1.
List of wine-producing regions
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This list of wine-producing regions catalogues significant growing regions where vineyards are planted. Wine grapes mostly grow between the 30th and the 50th degree of latitude, in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres, grapes will sometimes grow beyond this range and minor amounts of wine are made in some very unexpected places. In 2009, the five largest producers of wine in the world were, in order, Italy, France, Spain, for more info, see The Uruguayan wine guide. The wine-producing enterprise for Venezuela can be found here, given the favorable climatic location, the law of Ukraine allocated 15 wine-growing areas, which are the basis for growing certain varieties of grapes, and 58 natural wine regions. These are located mainly in the following areas, the greatest concentration of vineyards is found in the south east of England, in the counties of Hampshire, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. Shan State Regions producing native wines have been present since the Qin Dynasty, the main producer Hatten Wines has revolutionized the world of winemaking, with eight wines produced from these three varieties. Bali Prior to the Iranian Islamic Revolution of 1979, Iran was a producer of wine, while production has stopped, the vineyards continue to exist and their product has been diverted to non-alcoholic purposes. Malayer Shiraz Takestan Urmia Qazvin Quchan Also includes wine regions in Israeli-occupied territories, the geographic indication must indicate where the grapes are grown, irrespective of where the wine itself is made. A geographic indication may be Australia, South Eastern Australia, a name, zone
List of wine-producing regions
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Main wine-producing areas in the world
List of wine-producing regions
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A vineyard in the
Stellenbosch region, South Africa
List of wine-producing regions
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Argentine wine regions.
List of wine-producing regions
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Chile's topography with the location of most of Chile's wine regions highlighted.
2.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
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One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
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Flag
France
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The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
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With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
3.
Chablis wine
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The Chablis region is the northernmost wine district of the Burgundy region in France. The cool climate of this region produces wines with more acidity and these wines often have a flinty note, sometimes described as goût de pierre à fusil, and sometimes as steely. The Chablis Appellation dorigine contrôlée is required to use Chardonnay grapes solely, the grapevines around the town of Chablis make a dry white wine renowned for the purity of its aroma and taste. In comparison with the wines from the rest of Burgundy. Most basic Chablis is unoaked, and vinified in stainless steel tanks, the amount of barrel maturation, if any, is a stylistic choice which varies widely among Chablis producers. Many Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines receive some maturation in oak barrels, but typically the time in barrel, Chablis lies about 10 miles east of Auxerre in the Yonne department, situated roughly halfway between the Côte dOr and Paris. Of Frances wine-growing areas, only Champagne and Alsace have a more northerly location, Chablis is closer to the southern Aube district of Champagne than the rest of Burgundy. The region covers 15 kilometres x 20 kilometres across 27 communes located along the Serein river, the soil is Kimmeridge clay with outcrops of the same chalk layer that extends from Sancerre up to the White Cliffs of Dover, giving a name to the paleontologists Cretaceous period. The Grand Crus, the best vineyards in the area, all lie on a single, small slope, facing southwest, during the Middle Ages the Catholic Church, particularly Cistercian monks, became a major influence in establishing the economic and commercial interest of viticulture for the region. Pontigny Abbey was founded in 1114, and the monks planted vines along the Serein, anséric de Montréal gave a vineyard at Chablis to the Abbey in 1186. In 1245 the chronicler Salimbene di Adam described a Chablis wine, Chardonnay is believed to have first been planted in Chablis by the Cistercians of Pontigny Abbey in the 12th century, and from there spread south to the rest of the Burgundy region. The Chablis area became part of the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century, there are records in the mid-15th century of Chablis wine being shipped to Flanders and Picardy. But in February 1568 the town was besieged by the Huguenots, the easily accessible Seine river, via the nearby Yonne river, gave the Chablis wine producers a near monopoly on the lucrative Parisian market. In the 17th century, the English discovered the wine and began importing large volumes, by the 19th century there were nearly 98,840 acres of vines planted in Chablis with vineyards stretching from the town of Chablis to Joigny and Sens along the Yonne. Some Champagne producers used Chablis as a basis for a sparkling cuvée, with the French Revolution, the monastic vineyards became biens nationaux, and were auctioned off. The new owners were local, and the political upheaval saw small farmers involved as part-time vignerons. The English market continued to prosper, the 19th-century Russian novel Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy mentions classic Chablis as a commonplace choice of wine. The end of the 19th century was a time for the Chablis growers
Chablis wine
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View of Chablis,
Burgundy, from the north, vineyard of
Vaulorent in the foreground
Chablis wine
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The Grand Cru vineyards of Chablis. From left to right: Les Preuses, Vaudésir, Grenouilles (around the house), Valmur, Les Clos, Blanchots and in the far distance across the Vallée de Brechain, the Premier Cru of Montée de Tonnerre.
Chablis wine
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All of Chablis' Grand Cru vineyards and Premier Cru vineyards are planted on primarily
Kimmeridgean soil which is composed of limestone, clay and fossilized
oyster shells (pictured).
Chablis wine
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Smudge pots protect Chablis vineyards from frost.
4.
Beaujolais
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Beaujolais is a French Appellation dOrigine Contrôlée wine generally made of the Gamay grape which has a thin skin and is low in tannins. Like most AOC wines they are not labeled varietally, whites from the region, which make up only 1% of its production, are made mostly with Chardonnay grapes though Aligoté is also permitted until 2024. Beaujolais tends to be a very light-bodied red wine, with high amounts of acidity. In some vintages, Beaujolais produces more wine than the Burgundy wine regions of Chablis, Côte dOr, Côte Chalonnaise, the wine takes its name from the historical Province of Beaujolais, a wine producing region. It is located north of Lyon, and covers parts of the north of the Rhône département of the Rhône-Alpes region, the region is known internationally for its long tradition of winemaking, for the use of carbonic maceration, and more recently for the popular Beaujolais nouveau. The region of Beaujolais was first cultivated by the Romans who planted the areas along its trading route up the Saône valley, the most noticeable Roman vineyard was Brulliacus located on the hillside of Mont Brouilly. The Romans also planted vineyards in the area Morgon, from the 7th century through the Middle Ages, most of the viticulture and winemaking was done by the Benedictine monks. In the 10th century, the region got its name from the town of Beaujeu, the wines from Beaujolais were mostly confined to the markets along the Saône and Rhône, particularly in the town of Lyon. The expansion of the French railroad system in the 19th century opened up the lucrative Paris market, the first mention of Beaujolais wines in English followed soon after when Cyrus Redding described the wines of Moulin-à-Vent and Saint-Amour as being low priced and best consumed young. In the 1980s, Beaujolais hit a peak of popularity in the wine market with its Beaujolais nouveau wine. Spurred on by the marketing from négociants like Georges Duboeuf, demand outpaced supply for the easy drinking. As more Beaujolais producers tried to capitalize on the Nouveau craze, production of regular Beaujolais dropped, producers were left with a wine lake surplus that French authorities compelled them to reduce through mandatory distillation. In response, there has been renewed emphasis on the production of more complex wines that are aged longer in oak prior to release. Gamay noir is now known to be a cross of Pinot noir and the ancient white variety Gouais, the grape brought relief to the village growers following the decline of the Black Death. In contrast to the Pinot noir variety, Gamay ripened two weeks earlier and was difficult to cultivate. It also produced a strong, fruitier wine in a much larger abundance, the edicts had the effect of pushing Gamay plantings southward, out of the main region of Burgundy and into the granite based soils of Beaujolais where the grape thrived. He claimed that Beaujolais producers had long ignored the signs that such a backlash was coming. This triggered an outcry among Beaujolais producers followed by an association of 56 cooperative producers filing a lawsuit against the Lyon Mag for publishing Mauss comments, rather than sue for libel, the producers sued under an obscure French law that punishes the denigration of French products
Beaujolais
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When Philippe the Bold outlawed the cultivation of Gamay in Burgundy, it pushed the grape south to the Beaujolais region.
Beaujolais
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Beaujolais
Beaujolais
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Cru Beaujolais region of Régnié
Beaujolais
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Cru Beaujolais from Brouilly.
5.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
Limestone
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Limestone outcrop in the
Torcal de Antequera nature reserve of
Málaga, Spain
Limestone
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Limestone quarry at
Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA
Limestone
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Cutting the limestone blocks at a quarry in
Gozo,
Malta
Limestone
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Limestone as building material
6.
AOC (wine)
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It is based on the concept of terroir. The origins of AOC date to the year 1411, when Roquefort was regulated by a parliamentary decree, after World War II the committee became the public-private Institut National des Appellations dOrigine. The AOC seal was created and mandated by French laws in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, on July 2,1990, the scope of work of the INAO was extended beyond wines to cover other agricultural products. Some cover vast expanses with a variety of climatic and soil characteristics, while others are small and highly uniform. For example, the Côtes du Rhône AOC covers some 400 square kilometres, but within its area lies one of the smallest AOCs, Château-Grillet, the INAO guarantees that all AOC products will hold to a rigorous set of clearly defined standards. The organization stresses that AOC products will be produced in a consistent, the products must further be aged at least partially in the respective designated area. Under French law, it is illegal to manufacture and sell a product under one of the AOC-controlled geographical indications if it does not comply with the criteria of the AOC. AOC products can be identified by a seal, which is printed on the label in wines, to prevent any possible misrepresentation, no part of an AOC name may be used on a label of a product not qualifying for that AOC. This strict label policy can lead to confusion, especially in cases where towns share names with appellations, if the town of origin of a product contains a controlled appellation in its name, the producer is enjoined from listing anything more than a cryptic postal code. For example, there are a dozen townships in lAude that have Cabardès in their names, any vineyard that produces wine in one of those towns must not mention the name of the town of origin on the product labels. There are currently over 300 French wines entitled to the designation AOC on their label, legislation concerning the way vineyards are identified makes recognizing the various AOCs very challenging for wine drinkers not well-acclimated to the system. In 1925, Roquefort became the first cheese to be awarded an AOC label, on August 15,1957, the National Assembly gave AOC status to the poultry of Bresse. In 2006, it awarded AOC status to salt marsh lamb raised in the Bay of the Somme, in 1981, the AOC label was given to Haute-Provence Lavender Essential Oil. It refers to a very high-quality production and concerns only the oil of fine lavender - Lavandula angustifolia. The fields must be located within a territory at a minimum altitude of 800 meters. This geographic area covers 284 communities in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Hautes-Alpes, Drôme, lentils from Le Puy-en-Velay have AOC status. Honey from the island of Corsica has been given AOC status, there are eight certified varietals of Corsican honey, Printemps, Maquis de printemps, Miellats du maquis, Châtaigneraie, Maquis dété, and Maquis dautomne. France recognizes the Charente, Charente-Maritime, Vienne, Deux-Sèvres and Vendée AOC regions for butter, the Beurre Poitou-Charente has been assigned AOC status in 1979
AOC (wine)
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Peppers with AOC of
Espelette
AOC (wine)
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Poulet de Bresse
AOC (wine)
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Lavandula angustifolia at the
Abbaye de Sénanque in
Gordes in the département of the
Vaucluse
7.
