1.
Frances Densmore
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Frances Theresa Densmore was an American anthropologist and ethnographer born in Red Wing, Minnesota. Densmore is known for her studies of Native American music and culture, as a child Densmore developed an appreciation of music by listening to the nearby Dakota Indians. She studied music at Oberlin College for three years and she helped preserve their culture in a time when government policy was to encourage Native Americans to adopt Western customs. Densmore began recording music officially for the Smithsonian Institutions Bureau of American Ethnology in 1907, in her fifty-plus years of studying and preserving American Indian music, she collected thousands of recordings. Many of the recordings she made on behalf of the BAE now are held in the Library of Congress, while her original recordings often were on wax cylinders, many of them have been reproduced using other media and are included in other archives. The recordings may be accessed by researchers as well as tribal delegations, Densmore frequently was published in the journal American Anthropologist, contributing consistently throughout her career. She wrote The Indians and Their Music in 1926, between 1910 and 1957, she published fourteen book-length bulletins for the Smithsonian, each describing the musical practices and repertories of a different Native-American group. These were reprinted as a series by DaCapo Press in 1972 and she also was a part of A Ventriloquy of Anthros in the American Indian Quarterly along with James Owen Dorsey and Eugene Buechel. Frances Densmore page from Minnesota Public Radio Frances Densmore Minnesota Historical Society
2.
Blackfoot Confederacy
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The Siksika, the Kainai or Kainah, and the Northern Piegan or Peigan or Piikani reside in Canada, the Southern Piegan/Piegan Blackfeet or Pikuni are located in the United States. They followed the herds as they migrated between what are now the United States and Canada, as far north as the Bow River. In the first half of the 18th century, they acquired horses and firearms from white traders and their Cree, the Blackfoot used these to expand their territory at the expense of neighboring tribes. Now riding horses, the Blackfoot and other Plains tribes could also extend the range of their buffalo hunts, periods of starvation and deprivation followed, and the Blackfoot tribe was forced to adopt ranching and farming, settling in permanent reservations. In the 1870s, they signed treaties with both the United States and Canada, ceding most of their lands in exchange for annuities of food and medical aid, as well as help in learning to farm. Nevertheless, the Blackfoot have worked to maintain their traditional language, originally the Blackfoot/Plains Confederacy consisted of three peoples based on kinship and dialect, but all speaking the common language of Blackfoot, one of the Algonquian languages family. The three were the Piikáni, the Káínaa, and the Siksikáwa and they later allied with the unrelated Tsuu Tina, who became merged into the Confederacy and, with the Atsina, or Aaninin. Each of these highly decentralized peoples were divided into many bands, the band was the basic unit of organization for hunting and defence. The largest ethnic group in the Confederacy is the Piegan, also spelled Peigan or Pikuni and their name derives from the Blackfoot term Piikáni. They are divided into the Piikani Nation in present-day Alberta, a once large and mighty division of the Piegan were the Inuksik of southwestern Montana. Today they survive only as a clan or band of the South Peigan, the modern Kainai Nation is named for the Blackfoot-language term Káínaa, meaning Many Chief people. These were historically called the Blood, from a Plains Cree name for the Kainai, Miko-Ew. The common English name for the tribe is Blood or the Blood tribe, the Siksika Nations name derives from Siksikáwa, meaning Those of like. The Siksika also call themselves Sao-kitapiiksi, meaning Plains People, the Sarcee call themselves the Tsu T’ina, meaning a great number of people. During early years of conflict, the Blackfoot called them Saahsi or Sarsi, the Sarcee are from an entirely different language family, they are part of the Athabascan or Dené language family, most of whose members are located in the Subarctic of Northern Canada. Specifically, the Sarcee are an offshoot of the Beaver people and they later joined the Confederacy and essentially merged with the Pikuni. The Gros Ventre people call themselves the Haaninin, also spelled Aaninin, the French called them Gros Ventres, misinterpreting a physical sign for waterfall, and the English called them the Fall Indians, related to waterfalls in the mountains. The Blackfoot referred to them as the Piik-siik-sii-naa or Atsina, because of years of enmity, early scholars thought the Aaninin were related to the Arapaho Nation, who inhabited the Missouri Plains and moved west to Colorado and Wyoming
3.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
4.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
5.
John Wesley Powell
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John Wesley Wes Powell was a U. S. soldier, geologist, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He is famous for the 1869 Powell Geographic Expedition, a river trip down the Green and Colorado rivers. Powell served as director of the U. S. Geological Survey and proposed, for development of the arid West. Powell was born in Mount Morris, New York, in 1834 and his father, a poor itinerant preacher, had emigrated to the U. S. from Shrewsbury, England, in 1830. His family moved westward to Jackson, Ohio, then Walworth County, Wisconsin, before settling in rural Boone County, as a young man he undertook a series of adventures through the Mississippi River valley. In 1855, he spent four months walking across Wisconsin, during 1856, he rowed the Mississippi from St. Anthony, Minnesota, to the sea. In 1857, he rowed down the Ohio River from Pittsburgh to the Mississippi River, in 1858 he rowed down the Illinois River, then up the Mississippi and the Des Moines River to central Iowa. At age 25, he was elected in 1859 to the Illinois Natural History Society, Powell studied at Illinois College, Illinois Institute, and Oberlin College, over a period of seven years while teaching, but was unable to attain his degree. During his studies Powell acquired a knowledge of Ancient Greek and Latin, Powell had a restless nature and a deep interest in the natural sciences. This desire to learn natural sciences was against the wishes of his father. In 1860 when Powell was on a tour he decided that the Civil War was inevitable, he decided to study military science. Powells loyalties remained with the Union and the cause of abolishing slavery, on May 8,1861, he enlisted at Hennepin, Illinois, as a private in the 20th Illinois Infantry. He was described as age 27, height 5 6-1/2 tall, light complected, gray eyes, auburn hair and he was elected sergeant-major of the regiment, and when the 20th Illinois was mustered into the Federal service a month later, Powell was commissioned a second lieutenant. He enlisted in the Union Army as a cartographer, topographer, during the Civil War, he served first with the 20th Illinois Volunteers. While stationed at Cape Girardeau, Missouri, he recruited a company that became Battery F of the 2nd Illinois Light Artillery with Powell as captain. On November 28,1861, Powell took a leave to marry the former Emma Dean. At the Battle of Shiloh, he lost most of his arm when struck by a minie ball while in the process of giving the order to fire. The raw nerve endings in his arm would continue to cause him pain for the rest of his life
6.
Ethnography
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Ethnography is the systematic study of people and cultures. It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study, an ethnography is a means to represent graphically and in writing the culture of a group. The word can thus be said to have a double meaning, the resulting field study or a case report reflects the knowledge and the system of meanings in the lives of a cultural group. The typical ethnography is a study and so includes a brief history, and an analysis of the terrain, the climate. In all cases it should be reflexive, make a contribution toward the understanding of the social life of humans, have an aesthetic impact on the reader. An ethnography records all observed behavior and describes all symbol-meaning relations, the word ethnography is derived from the Greek ἔθνος, meaning a company, later a people, nation and -graphy meaning field of study. Ethnographic studies focus on large groups of people who interact over time. Ethnography is a design, where the researcher explains about shared learnt patterns of values, behaviour, beliefs. The field of anthropology originated from Europe and England designed in late 19th century and it spread its roots to the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. Some of the main contributors like EB Tylor from Britain and Lewis H Morgan, franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, were a group of researchers from United States who contributed the idea of cultural relativism to the literature. He gives the point of the native and this became the origin of field work. Since Malinowski was very firm with his approach he applied it practically and he was interested in learning the language of the islanders and stayed there for a long time doing his field work. The field of ethnography became very popular in the late 19th century, again, in the latter part of the 19th century, the field of anthropology became a good support for scientific formation. Though the field was flourishing it had a lot of threat to encounter, post colonialism, the research climate shifted towards post-modernism and feminism. Therefore, the field of anthropology moved into discipline of social science, gerhard Friedrich Müller developed the concept of ethnography as a separate discipline whilst participating in the Second Kamchatka Expedition as a professor of history and geography. Whilst involved in the expedition, he differentiated Völker-Beschreibung as an area of study. This became known as ethnography, following the introduction of the Greek neologism ethnographia by Johann Friedrich Schöpperlin, there are different forms of ethnography, confessional ethnography, life history, feminist ethnography etc. Two popular forms of ethnography are realist ethnography and critical ethnography, realist ethnography, is a traditional approach used by cultural anthropologists
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Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
8.
Linguistics
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Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning, phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential sub-sets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology, morphology, modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomskys ideological school of generative grammar. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an innate capacity and potential for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups. The study of parole is the domain of sociolinguistics, the sub-discipline that comprises the study of a system of linguistic facets within a certain speech community. Discourse analysis further examines the structure of texts and conversations emerging out of a speech communitys usage of language, Stylistics also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media. In the 1960s, Jacques Derrida, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself. Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of scripts in language. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic, research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focus on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time. Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages, lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and interpretation, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education, related areas of study also includes the disciplines of semiotics, literary criticism, translation, and speech-language pathology. Before the 20th century, the philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language
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Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
10.
