1.
Food energy
–
Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
Food energy
–
The nutritional information label on a pack of
Basmati rice in the United Kingdom
2.
Carbohydrate
–
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
Carbohydrate
–
Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
3.
Fat
–
Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
4.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the blocks of body tissue. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates,4 kcal per gram, in contrast, the most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, during human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the synthesis of the amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There are nine amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, there are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the essential amino acids in certain ratios, some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less complete sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants, meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegetarians and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins and it is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. Protein is a nutrient needed by the body for growth. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body, Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin, proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells, proteins are believed to increase performance in terms of athletics. Amino acids, the blocks of proteins, are used for building muscle tissue. Protein is only used as fuel when carbohydrates are low
Protein (nutrient)
–
Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
Protein (nutrient)
–
An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.
Protein (nutrient)
–
A child in Nigeria during the
Biafra War suffering from
kwashiorkor – one of the
three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries.
5.
Dietary element
–
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
Dietary element
–
Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by
mass above the scale and by
molarity below.
6.
Calcium
–
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
Calcium
–
Calcium, 20 Ca
Calcium
–
Travertine terraces
Pamukkale, Turkey
Calcium
–
'Ain Ghazal figure
Calcium
–
500 milligram calcium supplements made from
calcium carbonate
7.
Milligram
–
The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
Milligram
–
A domestic-quality one-kilogram weight made of
cast iron (the
credit card is for scale). The shape follows
OIML recommendation R52 for cast-iron hexagonal weights
Milligram
–
Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the measurand causes a distortion of the spring
Milligram
–
Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the weights.
Milligram
–
The Arago kilogram, an exact copy of the "Kilogramme des Archives" commissioned in 1821 by the US under supervision of French physicist
François Arago that served as the US's first kilogram standard of mass until 1889, when the US converted to primary metric standards and received its current kilogram prototypes, K4 and K20.
8.
Butter
–
Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
Butter
–
Butter at the Borough Market,
London
Butter
–
Butter is often served for spreading on bread with a
butter knife.
Butter
–
Churning cream into butter using a hand-held mixer.
Butter
–
Liquid
clarified butter
9.
Cream
–
Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
Cream
–
A milk bottle showing cream risen to the top
Cream
–
Stewed
nectarines and heavy cream
Cream
–
Meiji whipping cream
10.
Soured milk
–
Soured milk is a food product produced by the acidification of milk. Acidification, which gives the milk a tart taste, is achieved either through the addition of an acid, such as lemon juice or vinegar, the acid causes milk to coagulate and thicken, inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria and improving the products shelf life. Soured milk that is produced by fermentation is more specifically called fermented milk or cultured milk. Modern commercial soured milk differs from milk that has become sour naturally, traditionally, soured milk was simply fresh milk that was left to ferment and sour by keeping it in a warm place for a day, often near a stove. The milk would become sour and then ferment, soured milk that is produced by the addition of an acid, with or without the addition of microbial organisms, is more specifically called acidified milk. It is also made at home or sold in supermarkets and consumed in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa and it is also a traditional food of the Bantu people of Southern Africa. Since the 1970s, some producers have used chemical acidification in place of biological agents, raw milk that has not gone sour is sometimes referred to as sweet milk, because it contains the sugar lactose. Fermentation converts the lactose to lactic acid, which has a sour flavor, before refrigeration, raw milk commonly became sour before it could be consumed, and various recipes incorporate such leftover milk as an ingredient. Modern food safety standards mean that milk that has gone sour is considered safe to drink, buttermilk is a common modern substitute for naturally soured milk
Soured milk
–
Soured milk
11.
Fermented dairy product
–
The fermentation process increases the shelf-life of the product, while enhancing the taste and improving the digestibility of milk. There is evidence that fermented milk products have produced since around 10,000 BC. A range of different Lactobacilli strains has been grown in laboratories allowing for a range of cultured milk products with different tastes. Many different types of cultured milk products can be found around the world, * Streptococcus lactis has been renamed to Lactococcus lactis subsp
Fermented dairy product
–
Dadiah is a traditional fermented milk of
West Sumatra,
Indonesia prepared with fresh,
raw and unheated
buffalo milk
12.