Pinot noir
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Pinot noir is a red wine grape variety of the species Vitis vinifera. The name may refer to wines created predominantly from Pinot noir grapes. The name is derived from the French words for pine and black, Pinot noir grapes are grown around the world, mostly in the cooler regions, but the grape is chiefly associated with the Burgundy region of France. Pinot noir is also a variety used in sparkling wine production in Champagne. It is widely considered to some of the finest wines in the world. The grapes tendency to produce tightly packed clusters makes it susceptible to several viticultural hazards involving rot that require diligent canopy management, when young, wines made from Pinot noir tend to have red fruit aromas of cherries, raspberries and strawberries. As the wines age, Pinots have the potential to develop vegetal, Pinot noirs home is Frances Burgundy region, particularly in Côte-dOr. Lesser known appellations can be found in Mendocino Countys Anderson Valley as well as the Central Coasts Santa Lucia Highlands appellation, rita Hills American Viticulture Area in Santa Barbara County. In New Zealand, it is grown in Martinborough, Marlborough, Waipara. The leaves of Pinot noir are generally smaller than those of Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah, the grape cluster is small and conico-cylindrical, vaguely shaped like a pine cone. Some viticultural historians believe this shape-similarity may have given rise to the name, in the vineyard Pinot noir is sensitive to wind and frost, cropping levels, soil types and pruning techniques. In the winery it is sensitive to fermentation methods, yeast strains and is reflective of its terroir with different regions producing sometimes very different wines. Its thin skin makes it susceptible to rot and similar fungal diseases of the bunch. The vines themselves are susceptible to mildew, and in Burgundy infection by leaf roll. It is much less tolerant of hard, windy, hot and dry, harsh conditions than the likes of Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot. However, Pinot noir wines are among the most popular in the world, master Sommelier Madeline Triffon calls Pinot sex in a glass. The tremendously broad range of bouquets, flavors, textures and impressions that Pinot noir can produce sometimes confuses tasters, the wines color when young is often compared to that of garnet, frequently being much lighter than that of other red wines. This is entirely natural and not a fault as Pinot noir has a lower skin anthocyanin content than most other classical red / black varieties
Pinot noir
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Pinot noir grapes at Chehalem Ridgecrest Vineyard,
Newberg, Oregon
Pinot noir
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Pinot noir grapes at
Santenay, in
Burgundy
Pinot noir
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A Burgundy Pinot noir
Pinot noir
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Pinot noir vines at Clos de Bèze, Gevrey-Chambertin, on Burgundy's Côte d'Or
8.
Gamay
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Gamay is a purple-colored grape variety used to make red wines, most notably grown in Beaujolais and in the Loire Valley around Tours. Its full name is Gamay Noir à Jus Blanc and it is a very old cultivar, mentioned as long ago as the 15th century. The Gamay grape is thought to have appeared first in the village of the Gamay, south of Beaune, the grape brought relief to the village growers following the decline of the Black Death. In contrast to the Pinot noir variety, Gamay ripened two weeks earlier and was difficult to cultivate. It also produced a strong, fruitier wine in a much larger abundance, gamay-based wines are typically light bodied and fruity. Wines meant to be drunk after some modest aging tend to have body and are produced by whole-berry maceration. The latter are produced mostly in the designated Cru Beaujolais areas where the wines typically have the flavor of sour cherries, black pepper and these wines are similar to those of Crus Beaujolais but with raspberry notes and the signature fresh-peppery nose of the Cabernet Franc. The acid levels of the grape grown in the limestone Pierres Doreés of the South are too high for making wines with any appeal beyond the early release Nouveaux. Gamay is commonly grown in the Niagara Peninsula in Canada, some producers being in the Short Hills Bench, Beamsville Bench and St. Davids Bench to mention a few, as well as in Prince Edward County. Chàteau des Charmes in Niagara-on-the-Lake has a clone which they discovered, Gamay Noir Droit. It is also grown successfully by a number of wineries in Australia to make a range of wines including light bodied red wines suitable for early drinking. Gamay has also introduced into Oregons Willamette Valley wine region. It was introduced by Amity Vineyards in 1988, tasting notes published by the vineyards at Amity, WillaKenzie and Brickhouse describe wines that match the basic profiles of Crus Beaujolais. The Gamay name has attached to other varieties grown in California. The grape Napa Gamay is now known as Valdeguié, and the name Napa Gamay has not appeared on labels from 2007 onwards, Gamay Beaujolais is considered to be an early ripening Californian clone of Pinot noir. Despite similar names the grapes Gamay du Rhône and Gamay St-Laurent are not the Beaujolais grape either but rather the southwestern France grape Abouriou, in 1929, Gamay was crossed with the table grape Seidentraube to produce the white wine grape Regner
Gamay
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Gamay
Gamay
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A Beaujolais Nouveau wine made from Gamay.
Gamay
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Vineyard in
La Rochepot,
Hautes-Côtes de Beaune. The closely spaced rows in the foreground are Gamay; in the background are more widely spaced rows of
Pinot noir.
Gamay
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A sparkling Crémant de Bourgogne blanc de noirs (white of blacks) made from Pinot noir and Gamay.
9.
Chardonnay
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Chardonnay is a green-skinned grape variety used in the production of white wine. The variety originated in the Burgundy wine region of eastern France, for new and developing wine regions, growing Chardonnay is seen as a rite of passage and an easy entry into the international wine market. The Chardonnay grape itself is neutral, with many of the flavors commonly associated with the grape being derived from such influences as terroir. It is vinified in many different styles, from the lean, crisply mineral wines of Chablis, France, to New World wines with oak, and tropical fruit flavors. In cool climates, Chardonnay tends to be medium to light body with noticeable acidity and flavors of plum, apple. In warmer locations, the flavors become more citrus, peach, wines that have gone through malolactic fermentation tend to have softer acidity and fruit flavors with buttery mouthfeel and hazelnut notes. Chardonnay is an important component of many sparkling wines around the world, a peak in popularity in the late 1980s gave way to a backlash among those wine connoisseur who saw the grape as a leading negative component of the globalization of wine. For much of its history, a connection was assumed between Chardonnay and Pinot noir or Pinot blanc, in addition to being found in the same region of France for centuries, ampelographers noted that the leaves of each plant have near-identical shape and structure. Pierre Galet disagreed with this assessment, believing that Chardonnay was not related to any other major grape variety, viticulturalists Maynard Amerine and Harold Olmo proposed a descendency from a wild Vitis vinifera vine that was a step removed from white Muscat. Another theory stated that it originated from an ancient indigenous vine found in Cyprus, modern DNA fingerprinting research at University of California, Davis, now suggests that Chardonnay is the result of a cross between the Pinot noir and Gouais blanc grape varieties. The Romans are thought to have brought Gouais blanc from Croatia, the Pinot of the French aristocracy grew in close proximity to the Gouais blanc, giving both grapes ample opportunity to interbreed. Since the two parents were distant, many of the crosses showed hybrid vigour and were selected for further propagation. As of 2006,34 clonal varieties of Chardonnay could be found in vineyards throughout France, examples include the lower-yielding clones Dijon-76,95 and 96 that produce more flavor-concentrated clusters. Dijon-77 and 809 produce more aromatic wines with a perfume, while Dijon-75,78,121,124,125 and 277 are more vigorous. New World varieties include the Mendoza clone, which produced some of the early California Chardonnays, the Mendoza clone is prone to develop millerandage, also known as hens and chicks, where the berries develop unevenly. In places such as Oregon, the use of newer Dijon clones has had success in those regions of the Willamette Valley with climates similar to that of Burgundy. Chardonnay has served as parent to several French-American hybrid grapes, as well as crossings with other V. vinifera varieties, examples include the hybrid Chardonel, which was a Chardonnay and Seyval blanc cross produced in 1953 at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station. Mutations of the Chardonnay grape include the rare pink-berried Chardonnay Rose, also Chardonnay Blanc Musqué, Chardonnay Blanc Musqué is mostly found around the Mâconnais village of Clessé and sometimes confused with the Dijon-166 clone planted in South Africa, which yields Muscat-like aromas
Chardonnay
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Chardonnay grapes
Chardonnay
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Goaus blanc, one of the parent varieties of Chardonnay.
Chardonnay
–
Chardonnay grapes after
harvest
Chardonnay
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Chardonnay grapes in Champagne
10.
Cru (wine)
–
Cru is a vineyard or group of vineyards, especially one of recognized quality. It is a French wine term which is translated as growth. As a wine term it is connected to terroir in the sense of an extent of terrain having a certain physical homogeneity. Considered from the point of view of the nature of the soil as communicating a particular character to its produce, notably to wine. It may thus be defined as, Terroir as a place of production or an Ensemble of terrains considered from the point of view of what grows there, the term is also used to refer to the wine produced from such vines. The term cru is used within classifications of French wine. By implication, a wine that displays the name of its cru on its label is supposed to exhibit the typical characteristics of this cru. These wines are referred to as First Growths in English. In the Classification of Saint-Émilion wine, the highest level is Premier grand cru classé A, the term Saint-Émilion Grand cru refers to wineries or wines below the overall Grand cru classé level, and is integrated within the appellation rules. For Burgundy wine, the term is applied to classified vineyards, with Premier cru being the second-highest classification level, below that of Grand cru, for Burgundy wines, the terms Premier Cru or 1er Cru are usually kept rather than being translated into English. Grand cru is a wine classification that designates a vineyard known for its favorable reputation in producing wine. Although often used to describe grapes, wine or cognac, the term is not technically a classification of wine quality per se and it is the highest level of classification of AOC wines from Burgundy or Alsace. The same term is applied to Châteaux in Saint-Émilion, although in that region it has a different meaning, in Burgundy the level immediately below grand cru is known as premier cru, sometimes written as 1er cru. Early Burgundian wine history is marked by the work of the Cistercians with the Catholic Church being the principal vineyard owner for most of the Middle Ages. In 1861, Lavalles classification was formalized by the Beaune Committee of Agriculture, the designations of grand cru and premier cru were later developed and expanded on in the 1930s with the creation of the Appellation dOrigine Contrôlée system. Alsace Grand Cru AOC Cru Bourgeois Grand cru List of Burgundy Grand Crus List of Chablis crus Regional wine classification Route des Grands Crus Schoenenbourg
Cru (wine)
–
A Grand Cru Champagne.
Cru (wine)
11.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
World Heritage Site
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Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
World Heritage Site
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Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
World Heritage Site
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Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
World Heritage Site
–
Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
12.
