale. The novel made Hale one of the first novelists to write a book about slavery, the book also espoused New England virtues as the model to follow for national prosperity, and was an immediate success. The novel supported relocating the nations African slaves to freedom in Liberia, the book described how while slavery hurts and dehumanizes slaves absolutely, it also dehumanizes the masters and retards their worlds psychological, moral and technological progress. Reverend John Blake praised Northwood, and asked Hale to move to Boston to serve as the editor of his journal and she agreed and from 1828 until 1836 served as editor in Boston, though she preferred the title editress. Her collection Poems for Our Children, which includes Mary Had a Little Lamb, was published in 1830, the poem was written for children, an audience for which many women poets of this period were writing. Hale founded the Seamans Aid Society in 1833 to assist the families of Boston sailors who died at sea. Louis Antoine Godey of Philadelphia wanted to hire Hale as the editor of his journal Godeys Ladys Book and he bought the Ladies Magazine, now renamed American Ladies Magazine, and merged it with his journal. In 1837, Hale began working as editor of the expanded Godeys Ladys Book and she remained editor at Godeys for forty years, retiring in 1877 when she was almost 90. During her tenure at Godeys, several important women contributed poetry and prose to the magazine, including Lydia Sigourney, Caroline Lee Hentz, Elizabeth F. Ellet, and Frances Sargent Osgood. Other notable contributors included Nathaniel Hawthorne, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Washington Irving, James Kirke Paulding, William Gilmore Simms, during this time, she became one of the most important and influential arbiters of American taste. In its day, Godeys, with no significant competitors, had an influence unimaginable for any publication in the 21st century
32.
Boston Latin School
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The Boston Latin School is a public exam school in Boston, Massachusetts. Established on April 23,1635, it is the oldest school as well as the first public school in the United States and its curriculum follows that of the 18th century Latin-school movement, which holds the classics to be the basis of an educated mind. Four years of Latin are mandatory for all pupils who enter the School in the 7th grade, in 2007, the School was named one of the top twenty high schools in the United States by U. S. News & World Report magazine. It is a part of Boston Public Schools, the School was named a 2011 Blue Ribbon School of Excellence, the U. S. Department of Educations highest award. As of 2016, the School is listed under the medal list. Puritan leaders themselves were accustomed to the highest educational standards, with most of their ministers having graduated from Oxford or Cambridge University in England, in early years they were not funded by tax dollars, but rather by donations and land rentals. A school established in nearby Dedham thus became the first tax supported public school years later. English was not the dominant language of the world at time. Therefore, the learning of Latin was also a priority, as it was with grammar schools in England, seventeenth-century schoolboys throughout Europe, Catholic or Protestant, learned Latin, and which explains the Latin in Boston Latin. The ability to read at least Cicero and Virgil was a requirement of all colonial colleges, Boston Latin prepared many students for admission to Harvard, with a total of seven years being devoted to the classics, and providing almost one seventh of Harvard members during just one period. However, most graduates of Boston Latin did not go on to college since business and professions did not require collegiate training, which more basic learning provided for. The Schools first class was in single figures, but it now has 2,400 pupils drawn from all parts of the City of Boston and it has produced four Harvard presidents, four Massachusetts governors, and five signers of the United States Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Franklin and Louis Farrakhan are among its well-known dropouts, the School originally began as the South Grammar School, and was specifically modeled after the Boston Grammar School in Lincolnshire, England, from where many of Bostons original settlers derived. Current students assert with pride that Harvard College, founded a year later in 1636, was created for Boston Latins first graduates to attend, more than 99% of Boston Latins approximately 400 annual graduates are accepted by at least one four-year college. The Latin School admitted only students and hired only male teachers from its founding in 1635. The Schools first female student was not until the 19th century, with Helen Magill White as the schools first female graduate, however, soon after Whites graduation in 1877, the Girls Latin School, was founded. For nearly a century, all qualified female students would attend that all-girls institution and it was not until 1972 that Boston Latin would admit its first co-educational class. Female teachers predated female students at Boston Latin, in 1967 the school appointed Marie Frisardi Cleary and Juanita Ponte as the first two women in its academic faculty
33.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
34.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
35.