National Museum of Natural History
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The National Museum of Natural History is a natural history museum administered by the Smithsonian Institution, located on the National Mall in Washington, D. C. Opened in 1910, the museum on the National Mall was one of the first Smithsonian buildings constructed exclusively to hold the national collections and research facilities. The main building has an area of 1,500,000 square feet with 325,000 square feet of exhibition and public space. The museums collections contain over 126 million specimens of plants, animals, fossils, minerals, rocks, meteorites, human remains, the United States National Museum was founded in 1846 as part of the Smithsonian Institution. The museum was housed in the Smithsonian Institution Building, which is better known today as the Smithsonian Castle. A formal exhibit hall opened in 1858, the growing collection led to the construction of a new building, the National Museum Building. Covering a then-enormous 2.25 acres, it was built in just 15 months at a cost of $310,000, congress authorized construction of a new building on June 28,1902. The regents began considering sites for the new building in March, the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall was chosen to design the structure. Testing of the soil for the foundations was set for July 1903, the Natural History Building opened its doors to the public on March 17,1910, in order to provide the Smithsonian Institution with more space for collections and research. The building was not fully completed until June 1911, the structure cost $3.5 million dollars. The Neoclassical style building was the first structure constructed on the side of the National Mall as part of the 1901 McMillan Commission plan. In addition to the Smithsonians natural history collection, it housed the American history, art. Between 1981 and 2003, the National Museum of Natural History had 11 permanent, there were six directors alone between 1990 and 2002. Turnover was high as the directors were disenchanted by low levels of funding. Robert W. Fri was named the director in 1996. One of the largest donations in Smithsonian history was made during Fris tenure, kenneth E. Behring donated $20 million in 1997 to modernize the museum. Fri resigned in 2001 after disagreeing with Smithsonian leadership over the reorganization of the scientific research programs. J. Dennis OConnor, Provost of the Smithsonian Institution was named acting director of the museum on July 25,2001, eight months later, OConner resigned to become the vice president of research and dean of the graduate school at the University of Maryland
11.
Frank Hamilton Cushing
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Frank Hamilton Cushing was an American anthropologist and ethnologist. He made pioneering studies of the Zuni Indians of New Mexico by entering into their culture, Cushing was born in North East, Pennsylvania. He later moved with his family to western New York, as a boy he took an interest in the Native American artifacts in the surrounding countryside and taught himself how to knap flint. He published his first scientific paper when he was 17, after a brief period at Cornell University, where he put together and curated an exhibit of Indian artifacts, Cushing attracted notice from the director of the Smithsonian Institution. At 19 Cushing was appointed curator of the department of the National Museum in Washington. There he came to the attention of John Wesley Powell, of the Bureau of Ethnology, Cushing was invited by Powell to join the James Stevenson anthropological expedition to New Mexico. The group traveled by rail to the end of the line at Las Vegas, New Mexico, fascinated by this culture, Cushing gained permission to stay at the pueblo. He went native, living with the Zuni from 1879 to 1884, after some initial difficulties, Cushing was accepted by the community. He was adopted by the Governor of the Pueblo and participated in Zuni activities, in 1881 Cushing was initiated into the warrior society, the Priesthood of the Bow. He received the Zuni name Tenatsali, meaning medicine flower and he often told the Zuni folk tales and legends from his own culture. In addition, in 1882 he took his Zuni father and fellow Bow members on a tour to the Eastern United States to show them his culture and their journey attracted considerable press attention, as there was great interest in American Indians of the West. Cushing considered the part of what he called the reciprocal method. He was a century ahead of other practitioners of this process, during this tour Cushing married Emily Tennison of Washington, D. C. His wife and her sister returned with him and his party to Zuni, Cushing became embroiled in a political intrigue. In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes had signed a bill designating the boundaries of the new Zuni reservation, one 800-acre section of Zuni territory, called the Nutria Valley, had been left out. Three land speculators, including Major W. F. Tucker, the angered Zunis appealed to Cushing for help, and he wrote letters to newspapers in Chicago and Boston in their defense. Major Tuckers father-in-law was US Senator John A. Logan from Illinois, even though the administration of President Chester A. Arthur redefined the Zuni boundaries in 1883 to correct the Nutria Valley omission, the damage to Cushings position had been done. Senator Logan resented his reputation being tarnished in the land grab imbroglio, as U. S. Senator, he threatened director John Wesley Powell of the Bureau of American Ethnology with funding cuts if Cushings stay in Zuni was not terminated
12.
James Owen Dorsey
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He worked for the Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution from 1880-1895, when he died young of typhoid fever. He became known as the expert on languages and culture of southern Siouan peoples, Dorsey also collected much material on beliefs and institutions, although most of his manuscripts have not been published. Some of the stories he collected from the Ponca and Osage have been published. James Owen Dorsey was born in Baltimore, Maryland in 1848 and he attended the Virginia Theological Seminary in Alexandria, and was ordained as a deacon of the Episcopal Church in 1871. That year he became a missionary to the Ponca Indians in the Dakota Territory and he had a remarkable aptitude for languages, and a sympathetic and helpful personality which won the confidence of the Indians. He lived 27 months as a missionary in Nebraska and South Dakota, learning the difficult Siouan language of the Ponca, ill health forced Dorsey to leave the West and to become a pastor in Maryland. He continued to study linguistics, and to work on analysis of Ponca. In the early years, he tried to link those languages with Hebrew, in the theory, shared by many scholars at the time. These efforts were considered crude and immature, but, he developed into a linguist and anthropologist who presented Indian cultures with unsurpassed fidelity. In 1880, Dorsey returned to Washington to work with the BAE at the Smithsonian as a specialist in Siouan languages, Dorsey later did field work with the Siouan-speaking Tutelo in Canada, the Biloxi in Louisiana, and the Quapaw in Oklahoma. In 1884 he was the last to record the Yakona language, Dorsey also compiled word lists and dictionaries of the Kansa and Osage languages. He became the foremost expert on the languages and culture of southern Siouan peoples, many of his extensive compilations of vocabulary, grammar, myths, oral histories, and cultural practices are still unpublished. Dorsey died of fever in 1895 in Washington, D. C. at age 47. O. O. Dorsey, Ponca & Omaha Texts, University of Colorado
13.
Jesse Walter Fewkes
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Jesse Walter Fewkes was an American anthropologist, archaeologist, writer and naturalist. Fewkes was born in Newton, Massachusetts, and initially trained as a zoologist at Harvard University and he later turned to ethnological studies of the native tribes in the American Southwest. In 1889, with the resignation of noted ethnologist Frank Hamilton Cushing, Fewkes became leader of the Hemenway Southwestern Archaeological Expedition, while with this project, Fewkes documented the existing lifestyle and rituals of the Zuni and Hopi tribes. Fewkes was the first man to use a phonograph to record indigenous people for study and he tested its use among the Passamaquoddy in Maine, before traveling to the Southwest to make his recordings of the Zuni and Hopi. Benjamin Ives Gilman used these recordings to show that they used musical intervals unlike those in the Western tempered scale, in addition to the recordings, he wrote historically valuable descriptions of the music and musical practice. Fewkes surveyed the ruins of a number of cultures in the American Southwest and he supervised the excavation of the Casa Grande ruins in southern Arizona, a Hohokam site, and the Mesa Verde ruins in southern Colorado, an Ancient Pueblo site. He particularly focused on the variants and styles of prehistoric Southwest Indian pottery and his work on the Mimbres and Sikyátki pottery styles eventually led to the reproduction of many of these traditional forms and images. The Hopi potter Nampeyo became his friend and reproduced the newly documented traditional designs in her own work, in study of the Hopi Indians religious rituals and festivities Fewkes compiled descriptions and drawings of the Hopis Katsinam. He commissioned several Hopi artist, knowledgeable in the Katsina cult and with the least outside influence in art, to series of paintings of the Hopis’ supernatural beings. Fewkes was one of the first voices for government preservation of ancient sites in the American Southwest, by the mid-1890s, vandalism of these sites was widespread. A commercial spirit is leading to careless excavations for objects to sell, the proper designation of the way our antiquities are treated is vandalism. It would be wise legislation to prevent this vandalism as much as possible and his research on precolumbian sites of Puerto Rico, Haiti, Cuba, Trinidad, and the Lesser Antilles were culminated into his 1907 book Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighboring Islands. Its an acclaimed text of early archaeology, Fewkes joined the Smithsonians Bureau of American Ethnology in 1895, becoming its director in 1918. The Group of Tusayan Ceremonials Called Katcinas, the Smithsonian Institution, BAE Annual Report 1897 pp. 245–313. Washington Academy of Sciences Vol II,1900, Hopi Katcinas Drawn by Native Artists. The Smithsonian Institution, BAE Annual Report 1903 pp 3–126 The Mimbres, Art, Avanyu Publishing, Albuquerque, New Mexico, republished 1993. --a reprint of three published by the Smithsonian Institution between 1914 and 1924. Hopi Snake Ceremonies, Avanyu Publishing Inc, republication of selected works Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report Nos.16 and 19 for the years 1894-95 and 1897-98. with stars and ponys lalalan 1 fish 2 fush 3 fash 4 fosh Hough, Walter
14.