Yonne
–
Yonne is a French department named after the river Yonne. It is one of the eight constituent departments of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté and is located in the northwest of the region and it was created in 1790 during the French Revolution. Its prefecture is Auxerre and its number is 89. It is the fourth most populous department in the region with a population of about 342,000, the biggest city is Auxerre, the capital, with a population of 35,000 in the city and roughly 43,000 in the urban area centred on it. The first evidence of occupation in this area is found in the Grottes dArcy-sur-Cure where paintings have been found dating back 28,000 years. The Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers of that also left behind numerous flint artefacts. Further waves of immigrants followed, the Chasséen culture, and the Michelsberg culture, the Celtic tribe in the area were named Icauna, after the River Yonne which they thought sacred, and the region was later occupied by Gallic tribes. The area then came under the control of the Romans, whose town was Sens. It was the capital of their province of Gallia Lugdunensis, one of four provinces into which France was subdivided, the present main roads from Lyon to Boulogne, and from Sens to Alise-Sainte-Reine date from this period. In 1771, the part of the present department belonged to Prince Francis Xavier of Saxony. The current Yonne department saw its birth during the French Revolution, on March 4,1790 and it was carved out of parts of the provinces of Burgundy, Champagne and Orléans, and to a lesser extent from parts of the Nivernais and Île-de-France. Yonne is a department in central France, one of the eight constituent departments of the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. To the northeast lies the department of Aube, to the east lies Côte-dOr, to the south lies Nièvre, to the west lies Loiret and to the northwest, the River Yonne flows northwards through the department. Auxerre, the capital of the department is situated on the River Yonne, the Canal de Bourgogne, which connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean, joins the River Yonne through locks at Migennes a little further north. The second biggest town is Sens, situated at the confluence of the River Vanne, the geology of the department is complex with concentric rings of granite, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks and layers of sedimentary rocks. The terrain is mostly a low-lying plateau used for agriculture, the southwestern part is the Pays de Puisaye-Forterre at a higher elevation and is more wooded. To the centre and east, the inclines to the northwest where the higher land of the Tonnerrois region lies. To the east the rock is limestone and the Auxerrois region is renowned for the grapes grown here which are used in the production of Chablis
Yonne
–
Prefecture building of the Yonne department, in Auxerre
Yonne
–
Auxerre and the
Yonne River
Yonne
–
Sens on the Yonne river
Yonne
–
Avallon
13.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
14.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
15.
Burgundy
–
Burgundy is a historical territory and a former administrative region of east-central France, entities that trace their name from the Burgundians, a Germanic people. Historically, Burgundy has referred to political entities, including kingdoms. The first known inhabitants of the area that became Burgundy were Celts, during the 4th century, the Burgundians, a Germanic people, who may have originated in Bornholm, settled in the western Alps. They founded the Kingdom of the Burgundians, which was conquered in the 6th century by another Germanic tribe, under Frankish dominion, the Kingdom of Burgundy continued for several centuries. Later, the region was divided between the Duchy of Burgundy and the Free County of Burgundy, burgundys modern existence is rooted in the dissolution of the Frankish Empire. In the 880s, there were four Burgundies, which were the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Burgundy, the duchy, during the Middle Ages, Burgundy was the seat of some of the most important Western churches and monasteries, among them Cluny, Cîteaux, and Vézelay. During the Hundred Years War, King John II of France gave the duchy to his youngest son, the duchy soon became a major rival to the crown. The court in Dijon outshone the French court both economically and culturally, in 1477, at the battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars, the last duke Charles the Bold was killed in battle, and the Duchy itself was annexed by France and became a province. However the northern part of the empire was taken by the Austrian Habsburgs, with the French Revolution in the end of the 18th century, the administrative units of the provinces disappeared, but were reconstituted as regions during the Fifth Republic in the 1970s. The modern-day administrative region comprises most of the former duchy, as of he region of Burgundy is both larger than the old Duchy of Burgundy and smaller than the area ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, from the modern Netherlands to the border of Auvergne. Today, Burgundy is made up of the old provinces, Burgundy, Côte-dOr, Saône-et-Loire and this corresponds to the old duchy of Burgundy. However, the old county of Burgundy is not included inside the Burgundy region, also, a small part of the duchy of Burgundy is now inside the Champagne-Ardenne region. Nivernais, now the department of Nièvre, the climate of this region is essentially oceanic, with a continental influence. The regional council of Burgundy is the legislative assembly, the council has been chaired by the Socialist François Patriat since 2004. The councils seat is in the capital city Dijon, at 17 boulevard de la Trémouille, Burgundy is one of Frances main wine producing areas. The region is divided into the Côte-dOr, where the most expensive and prized Burgundies are found, and Beaujolais, Chablis, with regard to cuisine, the region is famous for the Burgundian dishes coq au vin, beef bourguignon, and époisses de Bourgogne cheese. Earlier, the part of Burgundy was heavily industrial, with coal mines near Montceau-les-Mines and iron foundries. These industries declined in the half of the twentieth century
Burgundy
–
Arboretum de Pézanin
Burgundy
–
Flag
Burgundy
–
Dijon, Place du Bareuzai
Burgundy
–
Le Creusot
16.
Chablis (wine)
–
The Chablis region is the northernmost wine district of the Burgundy region in France. The cool climate of this region produces wines with more acidity and these wines often have a flinty note, sometimes described as goût de pierre à fusil, and sometimes as steely. The Chablis Appellation dorigine contrôlée is required to use Chardonnay grapes solely, the grapevines around the town of Chablis make a dry white wine renowned for the purity of its aroma and taste. In comparison with the wines from the rest of Burgundy. Most basic Chablis is unoaked, and vinified in stainless steel tanks, the amount of barrel maturation, if any, is a stylistic choice which varies widely among Chablis producers. Many Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines receive some maturation in oak barrels, but typically the time in barrel, Chablis lies about 10 miles east of Auxerre in the Yonne department, situated roughly halfway between the Côte dOr and Paris. Of Frances wine-growing areas, only Champagne and Alsace have a more northerly location, Chablis is closer to the southern Aube district of Champagne than the rest of Burgundy. The region covers 15 kilometres x 20 kilometres across 27 communes located along the Serein river, the soil is Kimmeridge clay with outcrops of the same chalk layer that extends from Sancerre up to the White Cliffs of Dover, giving a name to the paleontologists Cretaceous period. The Grand Crus, the best vineyards in the area, all lie on a single, small slope, facing southwest, during the Middle Ages the Catholic Church, particularly Cistercian monks, became a major influence in establishing the economic and commercial interest of viticulture for the region. Pontigny Abbey was founded in 1114, and the monks planted vines along the Serein, anséric de Montréal gave a vineyard at Chablis to the Abbey in 1186. In 1245 the chronicler Salimbene di Adam described a Chablis wine, Chardonnay is believed to have first been planted in Chablis by the Cistercians of Pontigny Abbey in the 12th century, and from there spread south to the rest of the Burgundy region. The Chablis area became part of the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century, there are records in the mid-15th century of Chablis wine being shipped to Flanders and Picardy. But in February 1568 the town was besieged by the Huguenots, the easily accessible Seine river, via the nearby Yonne river, gave the Chablis wine producers a near monopoly on the lucrative Parisian market. In the 17th century, the English discovered the wine and began importing large volumes, by the 19th century there were nearly 98,840 acres of vines planted in Chablis with vineyards stretching from the town of Chablis to Joigny and Sens along the Yonne. Some Champagne producers used Chablis as a basis for a sparkling cuvée, with the French Revolution, the monastic vineyards became biens nationaux, and were auctioned off. The new owners were local, and the political upheaval saw small farmers involved as part-time vignerons. The English market continued to prosper, the 19th-century Russian novel Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy mentions classic Chablis as a commonplace choice of wine. The end of the 19th century was a time for the Chablis growers
Chablis (wine)
–
View of Chablis,
Burgundy, from the north, vineyard of
Vaulorent in the foreground
Chablis (wine)
–
The Grand Cru vineyards of Chablis. From left to right: Les Preuses, Vaudésir, Grenouilles (around the house), Valmur, Les Clos, Blanchots and in the far distance across the Vallée de Brechain, the Premier Cru of Montée de Tonnerre.
Chablis (wine)
–
All of Chablis' Grand Cru vineyards and Premier Cru vineyards are planted on primarily
Kimmeridgean soil which is composed of limestone, clay and fossilized
oyster shells (pictured).
Chablis (wine)
–
Smudge pots protect Chablis vineyards from frost.
17.
Beaujolais wine
–
Beaujolais is a French Appellation dOrigine Contrôlée wine generally made of the Gamay grape which has a thin skin and is low in tannins. Like most AOC wines they are not labeled varietally, whites from the region, which make up only 1% of its production, are made mostly with Chardonnay grapes though Aligoté is also permitted until 2024. Beaujolais tends to be a very light-bodied red wine, with high amounts of acidity. In some vintages, Beaujolais produces more wine than the Burgundy wine regions of Chablis, Côte dOr, Côte Chalonnaise, the wine takes its name from the historical Province of Beaujolais, a wine producing region. It is located north of Lyon, and covers parts of the north of the Rhône département of the Rhône-Alpes region, the region is known internationally for its long tradition of winemaking, for the use of carbonic maceration, and more recently for the popular Beaujolais nouveau. The region of Beaujolais was first cultivated by the Romans who planted the areas along its trading route up the Saône valley, the most noticeable Roman vineyard was Brulliacus located on the hillside of Mont Brouilly. The Romans also planted vineyards in the area Morgon, from the 7th century through the Middle Ages, most of the viticulture and winemaking was done by the Benedictine monks. In the 10th century, the region got its name from the town of Beaujeu, the wines from Beaujolais were mostly confined to the markets along the Saône and Rhône, particularly in the town of Lyon. The expansion of the French railroad system in the 19th century opened up the lucrative Paris market, the first mention of Beaujolais wines in English followed soon after when Cyrus Redding described the wines of Moulin-à-Vent and Saint-Amour as being low priced and best consumed young. In the 1980s, Beaujolais hit a peak of popularity in the wine market with its Beaujolais nouveau wine. Spurred on by the marketing from négociants like Georges Duboeuf, demand outpaced supply for the easy drinking. As more Beaujolais producers tried to capitalize on the Nouveau craze, production of regular Beaujolais dropped, producers were left with a wine lake surplus that French authorities compelled them to reduce through mandatory distillation. In response, there has been renewed emphasis on the production of more complex wines that are aged longer in oak prior to release. Gamay noir is now known to be a cross of Pinot noir and the ancient white variety Gouais, the grape brought relief to the village growers following the decline of the Black Death. In contrast to the Pinot noir variety, Gamay ripened two weeks earlier and was difficult to cultivate. It also produced a strong, fruitier wine in a much larger abundance, the edicts had the effect of pushing Gamay plantings southward, out of the main region of Burgundy and into the granite based soils of Beaujolais where the grape thrived. He claimed that Beaujolais producers had long ignored the signs that such a backlash was coming. This triggered an outcry among Beaujolais producers followed by an association of 56 cooperative producers filing a lawsuit against the Lyon Mag for publishing Mauss comments, rather than sue for libel, the producers sued under an obscure French law that punishes the denigration of French products
Beaujolais wine
–
When Philippe the Bold outlawed the cultivation of Gamay in Burgundy, it pushed the grape south to the Beaujolais region.
Beaujolais wine
–
Beaujolais
Beaujolais wine
–
Cru Beaujolais region of Régnié
Beaujolais wine
–
Cru Beaujolais from Brouilly.
18.