Washington Monument
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It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances. Although the stone structure was completed in 1884, internal ironwork, the knoll, a difference in shading of the marble, visible approximately 150 feet or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills, but he did not include his proposed colonnade due to a lack of funds, despite many proposals to embellish the obelisk, only its original flat top was altered to a pointed marble pyramidion, in 1884. Upon completion, it became the worlds tallest structure, a previously held by the Cologne Cathedral. The monument held this designation until 1889, when the Eiffel Tower was completed in Paris, the monument was damaged during the 2011 Virginia earthquake and Hurricane Irene in the same year and remained closed to the public while the structure was assessed and repaired. After 32 months of repairs, the National Park Service and the Trust for the National Mall reopened the Washington Monument to visitors on May 12,2014, as of September 2016, the monument has been closed indefinitely due to reliability issues with the current elevator system. On December 2,2016, the National Park Service announced that the monument would be closed until 2019 in order to modernize the elevator. The $2 to 3 million project will correct the elevators ongoing mechanical, electrical and computer issues, the National Park Service has also requested funding in its FY2017 Presidents Budget Request to construct a permanent screening facility for the Washington Monument. The Washington Monument is expected to re-open to visitors in 2019, even his erstwhile enemy King George III called him the greatest character of the age. At his death in 1799 he left a legacy, he exemplified the core ideals of the American Revolution. Washington was the unchallenged public icon of American military and civic patriotism, starting with victory in the Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a memorial in the national capital. The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party and they also blocked his image on coins or the celebration of his birthday. Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, by that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial. As early as 1783, the Continental Congress had resolved That an equestrian statue of George Washington be erected at the place where the residence of Congress shall be established, currently, there are two equestrian statues of President Washington in Washington, D. C. Ten days after Washingtons death, a Congressional committee recommended a different type of monument, John Marshall, a Representative from Virginia proposed that a tomb be erected within the Capitol. Progress toward a memorial began in 1832. That year, which marked the 100th anniversary of Washingtons birth, in 1836, after they had raised $28,000 in donations, they announced a competition for the design of the memorial
36.
Stereoscopy
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Stereoscopy is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives from Greek στερεός, meaning firm, solid, any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of images which could be viewed using a stereoscope. Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer and these two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3D depth. Stereoscopy creates the illusion of depth from given two-dimensional images. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, the two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Although the term 3D is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of 3D displays, holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field with just two speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images 3D. The accurate term stereoscopic is more cumbersome than the common misnomer 3D, although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also. Most 3D displays use this method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838, but if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three-dimensional information, the three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images, anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images, Simultaneous perception Fusion Stereopsis These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision, a persons stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, according to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity
37.
Joseph L. Bates
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Joseph L. Bates was an American photographer active in the 1850s-1870s. His works include photographs of Boston and New England scenery, landscapes. He was one of several photographers to produce images in the area of Glen House near Mount Washington. Images he published included many of Bostons landmark buildings and he also produced still life-style images of a wreath, an arrangement of seashells, and coral. His photographs are included in the extensive Getty Center photography collection, located in Los Angeles, California
38.
USS Constitution
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USS Constitution is a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy, named by President George Washington after the Constitution of the United States of America. She is the worlds oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat, Constitution was launched in 1797, one of six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794 and the third constructed. Joshua Humphreys designed the frigates to be the young Navys capital ships, Constitution was built in the North End of Boston, Massachusetts at Edmund Hartts shipyard. Her first duties with the newly formed U. S. Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi-War with France, the battle with Guerriere earned her the nickname of Old Ironsides and public adoration that has repeatedly saved her from scrapping. She continued to serve as flagship in the Mediterranean and African squadrons, during the American Civil War, she served as a training ship for the United States Naval Academy. She carried American artwork and industrial displays to the Paris Exposition of 1878, Constitution was retired from active service in 1881, and served as a receiving ship until designated a museum ship in 1907. In 1934, she completed a three-year, 90-port tour of the nation, Constitution sailed under her own power for her 200th birthday in 1997, and again in August 2012 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of her victory over Guerriere. The officers and crew are all active-duty U. S. Navy personnel, traditionally, command of the vessel is assigned to a Navy commander. She is usually berthed at Pier 1 of the former Charlestown Navy Yard, in May 2015, Constitution entered Dry Dock 1 to begin a three-year restoration program. In 1785, Barbary pirates began to seize American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean, in 1793 alone, eleven American ships were captured and their crews and stores held for ransom. To combat this problem, proposals were made for warships to protect American shipping, resulting in the Naval Act of 1794. The act provided funds to construct six frigates, but included a clause that, if peace terms were agreed to with Algiers, joshua Humphreys design was unusual for the time, being long on keel and narrow of beam and mounting very heavy guns. The design called for a diagonal scantling scheme intended to restrict hogging while giving the ships extremely heavy planking and this design gave the hull a greater strength than a more lightly built frigate. Humphreys design was based on his realization that the fledgling United States of the period could not match the European states in the size of their navies and this being so, the frigates were designed to overpower any other frigate yet escape from a ship of the line. Primary materials used in her construction consisted of pine and oak, including live oak. Her masts were of white pine from Maine, the keel was ultimately constructed from an alternative white oak tree, sourced from New Jersey. The name Constitution was selected by President George Washington and her keel was laid down on 1 November 1794 at Edmund Hartts shipyard in Boston, Massachusetts under the supervision of Captain Nicholson and naval constructor Colonel George Claghorn. Constitutions hull was built 21 inches thick and her length between perpendiculars was 175 ft, with a 204 ft length overall and a width of 43 ft 6 in, in total,60 acres of trees were needed for her construction
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