Alice Cunningham Fletcher
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Alice Cunningham Fletcher was an American ethnologist, anthropologist, and social scientist who studied and documented American Indian culture. Not much is known about Fletchers parents, her father was a New York lawyer and her mother was from a prominent Boston family and her parents moved to Havana, Cuba in vain hopes of easing her fathers illness with a better climate. Fletcher was born there in 1838, after her father died in 1839, the family moved to Brooklyn Heights, Fletcher was enrolled in the Brooklyn Female Academy, an exclusive school for the elite. Fletcher taught school and later became a lecturer to support herself. She also advocated for the education of Native Americans so that they could gain accoutrements of civilization, Fletcher credited Frederic Ward Putnam for stimulating her interest in American Indian culture and began working with him at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. She studied the remnants of the Indian civilization in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, in 1881, Fletcher made an unprecedented trip to live with and study the Sioux on their reservation as a representative of the Peabody Museum. She was accompanied by Susette Bright Eyes La Flesche, an Omaha spokeswoman who had served as interpreter for Standing Bear in 1879 in his civil rights trial. Also with them was Thomas Tibbles, a journalist who had helped publicize Standing Bears cause and these times also marked the beginning of Fletchers 40-year association with Francis La Flesche, Susettes half brother. They collaborated professionally and had an informal mother-son relationship and they shared a house in Washington, D. C. beginning in 1890. In addition to her research and writing, Fletcher worked in several appointed positions during the late nineteenth century. In 1887 she was appointed United States special agent in the allotment of lands among the Winnebago and she was made assistant in ethnology at the Peabody Museum in 1882, and in 1891 received the Thaw fellowship, which was created for her. Active in professional societies, she was elected president of the Anthropological Society of Washington and she also served as vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and was a longtime member of the Literary Society of Washington. Working through the Womens National Indian Association, Fletcher introduced a system of making loans to Indians, wherewith they might buy land. She also helped secure a loan for Susan LaFlesche, an Omaha woman, graduating at the top of her class, LaFlesche became the first Native American woman doctor in the United States. In 1888 Fletcher published Indian Education and Civilization, a report of the Bureau of Education. She was a pioneer in the study of American Indian music, in 1898 at the Congress of Musicians held in Omaha during the Trans-Mississippi Exposition, she read several essays upon the songs of the North American Indians. A number of Omaha Indians sang their native melodies, out of this grew her Indian Story and Song from North America, exploring a stage of development antecedent to that in which culture music appeared. Fletcher worked with Frederic Ward Putnam in his research on Serpents Mound in Ohio, the site was donated to the Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society in 1900 and is a National Historic Landmark
15.
Francis La Flesche
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Francis La Flesche was the first professional Native American ethnologist, he worked with the Smithsonian Institution, specializing first in his own Omaha culture, followed by that of the Osage. Working closely as a translator and researcher with the anthropologist Alice C, Fletcher, La Flesche wrote several articles and a book on the Omaha, plus more numerous works on the Osage. He made valuable original recordings of their songs and chants. Beginning in 1908 he collaborated with the composer Charles Wakefield Cadman to develop an opera, Da O Ma, a collection of his stories was published in 1998. Of Omaha, Ponca, and French descent, La Flesche was the son of the Omaha chief Joseph LaFlesche and he grew up on the Omaha Reservation at a time of major transition for the tribe. Before the establishment of programs, he earned undergraduate and masters degrees at the George Washington University Law School in Washington. He made his life among European Americans. Francis La Flesche was born in 1857 on the Omaha Reservation, the first child of his father Joseph LaFlesches second wife Ta-in-ne and their mother was Mary Gale, daughter of an American surgeon and his Iowa wife. After Marys death, the widower Joseph married Ta-in-ne, an Omaha woman, Francis attended the Presbyterian Mission School at Bellevue, Nebraska. Later he attended college and law school in Washington, DC, by 1853, Iron Eye was a chief of the Omaha, he helped negotiate the 1854 treaty by which the tribe sold most of their land in Nebraska. He led the tribe as a head chief soon after their removal to a reservation, Joseph was Métis, of French and Ponca descent, and grew up mostly with the Omaha people. Working first as a fur trader, as an adult he had adopted as a son by the chief Big Elk. Joseph emphasized education for all his children, several went to schools and they were encouraged to contribute to their people. In 1879, Judge Elmer Dundy of the US District Court made a civil rights decision affirming the rights of American Indians as citizens under the Constitution. In Standing Bear v. Crook, Dundy had ruled that an Indian is a person under the Fourteenth Amendment, Susette Bright Eyes La Flesche had been involved as an interpreter for the chief Standing Bear and an expert witness on Indian issues. She invited Francis to accompany her with Standing Bear on a tour of the eastern United States during 1879-1880. They took turns acting as interpreter for the chief, in 1881 Susette and the journalist Thomas Tibbles accompanied Alice C. Fletcher, an anthropologist, on her trip to live with
16.
James Mooney
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James Mooney was an American ethnographer who lived for several years among the Cherokee. He did major studies of Southeastern Indians, as well as those on the Great Plains, papers and photographs from Mooney are in the collections of the National Anthropological Archives, Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution. James Mooney was born on February 10,1861 in Richmond, Indiana and his formal education was limited to the public schools of the city. He became an expert on American tribes by his own studies. In 1885 he started working with the Bureau of American Ethnology at Washington and he compiled a list of tribes which contained 3,000 names. It ended after the US Armys 1890 massacre of Lakota people at Wounded Knee, Mooney was recognized as a national expert on the American Indian. He married Ione Lee Gaut on September 28,1897 in Washington, one son was the writer Paul Mooney. Mooney died of disease in Washington, D. C. on December 22,1921. Mooneys obituary is available on JSTOR in American Anthropologist 24, #2 and he was buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery. A fuller biographical profile by George Ellison can be found in James Mooneys history, myths, linguistic families of Indian tribes north of Mexico, with provisional list of principal tribal names and synonyms. US Bureau of American Ethnology,1885, US Bureau of American Ethnology, 1885-6 Annual Report,1892. US Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin,1894, the Ghost-dance religion and the Sioux outbreak of 1890. US Bureau of American Ethnology, 1892-3 Annual Report,1897, calendar history of the Kiowa Indians. US Bureau of American Ethnology, 1895-6 Annual Report,1900, US Bureau of American Ethnology, 1897-8 Annual Report,1902. US Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin,1907, the Swimmer manuscript, Cherokee sacred formulas and medicinal prescriptions, revised, completed and edited by Frans M. Olbrechts,1932
17.
Matilda Coxe Stevenson
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Matilda Coxe Stevenson, who also wrote under the name Tilly E. Stevenson, was an American ethnologist, born in San Augustine, Texas. Born Matilda Coxe Evans, in 1872 she married James Stevenson, in the 1880s, the Stevensons formed the first husband-wife team in anthropology. Matilda Coxe Stevensons contributions often focused on women and family life, for which she developed a reputation as a vigorous. In 1885, Matilda Coxe Stevenson became the first President of the Womens Anthropological Society of America, after 1889 she was on the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution. Stevenson explored the cave, cliff, and mesa ruins of New Mexico, studied all the Pueblo tribes of that state, artifacts collected by Matilda and James Stevenson are in the collections of the Department of Anthropology in the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution. Papers from Stevenson are in the Institutions National Anthropological Archives, in Gacs, Ute, Khan, Aisha, McIntyre, Jerrie, & Weinberg, Ruth. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, further reading Foote, Cheryl J.6, Every Moment is Golden for the Ethnologist Matilda Coxe Stevenson in New Mexico. Women of the New Mexico Frontier, 1846-1912, tucson, AZ, University of Arizona Press. A perspective on Stevensons research methods in relation to the Hopi, Matilda Coxe Evans Stevenson on the Womens Intellectual Contributions to the Study of Mind and Society website Miller, Darlis A. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Pioneering Anthropologist. Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, Works by Matilda Coxe Stevenson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Matilda Coxe Stevenson at Internet Archive
18.
Neil Judd
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Neil Merton Judd was an American archaeologist who studied under the archaeologist of the American Southwest, Edgar Lee Hewett. He was curator of archaeology at the United States National Museum and he headed the first federally backed archeological mission sent to Chaco Canyon, excavating the key ruins of Pueblo Bonito and Pueblo del Arroyo. Brew, JO, Neil Merton Judd, 1887-1976, American Anthropologist,80, 352–354, strutin, M, Chaco, A Cultural Legacy, Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, ISBN 1-877856-45-2. Neil M. Judd, Men Met along the Trail, Adventures in Archaeology,1968, University of Oklahoma Press
19.
John Peabody Harrington
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John Peabody Harrington was an American linguist and ethnologist and a specialist in the native peoples of California. Born in Waltham, Massachusetts, Harrington moved to California as a child, from 1902 to 1905, Harrington studied anthropology and classical languages at Stanford University. While attending specialized classes at the University of California, Berkeley, Harrington became intensely interested in Native American languages and ethnography. Rather than completing his doctorate at the Universities of Leipzig and Berlin, for three years, he devoted his spare time to an intense examination of the few surviving Chumash people. His exhaustive work came to the attention of the Smithsonian Museums Bureau of American Ethnology, Harrington became a permanent field ethnologist for the bureau in 1915. Harrington also extended his work into traditional culture, particularly mythology and his field collections include information on placenames and thousands of photographs. Harrington is virtually the only recorder of some languages, such as Obispeño Chumash, Kitanemuk and he gathered more than 1 million pages of phonetic notations on languages spoken by tribes from Alaska to South America. When the technology available, he supplemented his written record with audio recordings - many recently digitized - first using wax cylinders. He is credited with gathering some of the first recordings of languages, rituals and songs. Harringtons attention to detail, both linguistic and cultural, is well-illustrated in Tobacco among the Karuk Indians of California, one of his very few published works. A more complete listing of the languages he documented includes the following and they had one daughter, Awona Harrington. Indigenous languages of California Traditional narratives Native American history of California Native Americans in California Survey of California, Harrington Biography Reconstituting the Chumash, A Review Essay, Peter Nabokov, American Indian Quarterly, Vol.13, No. 4, Special Issue, The California Indians, a Harrington Chronology John P. Harrington Papers 1907-1959 Los Angeles Times article and video about Harringtons research amongst the Chumash
20.