Terroir
–
Terroir is the set of all environmental factors that affect a crops phenotype, unique environment contexts and farming practices, when the crop is grown in a specific habitat. Collectively, these characteristics are said to have a character. Some artisanal crops for which terroir is studied include wine, coffee, tobacco, chocolate, chili peppers, hops, agave, tomatoes, heritage wheat, maple syrup, tea, and cannabis. Terroir is the basis of the French wine appellation dorigine contrôlée system, the AOC system presumes that the land from which the grapes are grown imparts a unique quality that is specific to that growing site. The extent of terroirs significance is debated in the wine industry, over the centuries, French winemakers developed the concept of terroir by observing the differences in wines from different regions, vineyards, or even different sections of the same vineyard. The French began to crystallize the concept of terroir as a way of describing the unique aspects of a place that influence and shape the wine made from it. The Ancient Greeks would stamp amphorae with the seal of the region came from. For centuries, literate and disciplined members of the Benedictine and Cistercian orders cultivated grapes in much of Burgundy, with vast landholdings, the monks could conduct large-scale observation of the influences that various parcels of land had on the wine it produced. Some legends have the monks going as far as tasting the soil, over time the monks compiled their observations and began to establish the boundaries of different terroirs - many of which still exist today as the Grand Cru vineyards of Burgundy. While wine experts disagree about the definition, particular consideration is given to the natural elements that are beyond the control of humans. The element of soil relates both to the composition and the nature of the vineyard soils, such as fertility, drainage. The definition of terroir can be expanded to include elements that are controlled or influenced by humans. This can include the decision of which grape variety to plant, some grape varieties thrive better in certain areas than in others. The winemaking decision of using wild or ambient yeast in fermentation instead of cultured or laboratory produced yeast can be a reflection of terroir, many decisions during the growing and winemaking process can either lessen or increase the expression of terroir in the wine. These include decisions about pruning, irrigation and selecting time of harvest, the importance of these influences depends on the culture of a particular wine region. In France, particularly Burgundy, there is the belief that the role of a winemaker is to bring out the expression of a wines terroir, the French word for winemaker, vigneron, is more aptly translated as wine-grower rather than winemaker. The tenet of terroir has also applied to the production of Artisan cheese. Appellation systems, such as the French AOC systems, have developed around the concepts of unique wines from a unique area
Terroir
–
The steep slope,
soil quality, and influence of the nearby
Mosel river distinguish the terroir of this
German wine region.
Terroir
–
While the concept of terroir is not specific to Burgundy, the examples of Burgundy wine from places like the
Chablis premier cru Fourchaume are very terroir driven.
19.
Classification of wine
–
The classification of wine can be done according to various methods including place of origin or appellation, vinification methods and style, sweetness and vintage, or variety used. Practices vary in different countries and regions of origin, and many practices have varied over time, some classifications enjoy official protection by being part of the wine law in their country of origin, while others have been created by, for example, growers organizations without such protection. Within the European Union, the wine in English and in translation is reserved exclusively for the fermented juice of grapes. Within the United States, wine may include the juice of any fruit or agricultural product. Other jurisdictions have similar rules dictating the range of products qualifying as wine and these naming conventions or appellations dictate not only where the grapes in a wine were grown but also which grapes went into the wine and how they were vinified. The AVA designations do not restrict the type of grape used, however, in the United States, a legal definition called semi-generic has enabled U. S. winemakers to use certain generic terms if there appears next to the term the actual appellation of origin. This is a declaration of joint principles stating the importance of location to wine, the Declaration was signed in July 2005 by four United States winegrowing regions and three European Union winegrowing regions. The signatory regions from the US were Napa Valley, Washington, Oregon and Walla Walla, while the regions from the EU were, Champagne, Cognac, Douro. Many regional wine classifications exist as part of tradition or appellation law, grand cru of Burgundy and Alsace Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as red or white wine, sparkling, semi-sparkling or still, fortified, the color of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice, for example alicante bouchet, are known as teinturier, red wine is made from red grapes, but its red color is bestowed by a process called maceration, whereby the skin is left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation, a white wine made from a very dark grape may appear pink or blush. A form of Rosé is called Blanc de Noirs where the juice of red grapes are allowed contact with the skins for a short time. Sparkling wines such as champagne, contain carbon dioxide which is produced naturally from fermentation or force-injected later, sparkling wines that gain their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are labelled Bottle Fermented, Méthode Traditionelle, or Méthode Champenoise. The latter designation was outlawed for all other than Champagne in Europe in 1994. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or Schaumwein, Cava, semi-sparkling wines are sparkling wines that contain less than 2.5 atmospheres of carbon dioxide at sea level and 20 °C. Some countries such as the UK impose a tax on fully sparkling wines. Examples of semi-sparkling synonym terms are Frizzante in Italy, Vino de Aguja in Spain, in most countries except the United States, champagne is legally defined as sparkling wine originating from a region in France
Classification of wine
–
Dark purple wine grapes on the vine
20.
Monastery
–
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone. A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church or temple, a monastery complex typically comprises a number of buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary. These may include a hospice, a school and a range of agricultural and manufacturing such as a barn. In English usage, the monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics, historically, a convent denoted a house of friars, now more commonly called a friary. Various religions may apply these terms in specific ways. The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, in England the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular, however, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster. Westminster Abbey was for a time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation. They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St Georges Chapel, in most of this article, the term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism, there is a more specific definition of the term. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara, viharas may be occupied by males or females, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple, in Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, a monastery is called a wat, in Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung. A Christian monastery may be an abbey, or a priory and it may be a community of men or of women. A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order, in Eastern Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra. The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic, as opposed to the life of an anchorite. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram, jains use the Buddhist term vihara
Monastery
–
The
Monastery of Santa María del Parral of the
Hieronymites monks in
Segovia,
Spain
Monastery
–
Monastery of St. Nilus on
Stolbnyi Island in
Lake Seliger near
Ostashkov,
Russia, ca. 1910
Monastery
–
Tengboche Buddhist monastery,
Nepal
Monastery
–
Rumtek Monastery,
Gangtok Sikkim
21.
Auxerre
–
Auxerre is the capital of the Yonne department and the fourth-largest city in Burgundy. Auxerres population today is about 39,000, the area comprises roughly 92,000 inhabitants. Residents of Auxerre are referred to as Auxerrois, Auxerre is a commercial and industrial centre, with industries including food production, woodworking and batteries. It is also noted for its production of Burgundy wine, including world-famous Chablis, in 1995 Auxerre was named Town of Art and History. Auxerre was a flourishing Gallo-Roman centre, then called Autissiodorum, through which passed one of the roads of the area. In the third century it became the seat of a bishop, in the 5th century it received a Cathedral. In the late 11th-early 12th century the existing communities were included inside a new line of walls built by the counts of Auxerre. Bourgeois activities accompanied the land and wine cultivations starting from the twelfth century. The Burgundian city, which part of France under King Louis XI, suffered during the Hundred Years War. In 1567 it was captured by the Huguenots, and many of the Catholic edifices were damaged, the medieval ramparts were demolished in the 18th century. In the 19th century numerous heavy infrastructures were built, including a station, a psychiatric hospital and the courts. Up until recently, Auxerre was one of the most prosperous cities in the country, in Gothic style, it is renowned for its three doorways with remarkable bas-reliefs. The stained glass windows in the choir and the chapel are among the finest in France. The 11th century crypt houses the remains of the former Romanesque cathedral, abbey of Saint-Germain, existing from the ninth century. The crypt has some of the most ancient mural paintings in France, also interesting are the chapter room, the cellar and the cloister. The Clock tower, located in the Old Town The church of St. Pierre en Vallée, in the style of late Gothic architecture, it has a tower similar to that of the cathedral. Portions of the decorations and inner chapels were financed by local winegrowers, church of St. Eusèbe, founded in the 7th century. The nave was rebuilt in the 13th century, while the tower is in Romanesque style, Saint Helladius, bishop of Auxerre Saint Patrick, Apostle to the Irish, visited Bishop Germanus of Auxerre here
Auxerre
–
Auxerre and Yonne river
Auxerre
–
Clock Tower
Auxerre
–
Old Slide
Auxerre
–
Church of St. Pierre en Vallée, listed as monument.
22.
Lyon
–
Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
Lyon
–
Top, the Basilique de Notre-Dame de Fourvière, the Place des Terreaux with the Fontaine Bartholdi and Lyon City Hall at night. Centre, the Parc de la Tête d'Or, the Confluence district and the old city. Bottom, the Pont Lafayette, the Part-Dieu district with the Place Bellecour in the foreground during the Festival of Lights.
Lyon
–
Place Carnot, Lyons
Lyon
–
The lion has been the symbol of the city for centuries and is represented throughout the city.
Lyon
–
Lyon in the 18th century
23.
Saint-Bris AOC
–
Saint-Bris is an Appellation dorigine contrôlée for white wine in the Burgundy wine region of France. The approximately 100 hectares of vineyard in the appellation are situated in the communes Chitry, Irancy, Quenne, Saint-Bris-le-Vineux and it is the only Burgundy AOC that allows Sauvignon in the wines. Wines from vineyards around Saint-Bris-le-Vineux planted with Chardonnay or Pinot noir are not included in the Saint-Bris AOC, while showing typical Sauvignon aromas, the wines have been characterised as less concentrated than the Sauvignon blanc-based AOC wines of the upper Loire valley, notably Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé. Until the late 19th century, there were vineyards in the Yonne department, covering 40,000 hectares, with nearby Paris as their main market. One of the varieties grown in the Saint-Bris area was Roublot. In those days, before the creation of the more strict rules, wines from the Saint-Bris area could be called Chablis. In 1974, the Sauvignon-based white wines of Saint-Bris were considered enough to be awarded VDQS status under the name of Sauvignon de Saint-Bris. In January 2003 they were elevated to full AOC status under the present name of Saint-Bris, the VDQS designation was repealed at the same time. Findthewine. com - the location of Saint-Bris AOC on a map
Saint-Bris AOC
–
A bottle of Domaine Sainte Claire Saint-Bris Sauvignon 2006 from Jean-Marc Brocard.
24.
Sauvignon blanc
–
Sauvignon blanc is a green-skinned grape variety that originates from the Bordeaux region of France. The grape most likely gets its name from the French words sauvage and it is possibly a descendant of Savagnin. Sauvignon blanc is planted in many of the wine regions, producing a crisp, dry. The grape is also a component of the famous wines from Sauternes. Sauvignon blanc is widely cultivated in France, Chile, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Washington, some New World Sauvignon blancs, particularly from California, may also be called Fume Blanc. Depending on the climate, the flavor can range from aggressively grassy to sweetly tropical, in cooler climates, the grape has a tendency to produce wines with noticeable acidity and green flavors of grass, green bell peppers and nettles with some tropical fruit and floral notes. In warmer climates, it can develop more tropical fruit notes but risk losing a lot of aromatics from over-ripeness, leaving only slight grapefruit and tree fruit notes. Wine experts have used the phrase crisp, elegant, and fresh as a description of Sauvignon blanc from the Loire Valley. Sauvignon blanc, when chilled, pairs well with fish or cheese. It is also known as one of the few wines that can pair well with sushi, along with Riesling, Sauvignon blanc was one of the first fine wines to be bottled with a screwcap in commercial quantities, especially by New Zealand producers. The wine is usually consumed young, as it not particularly benefit from aging, as varietal Sauvignon blancs tend to develop vegetal aromas reminiscent of peas. The first Friday in May is International Sauvignon Blanc Day, the Sauvignon blanc grape traces its origins to western France in the Loire Valley and Bordeaux Regions. As noted above, it is not clear that the vine originated in western France, ongoing research suggests it may have descended from Savagnin. It has also associated with the Carmenere family. At some point in the 18th century, the vine paired with Cabernet Franc to parent the Cabernet Sauvignon vine in Bordeaux, in the 19th century, plantings in Bordeaux were often interspersed with Sauvignon vert as well as the Sauvignon blanc pink mutation Sauvignon gris. Despite the similarity in names, Sauvignon blanc has no relation to the Sauvignon rosé mutation found in the Loire Valley of France. The first cuttings of Sauvignon blanc were brought to California by Charles Wetmore, founder of Cresta Blanca Winery and these cuttings came from the Sauternes vineyards of Château dYquem. The plantings produced well in Livermore Valley, eventually, the wine acquired the alias of Fumé Blanc in California by promotion of Robert Mondavi in 1968
Sauvignon blanc
–
Ripe Sauvignon blanc grapes
Sauvignon blanc
–
The first plantings of Sauvignon blanc were introduced to California at Cresta Blanca Winery (pictured) in the Livermore Valley.