Lactic acid bacteria
–
These bacteria, usually found in decomposing plants and milk products, produce lactic acid as the major metabolic end product of carbohydrate fermentation. This trait has, throughout history, linked LAB with food fermentations, proteinaceous bacteriocins are produced by several LAB strains and provide an additional hurdle for spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Furthermore, lactic acid and other products contribute to the organoleptic. The lactic acid bacteria are either rod-shaped, or spherical, and are characterized by a tolerance to acidity. This aspect helps LAB to outcompete other bacteria in a natural fermentation, laboratory media used for LAB typically include a carbohydrate source, as most species are incapable of respiration. They consist of the organelles of a simple bacterial structure, LAB are amongst the most important groups of microorganisms used in the food industry. Two main hexose fermentation pathways are used to classify LAB genera, under conditions of excess glucose and limited oxygen, homolactic LAB catabolize one mole of glucose in the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway to yield two moles of pyruvate. Intracellular redox balance is maintained through the oxidation of NADH, concomitant with reduction to lactic acid. This process yields two moles of ATP per mole of glucose consumed, representative homolactic LAB genera include Lactococcus, Enterococcus, Streptococcus, Pediococcus, and group I lactobacilli. Heterofermentative LAB use the pentose phosphate pathway, alternatively referred to as the pentose phosphoketolase pathway, one mole of glucose-6-phosphate is initially dehydrogenated to 6-phosphogluconate and subsequently decarboxylated to yield one mole of CO2. The resulting pentose-5-phosphate is cleaved into one mole glyceraldehyde phosphate and one mole acetyl phosphate, GAP is further metabolized to lactate as in homofermentation, with the acetyl phosphate reduced to ethanol via acetyl-CoA and acetaldehyde intermediates. In theory, end products are produced in quantities from the catabolism of one mole of glucose. Obligate heterofermentative LAB include Leuconostoc, Oenococcus, Weissella, and group III lactobacilli, formerly, streptococci were segregated primarily based on serology, which has proven to correlate well with the current taxonomic definitions. Lactococci are used extensively as fermentation starters in dairy production, with humans estimated to consume 1018 lactococci annually, partly due to their industrial relevance, both L. lactis subspecies are widely used as generic LAB models for research. L. lactis ssp. cremoris, used in the production of cheeses, is represented by the laboratory strains LM0230. In similar manner, L. lactis ssp. lactis is employed in soft cheese fermentations, in 2001, Bolotin et al. sequenced the genome of IL1403, which coincided with a significant shift of resources to understanding LAB genomics and related applications. The relationship between bacteriophages and their hosts is very important in the context of the food fermentation industry. Sources of phage contamination, measures to control their propagation and dissemination, the first contact between an infecting phage and its bacterial host is the attachment of the phage to the host cell
Lactic acid bacteria
–
Lactobacillales
Lactic acid bacteria
–
Streptococcus
13.
Lactococcus lactis
–
They have a homofermentative metabolism and have been reported to produce exclusive L--lactic acid. However, reported D--lactic acid can be produced when cultured at low pH, the capability to produce lactic acid is one of the reasons why L. lactis is one of the most important microorganisms in the dairy industry. Based on its history in food fermentation, L. lactis has generally recognized as safe status with few case reports of being an opportunistic pathogen, L. lactis is of crucial importance for manufacturing dairy products, such as buttermilk and cheeses. When L. lactis ssp. lactis is added to milk, the byproduct of ATP energy production is lactic acid. The lactic acid produced by the bacterium curdles the milk that then separates to form curds, L. lactis is one of the best characterized low GC Gram positive bacteria with detailed knowledge on genetics, metabolism and biodiversity. L. lactis is mainly isolated from either the environment or plant material. Dairy isolates are suggested to have evolved from plant isolates through a process in which genes without benefit in the rich medium milk were either lost or down-regulated and this process, also called genome erosion or reductive evolution is also described in several other lactic acid bacteria. The proposed transition from the plant to the environment was reproduced in the laboratory through experimental evolution of a plant isolate that was cultivated in milk for a prolonged period. Consistent with the results from comparative genomics this resulted in L. lactis losing or down-regulating genes which are dispensable in milk, hundreds of novel small RNAs were identified by Meulen et al. in the genome of L. lactis MG1363. One of them, LLnc147 was shown to be involved carbon uptake, lactis is used in the early stages for the production of many cheeses, including brie, camembert, Cheddar, Colby, Gruyère, Parmesan, and Roquefort. The state Assembly of Wisconsin, also the number one cheese-producing state in the United States and it would have been the first and only such designation by a state legislature in the nation, however the legislation was not picked up by the Senate. The use of L. lactis in dairy factories is not without issues, bacteriophages specific to L. lactis cause significant economic losses each year by preventing the bacteria from fully metabolizing the milk substrate. Several epidemiologic studies showed the phages mainly responsible for these losses are from the species 936, c2, type strain of Lactococcus lactis at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Lactococcus lactis
–
Lactococcus lactis
14.