Franz Boas
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Franz Uri Boas was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the Father of American Anthropology. His work is associated with the movement of anthropological historicism, studying in Germany, Boas was awarded a doctorate in 1881 in physics while also studying geography. He then participated in an expedition to northern Canada where he became fascinated with the culture. He went on to do work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest. Through his students, many of whom went on to found anthropology departments and research programmes inspired by their mentor, Boas profoundly influenced the development of American anthropology. Among his most significant students were Manuel Gamio, A. L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Edward Sapir, Margaret Mead, Melville Herskovits, and Zora Neale Hurston. In this way, Boas introduced culture as the concept for describing differences in behavior between human groups, and as the central analytical concept of anthropology. Franz Boas was born in Minden, Westphalia, although his grandparents were observant Jews, his parents embraced Enlightenment values, including their assimilation into modern German society. Boass parents were educated, well-to-do, and liberal, they did not like dogma of any kind, due to this, Boas was granted the independence to think for himself and pursue his own interests. Early in life he displayed a penchant for both nature and natural sciences, Boas vocally opposed anti-Semitism and refused to convert to Christianity, but he did not identify himself as a Jew. This is disputed however by Ruth Bunzel, a protégée of Boas, according to his biographer, He was an ethnic German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America. In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote, The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the revolution of 1848 were a living force. My father, liberal, but not active in affairs, my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma and my father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom. From kindergarten on, Boas was educated in history, a subject he enjoyed. In gymnasium, he was most proud of his research on the distribution of plants. In 1879, he hoped to transfer to Berlin University to study physics under Hermann von Helmholtz, the combination of physics and geography also may have been accomplished through a major in physics and a minor in geography. Boas, due to deafness, encountered difficulties studying tonal languages such as Laguna
21.
Garrick Mallery
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Garrick Mallery was an American ethnologist specializing in Native American sign language and pictographs. His father was Judge Garrick Mallery, who was born April 17,1784 and he was a member of the Pennsylvania legislature from 1827 to 1830, and was distinguished for the zeal with which he promoted prison reform. In 1831 he was appointed judge of the judicial district, composed of the counties of Berks, Northampton. He resigned from the bench in 1836 and removed to Philadelphia and he died in Philadelphia on the 6th of July,1866. Garricks mother, the second wife, was descended from John Harris, Jr. the founder of Harrisburg. Mallery received an excellent early education and was prepared by a tutor for his entrance into his fathers alma mater, Yale College. Three years later, he received the degree of LL. B. from the University of Pennsylvania, in the same year he was admitted to the bar in Philadelphia and commenced practice there. He devoted some of his time to editorial and literary work. Mallery was a volunteer and served as a first-lieutenant in the 71st Pennsylvania Infantry, on June 30,1862, he was severely wounded at Peach Orchard during the Seven Days Battles in Virginia. Having been left on the battlefield unable to move, he was captured and sent to Libby Prison, upon being exchanged some time later, he was sent to his home in Philadelphia. When recovered, he returned to the field and, in February,1863, was commissioned as lieutenant colonel of the 13th Pennsylvania Cavalry, during the military occupation of Virginia, Mallery was appointed judge advocate of the First Military District. Beginning in 1870, he was on duty with the Signal Corps for almost ten years and served as executive officer, due to his old wounds rendering him unfit for strenuous work, he was retired at his own request in 1879. During Mallerys tenure with the Signal Corps, he was stationed at Fort Rice in Dakota Territory. He began to note of them, which led to a parallel investigation of the pictographs on rocks, skins. He foresaw that these customs would ultimately be lost and forgotten as the Indians were brought more and more under the control of the authorities. Before Mallery began his researches it was supposed that the pictographs, some of which were believed to be of pre-Columbian origin, were simply pictures. He was gradually convinced that gesture-speech and the cognate pictographs formed a system, involving mythology and history. In 1877, as a result of work, he was ordered to report to Major John Wesley Powell
22.
Washington Matthews
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Washington Matthews was a surgeon in the United States Army, ethnographer, and linguist known for his studies of Native American peoples, especially the Navajo. Matthews was born in Killiney, near Dublin, Ireland in 1843 to Nicolas Blayney Matthews and his mother having died a few years after his birth, his father took him and his brother to the United States. He grew up in Wisconsin and Iowa, and his father and he would go on to graduate from the University of Iowa in 1864 with a degree in medicine. The American Civil War was raging at the time, and Matthews immediately volunteered for the Union Army upon graduating and his first post was as surgeon at Rock Island Barracks, Illinois, where he tended to Confederate prisoners. Matthews was posted at Fort Union in what is now Montana in 1865 and it was there that an enduring interest in Native American peoples and languages took root. He would go on to serve at a series of forts in Dakota Territory until 1872, Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, Fort Rice and he was a part of General Alfred H. Terrys expedition in Dakota Territory in 1867. He also described, though less extensively, the related Mandan, there is some evidence that Matthews married a Hidatsa woman during this time. There is also speculation and circumstantial evidence that Matthews had a son with the woman, in 1877 he participated in an expedition against the Nez Perce, and again in 1878 against the Bannock. While serving on a prison on Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay, from 1884 to 1890, Matthews was posted to the Army Medical Museum in Washington, DC. During this time he conducted research and wrote papers on physical anthropology. John Wesley Powell of the Smithsonian Institutions Bureau of American Ethnology suggested that Matthews be assigned to Fort Wingate, near what is now Gallup and it was there that Matthews came to know the people who would become the subject of his best known work, the Navajo. In it that writer has declared that they have no traditions nor poetry, the songs are as full of poetic images and figures of speech as occur in English, and are handed down from father to son, from generation to generation. Matthews is said to have initiated into various secret Navajo rituals. Matthews argued that the Navajo were ichthyphobic, loeseliastrum matthewsii was named after him. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa, ethnography and philology of the Hidatsa Indians. The Mountain Chant, A Navajo Ceremony, salt Lake City, University of Utah Press. Matthews is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, Works by Washington Matthews at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Washington Matthews at Internet Archive Works by Washington Matthews at LibriVox
23.
Paul Radin
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Paul Radin was an American cultural anthropologist and folklorist of the early twentieth century specializing in Native American languages and cultures. The noted legal scholar Max Radin was his older brother, a son of the rabbi Adolph Moses Radin, Paul Radin was born in the cosmopolitan Polish city of Łódź in 1883. In 1884 his family moved to Elmira, New York and he entered the public school system and graduated from the City College of New York in 1902. There, he interested in studying history and came under the influence of James Harvey Robinson. Between 1905 and 1907 Radin studied in Europe, first in Munich, as a result, he became interested in anthropology. In 1907 he returned to the United States and became a student of Franz Boas at Columbia and he engaged in years of productive fieldwork among the Winnebago Indians, primarily from 1908-1912. Publications from this include his doctoral dissertation, earned in 1911 and culminated in 1923 with the publication of his magnum opus. In 1929, as a result of his fieldwork, he was able to publish a grammar of the extinct language of the Wappo people of the San Francisco Bay area. Beginning in the 1940s, Radin was monitored by the FBI and this monitoring continued until his death. In 1952 Radin moved to Lugano, Switzerland, where he worked for the Bollingen Foundation, in 1956 he returned to the US to take a position at Brandeis, where he was chairman of the Department of Anthropology. Late in his career he edited several anthologies of tales from different continents. His most enduring publication to date is The Trickster, which includes essays by the scholar of Greek mythology, Karl Kerényi. Radin taught at a number of colleges and universities, never staying at any one more than a few years. At various times he held appointments at University of California, Berkeley, Mills College, Fisk University, Black Mountain College, Kenyon College, and he concluded his career as chairman of the Department of Anthropology at Brandeis. The Sources and Authenticity of the History of the Ancient Mexicans,1920 The Legends of the Jews, From Joseph to the Exodus, The Jewish Publication Society of America 1923. The Winnebago Tribe, in Thirty-seventh Annual Report of the United States Bureau of American Ethnology, crashing Thunder, The Autobiography of an American Indian. A Grammar of the Wappo Language, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, the Method and Theory of Ethnology, An Essay in Criticism. Primitive Religion, Its Nature and Origin, the Story of the American Indian
24.