Sauvignon blanc
–
Vineyards in Sancerre will often plant
roses around Sauvignon blanc vines as an early detector of
powdery mildew.
Sauvignon blanc
–
A Pouilly Fumé from the Loire Valley.
25.
Nuits-Saint-Georges
–
Nuits-Saint-Georges is a commune in the arrondissement of Beaune of the Côte-dOr department in eastern France. It lies in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region, Nuits-Saint-Georges is the main town of the Côte de Nuits wine-producing area of Burgundy. Nuits-Saint-Georges was the site of the traditional Burgundian festival, la Saint-Vincent-Tournante and it is a festival that celebrates the wine of a different Burgundian village each year. The local marble is a rock, a limestone, that is not susceptible to frost damage. It is fine-grained and capable of accepting a polish, there is a vein of this stone, called popularly the Comblanchien and extending from Nuits-Saint-Georges to Nevers, which has made the reputations of the quarries of the region. The stone will harmonize with any style by virtue of the variety of its shades of colour, the pink of bindweed and beige, the town owes much to the economic development arising from Cistercian enterprise. The mayor of the town Franco de Martino brought them out of debt in 1905, a short distance to the east is the Cîteaux Abbey, the mother house of the Cistercian order of monks. It was founded in 1098 and has, over the years much influenced Nuits-Saint-Georges and they built the Château du Clos Vougeot and the nearby villages of Saint-Nicolas-lès-Cîteaux and Saint-Bernard. Les Bolards is a site of a trading, crossroads town from the Gallo-Roman period. The municipal belfry was built in 1610, the church of Saint Symphorien was built in the 13th century. It amalgamates the Romanesque with the Gothic and contains an early carillon, in 2005, it is closed for renovation. In the church of Saint Denis, there is an organ by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. The Hôpital Saint-Laurent dates in origin from 1634 but the buildings are late 17th century and it has retained its hospital vocation which it supports by the annual sale of the products of its vineyards. The Château dEntre-Deux-Monts is a property but open each September for the journées du Patrimoine. Nuits-Saint-Georges en Bourgogne, edited by the town of Nuits-Saint-Georges, lames de sang, La vie exemplaire de François Thurot, by Camille Bailly. Locating Nuits-Saint-Georges on a map of France Cartographical information about Nuits-Saint-Georges In French, the nearest communes to Nuits-Saint-Georges In French
Nuits-Saint-Georges
–
Nuits-Saint-Georges
Nuits-Saint-Georges
–
Nuits-Saint-Georges December 2010 - St Symphorien church
26.
Ladoix
–
Ladoix-Serrigny is a commune in the Côte-dOr department in eastern France. Ladoix-Serrigny is one of the communes of the Côte de Beaune. The northeastern part of the Corton hill is in the commune, including some used to produce the Grand Cru wines Corton. Some of the Premier Cru vineyards in Ladoix-Serrigny are part of the appellation of the neighboring village, communes of the Côte-dOr department INSEE
Ladoix
–
Ladoix-Serrigny
27.
Soil
–
Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake
Soil
–
A represents soil; B represents
laterite, a
regolith; C represents
saprolite, a less-weathered regolith; the bottom-most layer represents
bedrock.
Soil
–
Loess field in Germany.
Soil
–
Surface-water-
gley developed in
glacial till, Northern Ireland.
Soil
–
Iron-rich soil near Paint Pots in
Kootenay National Park,
Canada
28.
Mercurey AOC
–
Mercurey wine is produced in the communes of Mercurey and Saint-Martin-sous-Montaigu in the Côte Chalonnaise subregion of Burgundy. The Appellation dorigine contrôlée Mercurey may be used for red and white wine with respectively Pinot noir, the production of red wine dominates, with almost 80 per cent. There are 32 Premier Cru vineyards within Mercurey AOC, but no Grand Cru vineyards exist in part of Burgundy. The AOC was created in 1936, the red wines of this area are characterized by their deep color, compared to neighboring appellations, and fuller bodies. The wines of Mercurey are noted for their spicy cherry notes, the late 20th century saw an influx in vineyard expansion with some new plantings going on sites less suitable for quality viticulture. This expansion has increased the propensity for lower quality Mercurey which can taste more dilute with weaker fruit flavors, the less common white wines made in the area are characterized by their minerality and apple notes. Well-made examples typically drink at their peak between 5–12 years after vintage, some 75.66 hectares of this area was used for the white wines in 2007. The total amount produced corresponds to just under 3.7 million bottles, of which just over 3.0 million bottles of red wine, Mercurey has the largest production of the Côte Chalonnaise appellations. The AOC regulations allow up to 15 per cent total of Chardonnay, Pinot blanc and Pinot gris as accessory grapes in the red wines, for white wines, both Chardonnay and Pinot blanc are allowed, but most wines are likely to be 100% Chardonnay. The allowed base yield is 40 hectoliter per hectare for red wine and 45 for white wine, there are 32 climats within the Mercurey AOC classified as Premier Cru vineyards. Their wines are designated Mercurey Premier Cru + vineyard name, or as just Mercurey Premier Cru, in which case it is possible to blend wine from several Premier Cru vineyards within the AOC. In 2007,160.45 hectares of the total Mercurey vineyard surface consisted of Premier Cru vineyards, the annual production of Premier Cru wine, as a five-year average, is 6,079 hectoliter of red wine and 656 hectoliter of white wine. The following Premier Cru vineyards are located in the commune of Mercurey, The following Premier Cru vineyards are located in the commune of Saint-Martin-sous-Montaigu
Mercurey AOC
–
Vineyards around Mercurey
Mercurey AOC
–
Map of the appellation
Mercurey AOC
–
A glass of Mercurey Pinot noir.
Mercurey AOC
–
Les Champs Martin - a Mercurey Premier Cru vineyard
29.
Rully AOC
–
Rully wine is produced in the communes of Rully and Chagny in the Côte Chalonnaise subregion of Burgundy. The Appellation dorigine contrôlée Rully may be used for red and white wine with respectively Pinot noir, around two-thirds of the production consists of white wine, and around one-third is red. There are 23 Premier Cru vineyards within Rully AOC, but no Grand Cru vineyards exist in part of Burgundy. The AOC was created in 1939, some 223.56 hectares of this area was used for the white wines. The total amount produced corresponds to over 2.1 million bottles, of which just over 700,000 bottles of red wine, there are 23 climats within the Rully AOC classified as Premier Cru vineyards. Their wines are designated Rully Premier Cru + vineyard name, or as just Rully Premier Cru, in 2008,96 hectares of the total Rully vineyard surface consisted of Premier Cru vineyards, of which 37.19 hectares red and 58.81 hectares white Rully Premier Cru. The annual production of Premier Cru wine, as an average, is 1,185 hectoliter of red wine and 3,366 hectoliter of white wine. The following Premier Cru vineyards are located in the commune of Rully, The following Premier Cru vineyards are located in the commune of Chagny
Rully AOC
–
Rully vineyards at Château de Rully.
Rully AOC
–
Rully vineyards
30.
Givry AOC
–
Givry wine is produced in the communes of Givry, Dracy-le-Fort and Jambles in the Côte Chalonnaise subregion of Burgundy. The Appellation dorigine contrôlée Givry may be used for red and white wine with respectively Pinot noir, the production of red wine dominates, with almost 80 per cent. There are 27 Premier Cru vineyards within Givry AOC, but no Grand Cru vineyards exist in part of Burgundy. The AOC was created in 1946, some 45.46 hectares of this area was used for the white wines. The total amount produced corresponds to just under 1.7 million bottles, of which just under 1.4 million bottles of red wine, there are 27 climats within the Givry AOC classified as Premier Cru vineyards. Their wines are designated Givry Premier Cru + vineyard name, or as just Givry Premier Cru, in which case it is possible to blend wine from several Premier Cru vineyards within the AOC. In 2008,108.13 hectares of the total Givry vineyard surface consisted of Premier Cru vineyards, the annual production of Premier Cru wine, as a five-year average, is 4,668 hectoliter of red wine and 521 hectoliter of white wine. The Premier Cru vineyards are the following
Givry AOC
–
Vineyards in Givry
Givry AOC
–
Givry with vineyards in the foreground.
Givry AOC
–
A bottle of Givry Premier Cru
31.
Continental climate (wine)
–
In viticulture, the climates of wine regions are categorised based on the overall characteristics of the areas climate during the growing season. While variations in macroclimate are acknowledged, the climates of most wine regions are categorised as being part of a Mediterranean, the presence of adequate sun, heat and water are all vital to the healthy growth and development of grapevines during the growing season. In general, grapevines thrive in climates which grant the vines long, warm periods during the crucial flowering, fruit set. The physiological processes of a lot of grapevines begin when temperatures reach around 10 °C, below this temperature, the vines are usually in a period of dormancy. Drastically below this temperature, such as the point of 0 °C the vines can be damaged by frost. When the average temperature is between 17 and 20 °C the vine will begin flowering. When temperatures rise up to 27 °C many of the physiological processes are in full stride as grape clusters begin to ripen on the vine. One of the characteristics that differentiates the various categories from one another is the occurrence. In addition to temperature, the amount of rainfall is another defining characteristics, on average, a grapevine needs around 710 mm of water for sustenance during the growing season, not all of which may be provided by natural rain fall. In Mediterranean and many continental climates, the climate during the season may be quite dry. In contrast, maritime climates often suffer the extreme of having too much rainfall during the growing season which poses its own viticultural hazards. Wine regions with Mediterranean climates are characterised by their long growing seasons of moderate to warm temperatures, throughout the year there is little seasonal change with temperatures in the winter generally warmer than those of maritime and continental climates. During the grapevine growing season, there is little rain fall which increases the risk of the viticultural hazard of drought. This is generally described as having a degree of continentality. Regions with this type of climate are found inland on continents without a significant body of water, such as an inland sea. Often during the season, continental climates will have wide diurnal temperature variations with very warm temperatures during the day that drop drastically at night. During the winter and early spring months, frost and hail can be viticultural hazards, depending on the particular macroclimate of the region, irrigation may be needed to supplement seasonal rainfall. These many climatic influences contribute to the wide vintage variation that is typical of continental climates such as Burgundy
Continental climate (wine)
–
The climate characteristics of a wine region will have significant influence on the viticulture in the area. Pictured are terraced vineyards in Northern Portugal's Douro Valley.
Continental climate (wine)
–
Large bodies of water, such as
Lake Geneva in Switzerland, can have a moderating effect on the climate of a region.
Continental climate (wine)
–
Wine regions with Mediterranean climates.
Continental climate (wine)
–
Most California wine regions have a Mediterranean climate.
32.