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
–
Bulgaricus is one of several bacteria used for the production of yogurt. It is also found in naturally fermented products. First identified in 1905 by the Bulgarian doctor Stamen Grigorov, the bacterium feeds on lactose to lactic acid. The bacterium is also grown artificially in many other countries and it is a gram-positive rod that may appear long and filamentous. It is non-motile and does not form spores and it is regarded as aciduric or acidophilic, since it requires a low pH to grow effectively. The bacterium has complex nutritional requirements, bulgaricus is commonly used alongside Streptococcus thermophilus as a starter for making yogurt. The two species work in synergy, with L. d. bulgaricus producing amino acids from milk proteins, both species produce lactic acid, which gives yogurt its tart flavor and acts as a preservative. The resulting decrease in pH also partially coagulates the proteins, such as casein. While fermenting milk, L. d. bulgaricus produces acetaldehyde, some strains of L. d. bulgaricus, such as L. bulgaricus GLB44, also produce bacteriocins, which have been shown to kill undesired bacteria in vitro. Some of the biggest importers of the bacterium are Japan, the USA, and it has also been considered a contaminant of beer due to its homofermentative production of lactic acid, an off-flavor in many styles of beer. In other styles of beer, however, lactic acid bacteria can contribute to the appearance, aroma, taste, and/or mouthfeel. Bulgaricus was first identified in 1905 by Stamen Grigorov, who named it Bacillus bulgaricus, ilya Metchnikoff, a professor at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, researched the relationship between the longevity of Bulgarians and their consumption of yogurt. He had the idea that aging is caused by activity, or proteolysis. Proteolytic bacteria such as clostridia, which are part of the intestinal flora, produce toxic substances including phenols, ammonia. It was already known at time that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria inhibits the deterioration of milk because of its low pH. Lactobacillus bulgaricus is a constituent in VSL#3 and this proprietary, standardized, formulation of live bacteria may be used in combination with conventional therapies to treat ulcerative colitis and requires a prescription. Etude sur le lait fermenté comestible, le Kissélo-mléko de Bulgarie, revue Médicale de la Suisse Romande. Balows A, Truper HG, Dworkin M, Harder W, the Prokaryotes, A Handbook on the Biology of Bacteria
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
–
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
15.
Acidity
–
An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron, or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair. The first category of acids is the donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents, acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour, an aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as acid, while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic, common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and citric acid. As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids, in modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid. Modern definitions are concerned with the chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition, unless otherwise specified, hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions or protons in 1884, an Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid, an Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, in an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter
Acidity
–
Zinc, a typical metal, reacting with
hydrochloric acid, a typical acid
Acidity
–
Svante Arrhenius
Acidity
–
Hydrochloric acid (in
beaker) reacting with
ammonia fumes to produce
ammonium chloride (white smoke).
16.