Cyrus Thomas
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Cyrus Thomas was a U. S. ethnologist and entomologist prominent in the late 19th century and noted for his studies of the natural history of the American West. Thomas was born in Kingsport, Tennessee, on July 27,1825 and he was educated in village schools in the Kingsport area and an academy student at Jonesboro, Tennessee, as well as being self-educated. His mother hoped he would join the field, so he studied anatomy and physiology. He was admitted to the bar in 1851, between his study of medicine and law his father appointed him to a county seat to “take charge of some business. ”From 1851 to 1854 Thomas served as county clerk of Jackson County. He later abandoned the practice of law, and in 1865 became superintendent of some Jackson County schools and this lasted only for a few years. Also during this time he entered the ministry of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, four years later in 1869 he joined the expedition of Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden, who had organized a science corps for the exploration of the Rocky Mountains. Thomas gained a strong interest in history, and in 1858 he founded the Illinois Natural History Society. Thomas was also the statistician and entomologist on the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. In 1873 Thomas was appointed a professor of science at Southern Illinois University. He kept his title of chief entomologist until 1882 after the commission came to an end in 1879, at this time,1882, he was appointed archaeologist to the United States Bureau of American Ethnology. Thomas was married twice, having lost his first wife, Dorthy Logan and he remarried in 1865 to Viola L. Davis. With her, he fathered five girls and one boy, who died in infancy, Thomas died on June 26,1910, and was buried in Frederick, Maryland. Thomas made some noteworthy contributions as an entomologist, having helped control the plague that was retarding the growth of the border states. With this information they were able to predict the outbreaks rather accurately for the upcoming year, the chinch bug was another culprit damaging crops. Thomas and LeBaron, using the tactic of studying the chinch bug’s relationship to the weather. Thomas found a pattern between the chinch bug and weather, concluding that outbreaks can be expected about every seven years, after presenting his findings he accurately predicted an outbreak in 1881. He also accompanied expeditions to the West as an entomologist—one of these being the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871, on this expedition Thomas addressed the problem of locusts with Riley and Packard. During this investigation they found the breeding ground, how the weather affected them
25.
Mound Builders
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Since the 19th century, the prevailing scholarly consensus has been that the mounds were constructed by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Sixteenth-century Spanish explorers made contact with living in a number of later Mississippian cities, described their cultures. By the time of United States westward expansion two hundred years later, Native Americans were generally not knowledgeable about the civilizations that produced the mounds, research and study of these cultures and peoples has been based mostly on archaeology and anthropology. At one time, the mound builder was applied to the people believed to have constructed these earthworks. In the 16th through 19th centuries, Europeans and Americans generally thought that an other than one related to the historic Native Americans had built the mounds. The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the building of mounds and these burial and ceremonial structures were typically flat-topped pyramids or platform mounds, flat-topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes a variety of other forms. They were generally built as part of villages that arose from more dense populations, with a specialization of skills. The early earthworks built in Louisiana c.3500 BCE are the ones known to be built by a hunter-gatherer culture. The best-known flat-topped pyramidal structure, which at over 100 feet tall is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico, is Monks Mound at Cahokia in present-day Collinsville, Illinois. At its peak about 1150 CE, Cahokia was a settlement with 20, 000-30,000 people. Some effigy mounds were constructed in the shapes or outlines of culturally significant animals, the most famous effigy mound, Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, ranges from 1 to just over 3 feet tall. 20 feet wide, over 1,330 feet long, many different tribal groups and chiefdoms, involving an array of beliefs and unique cultures over thousands of years, built mounds as expressions of their cultures. The general term, mound builder, covered their shared architectural practice of earthwork mound construction and this practice, believed to be associated with a cosmology that had a cross-cultural appeal, may indicate common cultural antecedents. The first mound building was a marker of political and social complexity among the cultures in the Eastern United States. Watson Brake in Louisiana, constructed about 3500 BCE during the Middle Archaic period, is the oldest dated mound complex in North America and it is one of eleven mound complexes from this period found in the Lower Mississippi Valley. We can conclude that these mound builders were very organized people, hundreds or even thousands of workers had to dig up tons of earth with the hand tools available. Then the dirt had to be moved long distances. The most complete reference for these earthworks is Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, written by Ephraim G. Squier and it was published in 1848 by the Smithsonian
26.
Earthworks (archaeology)
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In archaeology, earthworks are artificial changes in land level, typically made from piles of artificially placed or sculpted rocks and soil. Earthworks are often known as barrows in England, and mounds in North America, Earthworks can themselves be archaeological features, or they can show features beneath the surface. They are believed to have used as monuments for spiritual ritual ceremonies. Long barrows are oblong-shaped mounds that are used for burials, tumuli are mounds of earth created over a tomb, it has the same meaning as barrow. A cross dyke or cross-ridge dyke is a bank and ditch, found in Europe and often belonging to the later Bronze Age or Iron Age. Often marked on Ordnance Survey maps in the UK. Ridge and furrows are sets of parallel depressions, mottes are mound structures made of earth and stone that once held castles. A round barrow is a mound that is in a shape that was used during Neolithic times as a burial mound. Geoglyph, a design or motif Earthworks can vary in height from a few centimetres to the size of Silbury Hill at 40 metres. They can date from the Neolithic to the present, the structures can also stretch for many tens of kilometres. In area, they can cover many hectares, for example, Maiden Castle, shallow earthworks are often more visible as cropmarks or in aerial photographs if taken when the sun is low in the sky and shadows are more pronounced. Similarly, earthworks may be visible after a frost or a light dusting of snow. Earthworks can be detected and plotted using Light Detection and Ranging and this technique is particularly useful for mapping small variations in land height that would be difficult to detect by eye. It can be used to map features beneath forest canopy and for features hidden by other vegetation, LIDAR results can be input into a geographic information system to produce three-dimensional representations of the earthworks. An accurate survey of the earthworks can enable them to be interpreted without the need for excavation, for example, earthworks from deserted medieval villages can be used to determine the location, size, and layout of lost settlements. Often these earthworks can point to the purpose of such a settlement, Earthworks in North America include mounds built by Native Americans known as the Mound Builders. Ancient people who lived in the American Midwest commonly built effigy mounds, possibly the most famous of these effigy mounds is Serpent Mound. Located in the Ohio, this 411-meterlong earthen work is thought to memorialize alignments of the planets, cone-shaped or conical mounds are also numerous, with thousands of them scattered across the American Midwest, some over 80 feet tall. These conical mounds appear to be marking the graves of one person or even dozens of people
27.
Mound
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A mound is a heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris. Most commonly, mounds are earthen formations such as hills and mountains, a mound may be any rounded area of topographically higher elevation on any surface. Artificial mounds have been created for a variety of reasons throughout history, including ceremonial, burial, in the archaeology of the United States and Canada, a mound is a deliberately constructed elevated earthen structure or earthwork, intended for a range of potential uses. In European and Asian archaeology, the word tumulus may be used as a synonym for an artificial hill, while the term mound may be applied to historic constructions, most mounds in the United States are pre-Columbian earthworks, built by Native American peoples. Native Americans built a variety of mounds, including flat-topped pyramids or cones known as mounds, rounded cones. Some mounds took on unusual shapes, such as the outline of cosmologically significant animals and these are known as effigy mounds. Some mounds, such as a few in Wisconsin, have rock formations, or petroforms within them, on them, while these mounds are perhaps not as famous as burial mounds, like their European analogs, Native American mounds also have a variety of other uses. While some prehistoric cultures, like the Adena culture, used preferentially for burial, others used mounds for other ritual and sacred acts. The platform mounds of the Mississippian culture, for example, may have supported temples, the houses of chiefs, council houses, other mounds would have been part of defensive walls to protect a certain area. The Hopewell culture used mounds as markers of complex astronomical alignments related to ceremonies, mounds and related earthworks are the only significant monumental construction in pre-Columbian Eastern and Central North America. Mounds are given different names depending on which culture they strive from and they can be located all across the world in spots such as Asia, Europe and the Americas. Mound builders have more commonly associated with the mounds in the Americas. They all have different meanings and sometimes are constructed as animals, kankali Tila is a famous mound located at Mathura in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. A Jain stupa was excavated here in 1890-91 by Dr. Fuhrer, mound, as a technical term in archaeology, is not generally in favor in the rest of the world. More specific local terminology is preferred, and each of these terms has its own article
28.