Viticulture
–
Viticulture is the science, production, and study of grapes. It deals with the series of events occur in the vineyard. It is a branch of the science of horticulture, for this reason, viticulture can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Viticulturists are often involved with winemakers, because vineyard management. A great number of varieties are now approved in the European Union as true grapes for wine-growing and viticulture, the earliest evidence of grape vine cultivation and winemaking dates back 7,000 years. The history of viticulture is closely related to the history of wine, evidence suggests that some of the earliest domestication of Vitis vinifera occurred in the area of the modern countries Georgia and Armenia. The oldest-known winery was discovered in the Areni-1 cave in Vayots Dzor, dated to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines, commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier. There is also evidence of domestication in the Near East in the early Bronze Age. Evidence of ancient viticulture is provided by sources, plant remains, historical geography. The remnants of ancient wine jars have been used to determine the culture of wine consumption, in addition to winemaking, grapes have been grown for the production of raisins. With the ability to pollinate itself, over time the hermaphroditic vines were able to sire offspring that were consistently hermaphroditic, during this period, grape cultivation developed from an aspect of local consumption to an important component of international economies and trade. From 1200 BC to 900 BC, the Phoenicians developed viticulture practices that were used in Carthage. Around 500 BC, the Carthaginian writer Mago recorded such practices in a work that was one of the few artifacts to survive the Roman destruction of Carthage during the Third Punic War. The Roman statesman Cato the Elder was influenced by texts, and around 160 BC he wrote De Agricultura. Around 65 AD, the Roman writer Columella produced the most detailed work on Roman viticulture in his twelve-volume text De Re Rustica, columellas work is one of the earliest to detail trellis systems for raising vines off the ground. Columella advocated the use of stakes versus the previously accepted practice of training vines to grow up along tree trunks. Roman viticulturists were among the first to identify steep hillsides as one of the locations to plant vines, because cool air runs downhill
Viticulture
–
Wine grapes
Viticulture
–
Vineyard v
Brhlovce,
Slovakia.
Viticulture
Viticulture
–
Examples of
downy and
powdery mildew on a grape leaf.
33.
Celts
–
The history of pre-Celtic Europe remains very uncertain. According to one theory, the root of the Celtic languages, the Proto-Celtic language, arose in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe. Thus this area is called the Celtic homeland. The earliest undisputed examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions beginning in the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names, Insular Celtic languages are attested beginning around the 4th century in Ogham inscriptions, although it was clearly being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century, coherent texts of Early Irish literature, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge, survive in 12th century recensions. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a cohesive cultural entity. They had a linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from the culture of the surrounding polities. By the 6th century, however, the Continental Celtic languages were no longer in wide use, Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels and the Celtic Britons of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Great Britain, Ireland, today, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton are still spoken in parts of their historical territories, and Cornish and Manx are undergoing a revival. The first recorded use of the name of Celts – as Κελτοί – to refer to a group was by Hecataeus of Miletus, the Greek geographer, in 517 BC. In the fifth century BC Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the head of the Danube, the etymology of the term Keltoi is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European *kʲel ‘to hide’, IE *kʲel ‘to heat’ or *kel ‘to impel’, several authors have supposed it to be Celtic in origin, while others view it as a name coined by Greeks. Linguist Patrizia De Bernardo Stempel falls in the group. Yet he reports Celtic peoples in Iberia, and also uses the ethnic names Celtiberi and Celtici for peoples there, as distinct from Lusitani, pliny the Elder cited the use of Celtici in Lusitania as a tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. Latin Gallus might stem from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name originally and its root may be the Proto-Celtic *galno, meaning “power, strength”, hence Old Irish gal “boldness, ferocity” and Welsh gallu “to be able, power”. The tribal names of Gallaeci and the Greek Γαλάται most probably have the same origin, the suffix -atai might be an Ancient Greek inflection. Proto-Germanic *walha is derived ultimately from the name of the Volcae and this means that English Gaul, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin Gallia, though it does refer to the same ancient region
Celts
–
Celtic
stele from
Galicia, 2nd century AD: “APANA·AMBO / LLI· F(ilia)·CELTICA /
SUPERTAM(arica) · / (j) MIOBRI· / AN(norum)· XXV·H(ic)·S(ita)·E(st)· / APANUS·FR(ater)· F(aciendum)·C(uravit)”
Celts
–
Core
Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BC
Celts
–
Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in Altburg near
Bundenbach (1st century BC).
Celts
–
Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in
Havranok, Slovakia (2nd–1st century BC).
34.
Ancient Rome
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Rome
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Rome
–
Roman Republic
Ancient Rome
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Rome
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
35.
Gaul
–
It covered an area of 190,800 sq mi. According to the testimony of Julius Caesar, Gaul was divided into three parts, Gallia Celtica, Belgica and Aquitania, during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule, Gallia Cisalpina was conquered in 203 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in 123 BC. Gaul was invaded after 120 BC by the Cimbri and the Teutons, Gallia remains a name of France in modern Greek and modern Latin. The Greek and Latin names Galatia, and Gallia are ultimately derived from a Celtic ethnic term or clan Gal-to-. Galli of Gallia Celtica were reported to refer to themselves as Celtae by Caesar. Hellenistic folk etymology connected the name of the Galatians to the supposedly milk-white skin of the Gauls, modern researchers say it is related to Welsh gallu, Cornish galloes, capacity, power, thus meaning powerful people. The English Gaul is from French Gaule and is unrelated to Latin Gallia, as adjectives, English has the two variants, Gaulish and Gallic. The two adjectives are used synonymously, as pertaining to Gaul or the Gauls, although the Celtic language or languages spoken in Gaul is predominantly known as Gaulish. The Germanic w- is regularly rendered as gu- / g- in French, also unrelated in spite of superficial similarity is the name Gael. The Irish word gall did originally mean a Gaul, i. e. an inhabitant of Gaul, but its meaning was later widened to foreigner, to describe the Vikings, and later still the Normans. The dichotomic words gael and gall are sometimes used together for contrast, by 500 BC, there is strong Hallstatt influence throughout most of France. By the late 5th century BC, La Tène influence spreads rapidly across the territory of Gaul. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, southwest Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, farther north extended the contemporary pre-Roman Iron Age culture of northern Germany and Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the Romans described Gallia Transalpina as distinct from Gallia Cisalpina, while some scholars believe the Belgae south of the Somme were a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements, their ethnic affiliations have not been definitively resolved. One of the reasons is political interference upon the French historical interpretation during the 19th century, in addition to the Gauls, there were other peoples living in Gaul, such as the Greeks and Phoenicians who had established outposts such as Massilia along the Mediterranean coast. Also, along the southeastern Mediterranean coast, the Ligures had merged with the Celts to form a Celto-Ligurian culture, the prosperity of Mediterranean Gaul encouraged Rome to respond to pleas for assistance from the inhabitants of Massilia, who were under attack by a coalition of Ligures and Gauls. The Romans intervened in Gaul in 154 BC and again in 125 BC, whereas on the first occasion they came and went, on the second they stayed. Massilia was allowed to keep its lands, but Rome added to its territories the lands of the conquered tribes. The direct result of conquests was that by now, Rome controlled an area extending from the Pyrenees to the lower Rhône river
Gaul
–
Map of Roman Gaul (Droysens Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas, 1886)
Gaul
–
Gaul on the eve of the Gallic Wars.
Roman ethnography divides Gaul into five parts:
Gallia Belgica,
Gallia Celtica (largely corresponding to the later province
Gallia Lugdunensis),
Gallia Cisalpina,
Gallia Narbonensis and
Gallia Aquitania.
Gaul
–
Gauls in Rome
Gaul
–
Soldiers of Gaul, as imagined by a late 19th-century illustrator for the
Larousse dictionary, 1898
36.
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
–
Following the founding of the major trading post of Massalia in 600 BC by the Phocaeans at present day Marseille, Massalians had a complex history of interaction with peoples of the region. The oldest city within modern France, Marseille, was founded around 600 BC by Greeks from the Asia Minor city of Phocaea as a trading post or emporion under the name Μασσαλία, the contours of the Greek city have been partially excavated in several neighborhoods. The Phocaean Greeks introduced the cult of Artemis, as in their other colonies and it is thought that contacts started even earlier however, as Ionian Greeks traded in the Western Mediterranean and Spain, but only very little remains from that earlier period. The Greeks from Phocaea also founded settlements in the island of Corsica, from Massalia, the Phocaean Greeks also founded cities in northeastern Spain such as Emporiae and Rhoda. Before the Greeks came to pre-eminence in the Gulf of Lion, according to Charles Ebel, writing in the 1960s, Massalia was not an isolated Greek city, but had developed an Empire of its own along the coast of southern Gaul by the fourth century. But the idea of a Massalian empire is no longer credible in the light of recent archaeological evidence, however further archaeological evidence since shows Massalia had over twelve cities in its network in France, Spain, Monaco and Corsica. Cities Massalia founded that still exist today are Nice, Antibes, Monaco, Le Brusc, Agde, there is evidence of direct rule of at least two of their cities with a flexible system of autonomy as suggested by Emporion and Rhodus own coin minting. Massalias empire was not the same as the monolithic of the ancient world or of the century being a scattered group of cities connected by the sea. The Delian League was also a group of cities spread far across the sea. Greek Marseille eventually became a centre of culture which drew some Roman parents to send their children there to be educated. According to earlier views, a hellenization of Southern France prior to the Roman Conquest of Transalpine Gaul is thought to have been largely due to the influence of Massalia. However, more recent scholarship has shown that the idea of Hellenization was illusory, the power and cultural influence of Massalia have been called into question by demonstrating the limited territorial control of the city and showing the distinctive cultures of indigenous societies. The site of Vix in northern Burgundy is an example of a Hallstatt settlement where such Mediterranean objects were consumed. Some, like the famous Vix krater, were spectacular in nature, from Marseille, maritime trade also developed with Languedoc and Etruria, and with the Greek city of Emporiae on the coast of Spain. The mother city of Phocaea would ultimately be destroyed by the Persians in 545, trading links were extensive, in iron, spices, wheat and slaves. However, the evidence for this is weak, at best, overland trade with Celtic countries beyond the Mediterranean region declined around 500 BC, in conjunction with the troubles following the end of the Halstatt civilization. The site of Mont Lassois was abandoned around that time, the Greek colony of Massalia remained active in the following centuries. Around 325 BC, Pytheas made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe as far as the Arctic Circle from his city of Marseilles
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
–
Location of the Greek colony of Marseille.
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
–
Remains of the Greek harbour in the Jardin des Vestiges in central Marseille, the most extensive Greek settlement in pre-Roman Gaul
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
–
In legend, Gyptis, daughter of the king of the
Segobriges, chose the Greek Protis, who then received a site for founding Massalia.
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
–
The
Vix krater, an imported Greek wine-mixing vessel from 500 BC attests to the trade exchanges of the period
37.
Ancient Greece and wine
–
The influence of wine in ancient Greece helped Ancient Greece trade with neighboring countries and regions. Many mannerisms and cultural aspects were associated with wine and it led to great change in Ancient Greece as well. Along the way, they influenced the ancient European winemaking cultures of the Celts, Etruscans, Scythians. Viticulture has existed in Greece since the late Neolithic period, with domestic cultivation becoming widespread by the early Bronze Age, through trade with ancient Egypt, the Minoan civilization on Crete was introduced to Egyptian winemaking methods, an influence most likely imparted to Mycenaean Greece. Along with olives and grain, grapes were an important agricultural crop vital to sustenance and community development, in the Mycenaean period, wine took on greater cultural, religious and economic importance. Records inscribed on tablets in Linear B include details of wine, vineyards and wine merchants, as well as an allusion to Dionysus. Greeks embedded the arrival of winemaking culture in the mythologies of Dionysus, early remnants of amphoras show that the Mycenaeans actively traded wine throughout the ancient world in places such as Cyprus, Egypt, Palestine, Sicily and southern Italy. As the Greek city-states established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, the settlers brought grapevines with them and were active in cultivating the wild vines they encountered, Sicily and southern Italy formed some of the earliest colonies, as they were areas already home to an abundance of grapevines. The Greeks called the part of the Italian Peninsula Oenotria. Athens itself provided a large and lucrative market for wine, with significant vineyard estates forming in the Attican region and on the island of Thasos to help satisfy demand. Wine historians have theorized that the Greeks may have introduced viticulture to Spain and Portugal, the grape clusters, vines and wine cups that adorn Greek coins from classical times bear witness to the importance of wine to the ancient Greek economy. With every major trading partner, from the Crimea, Egypt, Scythia, Etruria and beyond, millions of amphora pieces bearing the unique seals of various city-states and Aegean islands have been uncovered by archaeologists, demonstrating the scope of Greek influence. It is estimated that the Greeks shipped nearly 10 million liters of wine into Gaul each year through Massalia, in 1929, the discovery of the Vix Grave in Burgundy included several artifacts demonstrating the strong ties between Greek wine traders and local Celtic villagers. The most notable of these was a large Greek-made krater, designed to hold over 1,000 litres of wine, Ancient Greeks called the cultivated vine hemeris, after their adjective for tame, differentiating it from its wild form. A massive rootstock was carved into an image of the Great Goddess. He also wrote that Laertes, father of Odysseus, had over 50 grape varieties planted in different parts of his vineyard, another innovation was the minimization of yields for more intense concentration of flavors and quality, rather than increased quantity. The economics of the time favored high yields for most crops, theophrastus also detailed the practice of using suckering and plant cuttings for new vineyard plantings. The Greeks also employed vine training with stacked plants for cultivation and harvesting
Ancient Greece and wine
–
A golden goblet from the Mycenaean period.
Ancient Greece and wine
–
The Vix Krater
Ancient Greece and wine
–
A
terra cotta relief showing
Satyrs expressing the juice from trodden grapes in wicker mats in the tropeion.
Ancient Greece and wine
–
A
kylix drinking cup was used to serve Greek wine.
38.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
Neolithic
–
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
Neolithic
–
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Neolithic
–
Female figure from
Tumba Madžari,
Republic of Macedonia
Neolithic
–
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
39.
Marseille
–
Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
Marseille
–
Clockwise from top:
Notre-Dame de la Garde •
Old Port •
La Joliette with
CMA CGM Tower •
Calanque of Sugiton
Marseille
–
View of the "Petit Nice" on the Corniche with
Frioul and
Château d'If in the background
Marseille
–
Marseille seen from Spot Satellite
Marseille
–
View from Marseille's
Old Port (Vieux-Port) towards
Notre-Dame de la Garde
40.
Roman Republic
–
It was during this period that Romes control expanded from the citys immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, by the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation, Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. Over time, the laws that gave exclusive rights to Romes highest offices were repealed or weakened. The leaders of the Republic developed a tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military. Many of Romes legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states, the exact causes and motivations for Romes military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism and they argue that Romes expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors, and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, with some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened and thus able to resist Romanizing influences. It was also able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome and this growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this, it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire and this shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal. In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking, in the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. This had some important similarities to the events in Italy centuries earlier, with some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control
Roman Republic
–
Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus
Roman Republic
–
Roman consul accompanied by two
lictors
Roman Republic
–
Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the
Plebeian Council
Roman Republic
–
A Roman
denarius struck in 56 BC showing on one side the bust of the
Goddess Diana, and on the reverse the Roman general
Lucius Cornelius Sulla is offered an olive branch by his ally
Bocchus I as the captive
Jugurtha kneels beside Sulla with his hands bound.
41.
Gregory of Tours
–
Saint Gregory of Tours was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of Gaul. He was born Georgius Florentius and later added the name Gregorius in honour of his maternal great-grandfather and he is the primary contemporary source for Merovingian history. St. Martins tomb was a pilgrimage destination in the 6th century. Gregory was born in Clermont, in the Auvergne region of central Gaul, Gregory had several noted bishops and saints as close relatives, and, according to Gregory, he was connected to thirteen of the eighteen bishops of Tours preceding him by ties of kinship. Gregorys paternal grandmother, Leocadia, descended from Vettius Epagatus, the martyr of Lyons. His father evidently died while Gregory was young and his mother moved to Burgundy where she had property. Gregory went to live with his paternal uncle St. Gallus, Bishop of Clermont), under whom, Gregory also received the clerical tonsure from Gallus. Having contracted an illness, he made a visit of devotion to the tomb of St. Martin at Tours. Upon his recovery, he began to pursue a career and was ordained deacon by Avitus. Upon the death of St. Euphronius, he was chosen as Bishop by the clergy and people, who had been charmed with his piety, learning and he spent most of his career at Tours, although he assisted at the council of Paris in 577. The rough world he lived in was on the cusp of the world of Antiquity. Gregory lived also on the border between the Frankish culture of the Merovingians to the north and the Gallo-Roman culture of the south of Gaul, at Tours, Gregory could not have been better placed to hear everything and meet everyone of influence in Merovingian culture. Tours lay on the highway of the navigable Loire. Five Roman roads radiated from Tours, which lay on the thoroughfare between the Frankish north and Aquitania, with Spain beyond. At Tours the Frankish influences of the north and the Gallo-Roman influences of the south had their chief contact, Gregory struggled through personal relations with four Frankish kings, Sigebert I, Chilperic I, Guntram, and Childebert II and he personally knew most of the leading Franks. Gregory wrote in Late Latin which departed from classical usage frequently in syntax, the Historia Francorum is in ten books. At this date Gregory had been bishop of Tours for two years, the second part, books V and VI, closes with Chilperic Is death in 584. During the years that Chilperic held Tours, relations between him and Gregory were tense, after hearing rumours that the Bishop of Tours had slandered his wife, Fredegund, Chilperic had Gregory arrested and tried for treason—a charge which threatened both Gregorys bishopric and his life
Gregory of Tours
–
Saint Gregory of Tours, 19th century statue by Jean Marcellin, in the
Louvre
Gregory of Tours
–
Early Merovingian Gaul
Gregory of Tours
–
Frontispice of Historia Francorum.
Gregory of Tours
–
St. Gregory and King
Chilperic I, from the Grandes Chroniques de France de Charles V, 14th century illumination.
42.
Guntram
–
St. Guntram, also called Gontram, Gontran, Gunthram, Gunthchramn, and Guntramnus, was the King of Burgundy from AD561 to AD592. He was the third eldest and second eldest surviving son of Chlothar I, on his fathers death in 561, he became king of a fourth of the Kingdom of the Franks, and made his capital at Orléans. The name Guntram denotes war raven, later he married Marcatrude, daughter of Magnar, and sent his son Gundobad to Orléans. But after she had a son Marcatrude was jealous, and proceeded to bring about Gundobads death and she sent poison, they say, and poisoned his drink. And upon his death, by Gods judgment she lost the son she had and incurred the hate of the king, was dismissed by him, after her he took Austerchild, also named Bobilla. He had by her two sons, of whom the older was called Clothar and the younger Chlodomer, Guntram had a period of intemperance. He was eventually overcome with remorse for the sins of his past life, in atonement, he fasted, prayed, wept, and offered himself to God. Throughout the balance of his prosperous reign he attempted to govern by Christian principles, according to St. Gregory of Tours, he was the protector of the oppressed, caregiver to the sick, and the tender parent to his subjects. He was generous with his wealth, especially in times of plague and he strictly and justly enforced the law without respect to person, yet was ever ready to forgive offences against himself, including two attempted assassinations. Guntram munificently built and endowed many churches and monasteries, St. Gregory related that the king performed many miracles both before and after his death, some of which St. Gregory claimed to have witnessed himself. In 567, his elder brother Charibert I died and his lands of the Kingdom of Paris were divided between the brothers, Guntram, Sigebert I, and Chilperic I. They shared his realm, agreeing at first to hold Paris in common, chariberts widow, Theudechild, proposed a marriage with Guntram, the eldest remaining brother, though a council convened at Paris as late as 557 had forbidden such tradition as incestuous. Guntram decided to house her more safely, though unwillingly, in a monastery in Arles, in 573, Guntram was caught in a civil war with his brother Sigebert I of Austrasia, and in 575 summoned the aid of their brother Chilperic I of Soissons. He reversed his allegiance later, due to the character of Chilperic, if we may give him the benefit of the doubt in light of St. Gregorys commendation and he thereafter remained an ally of Sigebert, his wife, and his sons until his death. Mummolus defeated Chilperics general Desiderius and the Neustrians forces retreated from Austrasia. In 577, Chlothar and Clodomir, his two surviving children, died of dysentery and he adopted as his son and heir Childebert II, his nephew, Sigeberts son, however, Childebert did not always prove faithful to his uncle. In 581, Chilperic took many of Guntrams cities and in 583, he allied with Childebert and this time Guntram made peace with Chilperic and Childebert retreated. Supposed to take place on 4 July, the feast of St. Martin of Tours, in Orléans, it did not, Guntram marched against him, calling him nothing more than a millers son named Ballomer
Guntram
–
Guntram
Guntram
–
Guntram and Childebert II, from the
Grandes Chroniques de France.
Guntram
–
Tremissis bearing the name and elblem of Guntram
Guntram
–
Childeric I (457–481)
43.
Charlemagne
–
Charlemagne or Charles the Great, numbered Charles I, was the King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774 and Emperor of the Romans from 800. He united much of Europe during the early Middle Ages and he was the first recognised emperor in western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state which Charlemagne founded was called the Carolingian Empire, Charlemagne was the oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon. He became king in 768 following his fathers death, initially as co-ruler with his brother Carloman I, carlomans sudden death in 771 in unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. He continued his fathers policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy and he campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianising them upon penalty of death and leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peters Basilica. Charlemagne has been called the Father of Europe, as he united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire and his rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of energetic cultural and intellectual activity within the Western Church. All Holy Roman Emperors considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagnes empire, up to the last Emperor Francis II and these and other machinations led to the eventual split of Rome and Constantinople in the Great Schism of 1054. Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for thirteen years and he was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. He married at least four times and had three sons, but only his son Louis the Pious survived to succeed him. By the 6th century, the western Germanic Franks had been Christianised, Francia, ruled by the Merovingians, was the most powerful of the kingdoms that succeeded the Western Roman Empire. Following the Battle of Tertry the Merovingians declined into powerlessness, for which they have dubbed the rois fainéants. Almost all government powers were exercised by their chief officer, the mayor of the palace, in 687, Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his victory at Tertry. He became the governor of the entire Frankish kingdom. Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of the Austrasian Kingdom, Saint Arnulf of Metz and Pepin of Landen, Pepin of Herstal was eventually succeeded by his illegitimate son Charles, later known as Charles Martel. After 737, Charles governed the Franks in lieu of a king, Charles was succeeded in 741 by his sons Carloman and Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. In 743, the brothers placed Childeric III on the throne to curb separatism in the periphery and he was the last Merovingian king. Carloman resigned office in 746, preferring to enter the church as a monk, Pepin brought the question of the kingship before Pope Zachary, asking whether it was logical for a king to have no royal power
Charlemagne
–
A coin of Charlemagne with the inscription KAROLVS IMP AVG (Karolus Imperator Augustus)
Charlemagne
–
Francia, early 8th century
Charlemagne
–
External video
Charlemagne
–
Moorish Hispania in 732
44.