Prehistory
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Prehistory means literally before history, from the Latin word for before, præ, and Greek ιστορία. Neighbouring civilisations were the first to follow, most other civilisations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing is known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no records from human prehistory. Clear techniques for dating were not well-developed until the 19th century and this article is concerned with human prehistory as defined here above. There are separate articles for the history of the Earth. However, for the race as a whole, prehistory ends when recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC. For example, in Egypt it is accepted that prehistory ended around 3200 BC, whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently. The three-age system is the periodization of prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for their respective predominant tool-making technologies, Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age. The notion of prehistory began to surface during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word primitive to describe societies that existed before written records, the first use of the word prehistory in English, however, occurred in the Foreign Quarterly Review in 1836. The main source for prehistory is archaeology, but some scholars are beginning to more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. This view has been articulated by advocates of deep history, human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology, restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age, and begins with the first use of stone tools, the Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Palaeolithic is called the Lower Palaeolithic, evidence of control of fire by early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP in a site at Bnot Yaakov Bridge, Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic
29.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
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Moon-eyed people
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The moon-eyed people are a race of people from Cherokee tradition who are said to have lived in Appalachia until the Cherokee expelled them. They are mentioned in a 1797 book by Benjamin Smith Barton, later variants add additional details, claiming the people had white skin, that they created the areas pre-Columbian ruins, and that they went west after their defeat. Barton cited as his source a conversation with Colonel Leonard Marbury, in his 1902 Myths of the Cherokee, ethnographer James Mooney described a dim but persistent tradition of an ancient people who preceded the Cherokee in lower Appalachia and were driven out by them. Accounts often describe them as having white skin and credit them with building the ancient structures in the area, the earliest recorded mention of them appears to be in Benjamin Smith Bartons 1797 book New Views of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America. Mooney links Bartons moon-eyed people story to several similar accounts, two early histories published after Bartons work mention the term moon-eyed people. Both Ezekial Sanfords History of the United States Before the Revolution, carrolls Historical Collections of South Carolina cite James Adair, in attributing the term moon-eyed people to Cherokee tradition. The Moon-eyed people are noted in a 1968 historical marker in Fort Mountain State Park, Chatsworth, the Cherokee tradition may have been influenced by contemporary European-American legends of the Welsh Indians. These legends attributed ancient ruins to a Welsh pre-Columbian voyage, some versions specifically connect this voyage to a prince named Madoc, according to Sevier, Oconostota confirmed that these were Welsh from across the ocean. Historian Gwyn A. Williams notes this is an example of the way minds were working in the late eighteenth century –. Author Barbara Alice Mann, who identifies herself as Ohio Bear Clan Seneca, extract from the Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Legends of Fort Mountain, The Moon-Eyed People / Prince Madoc of Wales, Williams, Gwyn A. Madoc, The Making of a Myth
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Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
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Lithic stage
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The term lithic stage refers to the cultures of the post-glacial hunters and collectors in South America. The stage derived its name from the first appearance of Lithic flaked stone tools, throughout South America, there are stone tool traditions of the lithic stage, such as the fluted fishtail that reflect localized adaptations to the diverse habitats of the continent. During the lithic stage people lived in small, mobile groups that survived on hunting, fishing. The intensive and continual use of plants and animals eventually led to genetic changes to some of the species. This lifestyle continued until around 5000 BC when people started to use domesticated plants, one of the leading figures is Alex Krieger who has documented hundreds of sites that have yielded crude, percussion-flaked tools. The most convincing evidence for a stage is based upon data recovered from sites in South America where such crude tools have been found. Examples include the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition groups, the Lithic stage was followed by the Archaic stage
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Archaic period (North America)
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The Archaic stage is characterized by subsistence economies supported through the exploitation of nuts, seeds, and shellfish. As its ending is defined by the adoption of sedentary farming and this classification system was first proposed by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in the widely accepted 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. In the organization of the system, the Archaic period followed the Lithic stage and is superseded by the Formative stage, the Lithic stage The Archaic stage The Formative stage The Classic stage The Post-Classic stage Numerous local variations have been identified within the cultural rankings. The period has been subdivided by region and then time, for instance, the Archaic Southwest tradition is subdivided into the Dieguito-Pinto, Oshara, Cochise and Chihuahua cultures. Such early mound sites as Frenchmans Bend and Hedgepeth were of time period. Watson Brake is now considered the oldest mound complex in the Americas, more than 100 sites have been identified as associated with the regional Poverty Point culture of the Late Archaic period, and it was part of a regional trading network across the Southeast. Across what is now the Southeastern United States, starting around 4000 BCE, people exploited wetland resources, middens developed along rivers, but there is limited evidence of Archaic peoples along coastlines prior to 3000 BCE. Archaic sites on the coast may have been inundated by rising sea levels, starting around 3000 BCE evidence of large-scale exploitation of oysters appears. During the period 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE shell rings, large shell middens more or less surrounding open centers, developed along the coast of the Southeastern United States. These shell rings are numerous in South Carolina and Georgia, but are found scattered around the Florida Peninsula. In some places, such as Horrs Island in Southwest Florida, four shell or sand mounds on Horrs Island have been dated to between 4,870 and 4,270 Before Present. The site which is considered to be one of the most significant centres of habitation and ceremonial burial in Canada, is located on the north side Rainy River in Northwestern Ontario. It became part of a trading network because of its strategic location at the centre of major North American waterways. In Glyn Edmund Daniel, Christopher Chippindale, feasting with Shellfish in the Southern Ohio Valley, Archaic Sacred Sites and Rituals. Knoxville, U of Tennessee P. ISBN 1-5723-3733-8, gainesville, Florida, The University Press of Florida
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Formative stage
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It is the third of five stages defined by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in their 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. There are alternative classification systems, and this ranking would overlap what others classify as the Woodland period cultures, cultures of the Formative Stage are supposed to possess the technologies of pottery, weaving, and developed food production. Social organization is supposed to involve permanent towns and villages, as well as the first ceremonial centers, ideologically, an early priestly class or theocracy is often present or in development. Examples of cultures considered to be Formative include the Adena, Olmec, Old Copper, Oasisamerica, Woodland, sometimes also referred to as the Pre-Classic stage, it followed the Archaic stage and was superseded by the Classic stage
35.
Classic stage
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This stage is the fourth of five stages posited by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Cultures of the Classic Stage are supposed to possess craft specialization, social organization is supposed to involve the beginnings of urbanism and large ceremonial centers. Ideologically, Classic cultures should have a developed theocracy, the Classic Stage was initially defined as restricted to the complex societies of Mesoamerica and Peru. However, the period includes other advanced cultures, such as Hopewell, Teotihuacan. The Classic Stage followed the Formative stage and was superseded by the Post-Classic stage, there are alternative classification systems, and this ranking would overlap what others classify as the Woodland period and Mississippian cultures
36.
Post-Classic stage
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This stage is the fifth of five stages posited by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Cultures of the Post-Classic Stage are defined distinctly by possessing developed metallurgy, social organization is supposed to involve complex urbanism and militarism. Ideologically, Post-Classic cultures are described as showing a tendency towards the secularization of society, examples of cultures considered to be Post-Classic include the Aztecs and the late Maya. The Post-Classic Stage followed the Classic stage and typically dates from AD1200 to modern times
37.
Adena culture
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The Adena culture was a Pre-Columbian Native American culture that existed from 1000 to 200 BC, in a time known as the Early Woodland period. The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex, the Adena lived in an area including parts of present-day Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Kentucky, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland. The importance of the Adena complex comes from its influence on other contemporary. The Adena culture is seen as the precursor to the traditions of the Hopewell culture, the Adena culture was named for the large mound on Thomas Worthingtons early 19th-century estate called Adena, in Chillicothe, Ohio. Lasting traces of Adena culture are seen in their substantial earthworks. At one point, Adena mounds numbered in the hundreds, and these mounds generally ranged in size from 20 feet to 300 feet in diameter and served as burial structures, ceremonial sites, historical markers and possibly gathering places. These mounds were built using hundreds of thousands of full of specially selected and graded earth. According to archaeological investigations, Adena mounds were built as part of burial ritual. These mortuary buildings were intended to keep and maintain the dead until their burial was performed. Before the construction of the mounds, some utilitarian and grave goods would be placed on the floor of the structure, the mound would then be constructed, and often a new mortuary structure would be placed atop the new mound. After a series of repetitions, mound/mortuary/mound/mortuary, a quite prominent earthwork would remain, in the later Adena period, circular ridges of unknown function were sometimes constructed around the burial mounds. Adena mounds stood in isolation from domestic living areas, although the mounds are beautiful artistic achievements themselves, Adena artists created smaller, more personal pieces of art. Art motifs that became important to many later Native Americans began with the Adena, motifs such as the weeping eye and cross and circle design became mainstays in many succeeding cultures. Many pieces of art seemed to revolve around shamanic practices, and this may indicate a belief that the practice imparted the animals qualities to the wearer or holder of the objects. Deer antlers, both real and constructed of copper, wolf, deer and mountain lion jawbones, and many objects were fashioned into costumes, necklaces. Distinctive tubular smoking pipes, with flattened or blocked-end mouthpieces. The objective of pipe smoking may have been altered states of consciousness, all told, Adena was a manifestation of a broad regional increase in the number and kind of artifacts devoted to spiritual needs. The Adena also carved stone tablets, usually 4 or 5 inches by 3 or 4 inches by.5 inches thick
38.