Benedictines
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Each community within the order maintains its own autonomy, while the order itself represents their mutual interests. Internationally, the order is governed by the Benedictine Confederation, a body, established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIIIs Brief Summum semper, individuals whose communities are members of the order generally add the initials OSB after their names. The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Saint Benedict of Nursia circa 529, was the first of the monasteries he founded. He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino, there is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. It was from the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome that Augustine, the prior, at various stopping places during the journey, the monks left behind them traditions concerning their rule and form of life, and probably also some copies of the Rule. Lérins Abbey, for instance, founded by Honoratus in 375, probably received its first knowledge of the Benedictine Rule from the visit of St. Augustine, in Gaul and Switzerland, it supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others. In many monasteries it eventually displaced the earlier codes. Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane, it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire, Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium, as a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole active work. In the Middle Ages monasteries were founded by the nobility. Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910, the abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, one of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald, who founded the Camaldolese community. The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations, Augustine of Canterbury and his monks established the first English Benedictine monastery at Canterbury soon after their arrival in 597. Many of the sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines. Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak, the monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick. Germany was evangelized by English Benedictines, willibrord and Boniface preached there in the seventh and eighth centuries and founded several abbeys. In the English Reformation, all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, during the 19th century they were able to return to England, including to Selby Abbey in Yorkshire, one of the few great monastic churches to survive the Dissolution. St. Mildreds Priory, on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first Christian King of Kent, currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns
Benedictines
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Saint Benedict of Nursia (c. 480–543). Detail from a
fresco by
Fra Angelico (c. 1400–1455) in the
Basilica San Marco,
Florence.
Benedictines
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Design on the obverse side of the
Saint Benedict Medal
Benedictines
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Benedict of Aniane (747–821).
Benedictines
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The two sides of a Saint Benedict Medal
45.
Abbey of Cluny
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Cluny Abbey dedicated to St Peter, is a former Benedictine monastery in Cluny, Saône-et-Loire, France. It was built in the Romanesque style, with three built in succession from the 4th to the early 12th centuries. The earliest basilica was the worlds largest church until the St. Peters Basilica construction began in Rome, Cluny was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910. He nominated Berno as the first Abbot of Cluny, subject only to Pope Sergius III, the abbey was notable for its stricter adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict, whereby Cluny became acknowledged as the leader of western monasticism. The establishment of the Benedictine Order was a keystone to the stability of European society that was achieved in the 11th century, in 1790 during the French Revolution, the abbey was sacked and mostly destroyed, with only a small part of the Abbey surviving. Starting around 1334, the Abbots of Cluny maintained a townhouse in Paris known as the Hôtel de Cluny, apart from the name, it no longer possesses anything originally connected with Cluny. In 910, William I, Duke of Aquitaine the Pious, the deed of gift included vineyards, fields, meadows, woods, waters, mills, serfs, cultivated and uncultivated lands. Hospitality was to be given to the poor, strangers, William placed Cluny under the protection of saints Peter and Paul, with a powerful curse on anyone who should violate the charter. With the Pope across the Alps in Italy, this meant the monastery was essentially independent, in donating his hunting preserve in the forests of Burgundy, William released Cluny Abbey from all future obligation to him and his family other than prayer. Contemporary patrons normally retained a proprietary interest and expected to install their kinsmen as abbots, William appears to have made this arrangement with Berno, the first abbot, to free the new monastery from such secular entanglements and initiate the Cluniac Reforms. The Abbots of Cluny were statesmen on the stage and the monastery of Cluny was considered the grandest, most prestigious. The height of Cluniac influence was from the half of the 10th century through the early 12th. The first female members were admitted to the Order during the 11th century, Berno had adopted Benedicts interpretation of the Rule previously at Baume Abbey. Cluny was not known for the severity of its discipline or its asceticism, but the abbots of Cluny supported the revival of the papacy, the Cluniac establishment found itself closely identified with the Papacy. In the early 12th century, the order lost momentum under poor government and it was subsequently revitalized under Abbot Peter the Venerable, who brought lax priories back into line and returned to stricter discipline. Cluny reached its apogee of power and influence under Peter, as its monks became bishops, legates, and cardinals throughout France, but by the time Peter died, newer and more austere orders such as the Cistercians were generating the next wave of ecclesiastical reform. Outside monastic structures, the rise of English and French nationalism created a climate unfavourable to the existence of monasteries autocratically ruled by a head residing in Burgundy. The Papal Schism of 1378 to 1409 further divided loyalties, France recognizing a pope at Avignon and England one at Rome, interfered with the relations between Cluny and its dependent houses
Abbey of Cluny
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Cluny Abbey in 2004
Abbey of Cluny
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A view of the abbey
Abbey of Cluny
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Cluny III, reconstruction.
Abbey of Cluny
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Pope Callixtus II was elected at the
papal election, 1119 at Cluny.
46.
Cistercians
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A Cistercian is a member of the Cistercian Order (/sɪˈstɜːrʃən/, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist, a religious order of monks and nuns. They are variously called the Bernardines, after the highly influential St, the original emphasis of Cistercian life was on manual labour and self-sufficiency, and many abbeys have traditionally supported themselves through activities such as agriculture and brewing ales. Over the centuries, however, education and academic pursuits came to dominate the life of their monasteries, after that the followers of the older pattern of life became known as the Cistercians of the Original Observance. The term Cistercian, derives from Cistercium, the Latin name for the village of Cîteaux and it was in this village that a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme founded Cîteaux Abbey in 1098, with the goal of following more closely the Rule of Saint Benedict. The best known of them were Robert of Molesme, Alberic of Cîteaux and the English monk Stephen Harding, Bernard of Clairvaux entered the monastery in the early 1110s with 30 companions and helped the rapid proliferation of the order. By the end of the 12th century, the order had spread throughout France and into England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the keynote of Cistercian life was a return to literal observance of the Rule of St Benedict. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, especially field-work, Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Additionally, in relation to such as agriculture, hydraulic engineering and metallurgy. The monastery church of Cluny Abbey, the largest in Europe, had become wealthy from rents, tithes, feudal rights and pilgrims who passed through Cluniac houses on the Way of St. James. On March 21,1098, Roberts small group acquired a plot of marshland just south of Dijon called Cîteaux, during the first year, the monks set about constructing lodging areas and farming the lands of Cîteaux, making use of a nearby chapel for Mass. In Roberts absence from Molesme, however, the abbey had gone into decline, and Pope Urban II, the remaining monks of Cîteaux elected Alberic as their abbot, under whose leadership the abbey would find its grounding. Robert had been the idealist of the order, and Alberic was their builder, upon assuming the role of abbot, Alberic moved the site of the fledgling community near a brook a short distance away from the original site. Alberic discontinued the use of Benedictine black garments in the abbey and he returned the community to the original Benedictine ideal of manual work and prayer, dedicated to the ideal of charity and self sustenance. Alberic also forged an alliance with the Dukes of Burgundy, working out a deal with Duke Odo of Burgundy concerning the donation of a vineyard as well as stones with which they built their church. The church was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary on November 16,1106, on January 26,1108, Alberic died and was soon succeeded by Stephen Harding, the man responsible for carrying the order into its crucial phase. The order was fortunate that Stephen was an abbot of extraordinary gifts, and he framed the original version of the Cistercian Constitution or regulations, the Carta caritatis. Although this was revised on several occasions to meet needs, from the outset it emphasised a simple life of work, love, prayer. Cistercian abbeys also refused to admit children, allowing adults to choose their religious vocation for themselves – a practice later emulated by many of the older Benedictine houses
Cistercians
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St
Bernard of Clairvaux, one of the most influential early Cistercians
Cistercians
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The Cistercian
coat of arms
Cistercians
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Vietnamese Cistercian monks standing in a
cloister and wearing their
religious habits
Cistercians
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An illumination of
Stephen Harding (right) presenting a model of his church to the
Blessed Virgin Mary (Municipal Library, Dijon). Cîteaux, c. 1125. At this period Cistercian illumination was the most advanced in France, but within 25 years it was abandoned altogether under the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux.
47.
Clos de Vougeot
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Clos de Vougeot, also known as Clos Vougeot, is a wall-enclosed vineyard, a clos, in the Burgundy wine region, and an Appellation dorigine contrôlée for red wine from this vineyard. It was named for the River Vouge, which is in only a stream separating the village Vougeot from Chambolle-Musigny. At 50.6 hectares, Clos de Vougeot is the largest single vineyard in Côte de Nuits entitled to the grand cru designation, the Clos de Vougeot vineyard was created by Cistercian monks of Cîteaux Abbey, the orders mother abbey. The land making up the vineyard was purchased by the Cistercians, or donated to them, the initial vineyard consisted of donations in 1109 to 1115. The vineyard was complete, and a wall had been built around it and it served as the flagship vineyard of the Cistercians, and has been a highly recognised name for centuries. Château du Clos de Vougeot, situated inside the wall, was added in 1551 by rebuilding and enlarging a small chapel, from 1945, this building has served as headquarters of the Confrérie des Chevaliers du Tastevin. In the French Revolution, all vineyard possessions were taken from the church by the French state, in 1818, the château and vineyards of Clos de Vougeot was bought by Julien-Jules Ouvrard, who also bought the Romanée-Conti vineyard in 1819. Ouvrard later moved to Château de Gilly, another former Cistercian property, but continued to take in an interest in the vineyards of Clos de Vougeot, which was then a monopole. After Ouvrards death, Clos de Vougeot passed to his three heirs, but continued to be operated as a single property until 1889, when the heirs put it up for sale. It was bought by six Burgundy wine merchants, leading to a vineyard for the first time since its creation more than 700 years earlier. After that, the holdings have been subdivided by inheritance. In the early 2000s, Clos de Vougeot was split more than 80 owners. One of the 1889 vineyard buyers, Léonce Bocquet, also bought the château, in 1920, the château came into the hands of Etienne Camuzet, who was vineyard owner in Vosne-Romanée and politician. The vineyard is roughly rectangular, gently sloping from a corner in the northwest down toward the south, the château is situated in this corner. Since the vineyard is large and situated in a slope, it is not homogeneous from a point of view. The soils of Clos de Vougeot generally considered as giving the best wines are those surrounding the château in the top corner. The soils here are light chalky and gravelly soils on oolitic limestone and this part of the vineyard borders to the grand cru vineyards Musigny and Grands Échezeaux. The soils of the part of the vineyard consist of softer limestone with clay and some gravel
Clos de Vougeot
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Château de Clos de Vougeot
Clos de Vougeot
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One of the gates of the wall surrounding Clos de Vougeot
Clos de Vougeot
Clos de Vougeot
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A view inside the vineyard
France