Alachua culture
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The Alachua culture is defined as a Late Woodland Southeast period archaeological culture in north-central Florida, dating from around 600 to 1700. It is found in an area corresponding to present-day Alachua County, the northern half of Marion County. It was preceded by the Cades Pond culture, which inhabited approximately the same area, the archeologist Jerald Milanich suggests that the people of the Alachua culture were immigrants from what is now Georgia. Early Alachua culture pottery resembled that of the Ocmulgee culture found along the Ocmulgee River, in this scenario, the Ocmulgee immigrants were either already practicing agriculture or adopted it shortly after arriving, and settled in upland areas suitable for agriculture. These areas had been used by the Cades Pond people. The Cades Pond culture disappeared soon after the appearance of the Alachua culture, the precolumbian part of the Alachua culture period has been divided into the Hickory Pond period and the Alachua period. At the time of first contact with Spanish explorers, the Alachua culture area was occupied by the historical Potano Indians and they spoke the Potano dialect of the Timucua language. The sub-periods in the Alachua culture period are defined by the prevalence of different pottery types. The most common type of pottery during the Hickory Pond period was the Prairie Cord Marked style, the Alachua Cob Marked style became more prevalent in the Alachua sub-period. Other styles of pottery occurred throughout the Alachua culture period, the period after 1539 was characterized by the introduction of European artifacts and of pottery styles from other cultures. The Potano II period was marked by the almost complete replacement of traditional styles by Leon-Jefferson pottery styles. This suggests that the depopulated Potano Province was repopulated from Apalachee Province, stone and bone tools show little variation over the course of the period. The Alachua-culture people occupied hardwood hammocks, with sites on high ground. The village sites are often in clusters, which may have resulted from periodic relocation of a village in a small area, the village clusters tend to fall along lines, which may represent the lines of the hammocks, or the paths of trails. Other Alachua culture sites include Bolen Bluff, Fox Pond, Henderson Mound, Law School Mound, Rocky Point and Woodward Mound, the presence of Cob Marked pottery throughout the period indicates that the people of the Alachua culture grew maize. Middens contain few fresh water shells, and a number of animal species. This may indicate a reduction in hunting and gathering as food sources, a more detailed analysis of the food resources used by the Alachua culture people has not been made. Burial mounds are found in the area, but have not been extensively excavated, storage pits and indications of other structures, including a circular house at one site, have been found in villages
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Ancestral Puebloans
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The Ancestral Puebloans are believed to have developed, at least in part, from the Oshara Tradition, who developed from the Picosa culture. They lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses, larger structures to house clans, grand pueblos, the Ancestral Puebloans possessed a complex network that stretched across the Colorado Plateau linking hundreds of communities and population centers. They held a distinct knowledge of celestial sciences that found form in their architecture, the kiva, a congregational space that was used chiefly for ceremonial purposes, was an integral part of this ancient peoples community structure. In contemporary times, the people and their culture were referred to as Anasazi for historical purposes. The Navajo, who were not their descendants, called them by this term, reflecting historic traditions, the term was used to mean ancient enemies. Contemporary Puebloans do not want this term used, archaeologists continue to debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current agreement, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence around the 12th century BC, beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers identified Ancestral Puebloans as the forerunners of contemporary Pueblo peoples. Three UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in the United States are credited to the Pueblos, Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Culture National Historical Park and Taos Pueblo. Pueblo, which means village in Spanish, was a term originating with the Spanish explorers who used it to refer to the particular style of dwelling. The Navajo now use the term in the sense of referring to ancient people or ancient ones, Hopi people used the term Hisatsinom, meaning ancient people, to describe the Ancestral Puebloans. The Ancestral Puebloans were one of four major prehistoric archaeological traditions recognized in the American Southwest and this area is sometimes referred to as Oasisamerica in the region defining pre-Columbian southwestern North America. The others are the Mogollon, Hohokam, and Patayan, in relation to neighboring cultures, the Ancestral Puebloans occupied the northeast quadrant of the area. The Ancestral Puebloan homeland centers on the Colorado Plateau, but extends from central New Mexico on the east to southern Nevada on the west. Structures and other evidence of Ancestral Puebloan culture has been found extending east onto the American Great Plains, in areas near the Cimarron and Pecos Rivers, terrain and resources within this large region vary greatly. The plateau regions have high elevations ranging from 4,500 to 8,500 feet, extensive horizontal mesas are capped by sedimentary formations and support woodlands of junipers, pinon, and ponderosa pines, each favoring different elevations. Wind and water erosion have created steep-walled canyons, and sculpted windows, in areas where resistant strata, such as sandstone or limestone, overlie more easily eroded strata such as shale, rock overhangs formed. The Ancestral Puebloans favored building under such overhangs for shelters and defensive building sites, all areas of the Ancestral Puebloan homeland suffered from periods of drought, and wind and water erosion. Summer rains could be unreliable and often arrived as destructive thunderstorms, while the amount of winter snowfall varied greatly, the Ancestral Puebloans depended on the snow for most of their water
40.
Baytown culture
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The Baytown Site on the White River in Monroe County, Arkansas is the type site for culture. It was a Baytown Period culture during the Late Woodland period and it was contemporaneous with the Coastal Troyville and Troyville cultures of Louisiana and Mississippi and the Fourche Maline culture and was succeeded by the Plum Bayou culture. Where the Baytown peoples built dispersed settlements, the Troyville people instead continued building major earthwork centers, archeologists have traditionally viewed the Late Woodland as a time of cultural decline after the florescence of the Hopewell peoples. Late Woodland sites, with the exception of sites along the Florida Gulf Coast, colder climate conditions about 1,600 years ago may have affected yields of gathered foods, such as nuts or starchy seeds. Intensified horticulture became so successful that increased agricultural production may have reduced variation in food resource availability between differing areas. Although, this reliance on agriculture with only a few types of plants, would have carried with it a risk where variations in rainfall or climate could have caused shortages, leading to famines. In all probability these 4 theories are quite inter-related and may have all played a role in the development of the Baytown culture. Although few outstanding works of art or architecture can be attributed to this time period, analysis shows that throughout the Southeast. Bow-and-arrow technology, allowing for increased hunting efficiency, and new varieties of maize, beans, and squash gained importance, although settlement size was small, there was an increase in the number of Late Woodland sites over Middle Woodland sites, indicating a population increase. These factors tend to mark the Late Woodland period as an expansive period, acorns and hickory nuts were important in the diet, as well as wild fruits such as persimmons, plums, cherries, and various berries and grapes. People hunted white-tailed deer, squirrels, raccoons, turkeys, passenger pigeons and they caught various species of fish and aquatic turtles, depending on what lived in the nearby bodies of water. Distinctive styles of flat-based pottery jars, hemispherical bowls, and stone used on atlatl darts are associated with the Baytown culture. Plum Bayou culture developed out of Baytown culture, and there is not a sharp dividing line between the two. They overlap in time, and pottery designs and decorative motifs of the Plum Bayou culture were found at the Baytown Site, mulberry Creek Cord Marked, Larto Red, Coles Creek Incised, and Officer Punctated ceramics were found at the Baytown Site. Culture, phase, and chronological table for the Mississippi Valley
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Belle Glade culture
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Major archaeological sites of the Belle Glade culture include Belle Glade Mound, Big Mound City, the Boynton Mound complex, Fort Center, Ortona Mound and Tonys Mound. A report and analysis of the two sites was published by Gordon Willey in 1948, the best known site, Fort Center, was the subject of major excavations under the direction of William Sears during the 1970s. Other sites are known from test excavations and/or aerial surveys, the cultural area is defined on the basis of a unique combination of mounds, earthworks and pottery, which have been found around Lake Okeechobee and as far north as Lake Kissimmee. The area has poor, sandy soils, low elevation with low relief, the area consists of pine and palmetto flatlands, wet prairies, hammocks of live oak and cabbage palm, and cypress swamps. Humans apparently first entered the Lake Okeechobee basin and Kissimmee River valley late in the Archaic period, the Belle Glade culture is defined as beginning about 1000 BCE. The older Willey/Bullen chronology divided the Belle Glade culture into three periods, Transitional, Belle Glade I and Belle Glade II, the more recent Sears chronology divides the Belle Glade culture into four periods, I, II, III and IV. During the period of European contact, the Mayaimi lived around Lake Okeechobee, almost nothing is known of the inhabitants of the Kissimmee Valley during the historic period. Most of the pottery found at Belle Glade culture sites is undecorated, wood, bone, shell and shark tooth artifacts have been found at a few Belle Glade sites, but are too few to be used in defining the culture. Earthworks are diagnostic of the Belle Glade culture, circular ditches appeared early in the Belle Glade culture, by 500 BCE. Habitation mounds and burials in mounds also date to the earliest period, mounds were also built in Sears periods II and IV, with mound burials again in period IV. In period IV complexes of mounds and linear embankments were common, habitation mounds served as dry refuges from flooding during the wet season. Middens are found in oak hammocks near open water, the people of the Belle Glade culture subsisted on hunting and gathering. Animals in the diet included deer, turtle, snake, fish and fresh water mollusks, while maize may have been cultivated, it was no more than a minor component of the diet. Hanna, Alfred Jackson, Kathryn Abbey Hanna, part II, Archaeological Contexts, Chapter 11. Lake Okeechobee Basin/Kissimmee River,3000 B. P. to Contact, floridas Cultural Heritage, A View of the Past. Tallahassee, Florida, Division of Historical Resources, Florida Department of State, downloaded from on May 1,2011 Lyon, Edwin A. A new deal for southeastern archaeology, tuscaloosa, Alabama, The University of Alabama Press. McGoun, William E. Prehistoric Peoples of South Florida, tuscaloosa, Alabama, The University of Alabama Press
42.
Buttermilk Creek Complex
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Buttermilk Creek Complex refers to the remains of a paleolithic settlement along the shores of Buttermilk Creek in present day Salado, Texas dated to approximately 15,500 years old. If confirmed, the site represents evidence of settlement in the Americas that pre-dates Clovis culture. The Buttermilk Creek Complex found at the Debra L. OSL is a technique that analyzes light energy trapped in sediment particles to identify the last time the soil was exposed to sunlight. Dr. Michael R. Waters from Texas A&M University along with a group of graduate and undergraduate students began excavating the Debra L. Friedkin Site in Bell County, Texas in 2006. The site is located 250m downstream along Buttermilk Creek from the Gault Site and they would have then used smaller antlers to pressure flake these items into spear points, knives, or other tools. It is believed that Clovis peoples with their characteristic fluted lanceolate-shaped points quickly spread throughout all of North and South America and this was the first site widely accepted to have pre-Clovis deposits. The acceptance of Monte Verde has led to a reevaluation of the Clovis First model, at the Debra L. Friedkin site multiple lines of evidence support its pre-Clovis assignment. Excavations at the Debra L. Friedkin site include Block A located on terrace 2, the two terraces are Pleistocene floodplain deposits. The pre-Clovis occupation is found within Block A, which consists of 52 adjacent 1x1 m squares, Block A is buried under colluvium from a nearby slope and 1.4 m of clay sediment deposited gradually during flooding events from nearby Buttermilk Creek. The Buttermilk Creek Complex is found within Vertisols, Block A consists of 9 soil horizons. Nordt, Steven G. Driese, Joshua M. Feinberg, Hallmark who is a soil scientist, and archaeologists including Michael R. Waters, Thomas A. Jennings, Joshua L. Keene, Jessi Halligan, and Michael B. The Folsom horizon in block A is defined within a 2.5 cm thick layer containing 3 Folsom points, the Clovis horizon is found below Folsom within a 2.5 cm thick layer containing Clovis diagnostics. The Buttermilk Creek Complex is found below Clovis and defined within a 20 cm thick layer containing artifacts, there were 18 OSL dates ranging from 14, 000-17,500 BP taken from this layer. The Buttermilk Creek Complex artifact assemblage is much larger and more varied than other North American sites advanced as having a pre-Clovis component. This is one of the reasons why the claim of a pre-Clovis component at this site has been greeted with much more credibility than at most other potential pre-Clovis sites. The Buttermilk Creek Complex has yielded 15,528 pre-Clovis stone artifacts which have separated into macrodebitage, microdebitage. The macrodebitage was counted, analyzed, and further subdivided into additional categories, tools were individually analyzed and included 5 blades,14 bladelets,12 bifaces,1 discoidal core,23 edge-modified tools,3 radial break tools, and 1 piece of polished hematite. There has been analysis done on some of the artifacts found in the Buttermilk Creek Complex assemblage
43.
Caborn-Welborn culture
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Caborn-Welborn developed around 1400 and seems to have disappeared around 1700. The Caborn-Welborn culture was the last Native American occupation of southern Indiana before European contact and it remains unclear which historic-era native group, if any, are their descendants. The Caborn-Welborn culture is a cluster of more than 80 sites located mostly on ridges along the Wabash and Ohio rivers from Geneva, most are concentrated near the confluence of the Ohio and Wabash rivers. The sites range in size from 0.6 acres to 35 acres for the larger villages, most sites are located on the higher flood plain ridges, usually situated near sloughs and swamps. The Ohio River floodplain of this region has a system of natural levees which parallel the river, with sloughs. Ashworth Archaeological Site - Located in Posey County, Indiana and placed on the National Historic Register in 1985, bone Bank Site - The site was a large village on the Wabash River in Posey County. It was nicknamed “Bone Bank” for the number of remains of graves washed out of the site in the 19th century. It was established early in the Caborn-Welborn phase, about 1400, hovey Lake-Klein Archeological Site - The site is located on the west bank of a backwater lake near the Ohio River. Murphy Archaeological Site - Located in Posey County, Indiana and placed on the National Historic Register in 1975, also known as the Sullivan Farm Site and the Mouth-of-the-Wabash Site. Slack Farm Site - A large village near the mouth of the Wabash River in Union County, welborn Village Archeological Site, also known as the Murphys Landing Site - Located in Posey County. An internal temporal subdivision for the Caborn-Welborn culture, based on ceramic decorative attributes, common vessel shapes include jars, bowls, pans, plates and funnels. Most jars tend to have rims with rounded necks and strap handles and it was buff colored, contains large fragments of ground mussel shell as a tempering agent, and is not as smooth and polished as other varieties. Certain unique kinds of pottery and decorations define the Caborn-Welborn people as distinct from other cultures, Caborn-Welborn Decorated, Kimmswick Fabric Impressed, and Kimmswick Plain are varieties which are present in greater frequencies in Caborn-Welborn sites, and are hallmarks of the culture. Effigy jars, both of humans and animals, are common in Caborn-Welborn sites. Some have a human or animal head and sometimes a tail attached to the rim, others are shaped into the forms of heads, Caborn-Welborn Decorated, the most commonly found decorated ceramic style, is characterized by incised or punctated lines on the shoulders of the jar forms. The people of Caborn-Welborn were intensely involved in agriculture, as well as other food crops originating in the Americas, such as beans, squash, sunflowers. The addition of beans to their diet came after the demise of the Angel Phase peoples thought to have preceded the Caborn-Welborn and it would have been a valuable source of protein to add to their maize-rich diet. They collected local wild foodstuffs, including a variety of such as hickory, black walnut, pecans
44.
Calf Creek culture
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The Calf Creek culture was active during the early to middle Archaic period in the Americas, approximately 7,500 to 4,000 years ago. The Calf Creek people were noted for their use of large, the Calf Creek point was first named and described in an Arkansas amateur archaeological journal by Don Dickson in 1968, for examples found at Calf Creek cave in Searcy County Arkansas. The cave was named for a small, perennial stream that runs nearby, in 2003, a 5, 120±25-year-old bison skull was found on the banks of the Arkansas River by Kim Holt. This find was featured on the PBS show, History Detectives, the skull had a Calf Creek culture spearhead embedded just over the orbital of the right eye socket. The size of the spearhead, and the wound it inflicted further suggest that the Calf Creek also used atlatls
45.
Caloosahatchee culture
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The Caloosahatchee culture is an archaeological culture on the Gulf coast of Southwest Florida that lasted from about 500 to 1750 CE. Its territory consisted of the coast from Estero Bay to Charlotte Harbor and inland about halfway to Lake Okeechobee, approximately covering what are now Charlotte, at the time of first European contact, the Caloosahatchee culture region formed the core of the Calusa domain. Some Archaic artifacts have been found in the Caloosahatchee culture region, there is evidence that Charlotte Harbor aquatic resources were being intensively exploited before 3500 BC. Undecorated pottery belonging to the early Glades culture appeared in the region around 500 BC, pottery distinct from the Glades tradition developed in the Caloosahatchee region around 500 AD, and a complex society with high population densities developed by 800 AD. Later periods in the Caloosahatchee culture are defined by the appearance of pottery from other traditions in the archaeological record, the coast in the Caloosahatchee culture region is a very rich estuarine environment. An extensive network of bays and sounds are protected behind barrier islands, the Caloosahatchee, Myakka and Peace rivers flow into the estuary. There are extensive areas of mangrove and seagrass in the estuary, the people of the Caloosahatchee culture built mounds. Some of the mounds in Caloosahatchee settlements were undisturbed shell middens, the hundreds of sites identified range from simple small middens to complex sites with earthwork platform mounds, plazas, water courts, causeways, and canals. Mound Key, in the middle of Estero Bay, covers 70–80 acres, a canal penetrates more than halfway into Mound Key, passing between two mounds and ending in a roughly rectangular pool. The Caloosahatchee people derived 80% to 90% of their food from fish. Shellfish, including crabs were also important, minor components of their diet included white-tailed deer, other mammals, waterfowl such as ducks, American Alligators, turtles, West Indian Manatees and sea urchins. Plants collected as food included various wild roots, mastic fruit, prickly pear fruit, palm fruits, sea grapes, hogplum. Tools and ornaments made of wood, bone, stone and shell have been found, perforated stones and plummets of limestone are though to have been used as fishing net weights. Dippers, cups, spoons, beads, cutting-edge tools and hammers were made from shells, awls, beads, pendants, pins, gorges, barbs, and points were made from bone. Ceremonial tablets were incised on non-native stone, although outside the Caloosahatchee region proper, the artifacts found at Key Marco are closely related. These include many objects and cordage. The cordage found at Key Marco, probably of palm fiber, was used in fishing nets. Wood artifacts found at Key Marco included masks, painted carvings of animals, incised and painted tablets, Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe
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Clovis culture
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The Clovis culture appears around 11, 500–11,000 uncal RCYBP, at the end of the last glacial period, and is characterized by the manufacture of Clovis points and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists most precise determinations at present suggest that this age is equal to roughly 13,200 to 12,900 calendar years ago. Clovis people are considered to be the ancestors of most of the cultures of the Americas. The only human burial that has been associated with tools from the Clovis culture included the remains of an infant boy named Anzick-1. Researchers from the United States and Europe conducted paleogenetic research on Anzick-1s ancient nuclear, mitochondrial, the results of these analyses reveal that Anzick-1 is closely related to modern Native American populations, which lends support to the Beringia hypothesis for the peopling of the Americas. The Clovis culture was replaced by more localized regional cultures from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period onward. Post-Clovis cultures include the Folsom tradition, Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland, each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points. Recent preliminary carbon dating shows a culture from around or prior to 13,000 years ago, along with horse, camel, a hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively shaped, fluted stone spear point, known as the Clovis point. The Clovis point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides, the culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found between 1932 and 1936 at Blackwater Locality No. 1, a site between the towns of Clovis and Portales, New Mexico. These finds were deemed especially important due to their association with mammoth sp. Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous United States, as well as Mexico and Central America and it is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted mammoths, as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited. The oldest Clovis site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora, Mexico and it features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP. In 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found, the evidence suggests that humans did in fact two of them here. Theres also the Aubrey site in Denton County, Texas, which produced a date that is almost identical. After this time, Clovis-style fluted points were replaced by other fluted-point traditions with an uninterrupted sequence across North. An effectively continuous cultural adaptation proceeds from the Clovis period through the ensuing Middle, whether the Clovis culture drove the mammoth, and other species, to extinction via overhunting – the so-called Pleistocene overkill hypothesis – is still an open, and controversial, question