Lactic acid
–
Lactic acid is an organic compound with the formula CH3CHCO2H. In its solid state, it is white and water-soluble, in its liquid state, it is clear. It is produced naturally and synthetically. With a hydroxyl group adjacent to the group, lactic acid is classified as an alpha-hydroxy acid. In the form of its base called lactate, it plays a role in several biochemical processes. In solution, it can ionize a proton from the carboxyl group, compared to acetic acid, its pKa is 1 unit less, meaning lactic acid deprotonates ten times more easily than acetic acid does. This higher acidity is the consequence of the hydrogen bonding between the α-hydroxyl and the carboxylate group. Lactic acid is chiral, consisting of two optical isomers, one is known as L--lactic acid or -lactic acid and the other, its mirror image, is D--lactic acid or -lactic acid. A mixture of the two in equal amounts is called DL-lactic acid, or racemic lactic acid, DL-lactic acid is miscible with water and with ethanol above its melting point which is around 17 or 18 °C. D-lactic acid and L-lactic acid have a melting point. In animals, L-lactate is constantly produced from pyruvate via the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase in a process of fermentation during normal metabolism and exercise. The concentration of lactate is usually 1–2 mmol/L at rest. In industry, lactic acid fermentation is performed by lactic acid bacteria and these bacteria can also grow in the mouth, the acid they produce is responsible for the tooth decay known as caries. In medicine, lactate is one of the components of lactated Ringers solution. These intravenous fluids consist of sodium and potassium cations along with lactate and chloride anions in solution with distilled water and it is most commonly used for fluid resuscitation after blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or burns. Lactic acid was isolated for the first time by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1780 from sour milk, the name reflects the lact- combining form derived from the Latin word for milk. In 1808, Jöns Jacob Berzelius discovered that lactic acid also is produced in muscles during exertion and its structure was established by Johannes Wislicenus in 1873. In 1856, Louis Pasteur discovered Lactobacillus and its role in the making of lactic acid, lactic acid started to be produced commercially by the German pharmacy Boehringer Ingelheim in 1895
Lactic acid
–
DL -Lactic acid
Lactic acid
17.
Fermentation (biochemistry)
–
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, Fermentation is also used more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium, often with the goal of producing a specific chemical product. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur is often remembered for his insights into fermentation, the science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation takes place when the transport chain is unusable. In this case it becomes the primary means of ATP production. Fermentation turns NADH and pyruvate produced in glycolysis into NAD+. In the presence of O2, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration and this is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, cells generally benefit from avoiding fermentation when oxygen is available, the exception being obligate anaerobes which cannot tolerate oxygen. The first step, glycolysis, is common to all fermentation pathways, two ADP molecules and two Pi are converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation. Two molecules of NAD+ are also reduced to NADH, in oxidative phosphorylation the energy for ATP formation is derived from an electrochemical proton gradient generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane via the electron transport chain. Humans have used fermentation to produce drinks and beverages since the Neolithic age, Fermentation can even occur within the stomachs of animals, such as humans. To many people, fermentation simply means the production of alcohol, grains and fruits are fermented to produce beer, if a food soured, one might say it was off or fermented. Here are some definitions of fermentation and they range from informal, general usage to more scientific definitions. Preservation methods for food via microorganisms, any process that produces alcoholic beverages or acidic dairy products. Any large-scale microbial process occurring with or without air, any energy-releasing metabolic process that takes place only under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation does not necessarily have to be carried out in an anaerobic environment, for example, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, yeast cells greatly prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration, as long as sugars are readily available for consumption. The antibiotic activity of hops also inhibits aerobic metabolism in yeast, Fermentation reacts NADH with an endogenous, organic electron acceptor. Usually this is formed from the sugar during the glycolysis step. Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of products are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide
Fermentation (biochemistry)
–
Fermentation in progress: Bubbles of
CO2 form a froth on top of the fermentation mixture.
Fermentation (biochemistry)
–
Louis Pasteur in his laboratory
18.
Lactose
–
Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of galactose and glucose that is found in milk. Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk, although the amount varies among species and individuals and it is extracted from sweet or sour whey. The name comes from lac, the Latin word for milk and it has a formula of C12H22O11 and the hydrate formula C12H22O11·H2O, making it an isomer of sucrose. The first crude isolation of lactose, by Italian physician Fabrizio Bartoletti, was published in 1633, in 1700, the Venetian pharmacist Lodovico Testi published a booklet of testimonials to the power of milk sugar to relieve, among other ailments, the symptoms of arthritis. In 1715, Testis procedure for making milk sugar was published by Antonio Vallisneri, lactose was identified as a sugar in 1780 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. In 1812, Heinrich Vogel recognized that glucose was a product of hydrolyzing lactose, in 1856, Louis Pasteur crystallized the other component of lactose, galactose. By 1894, Emil Fischer had established the configurations of the component sugars, lactose was named by the French chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas in 1843. Lactose is a derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose. Lactose is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose, isomerised in alkaline solution to lactulose, lactose monohydrate crystals have a characteristic tomahawk shape that can be observed with a light microscope. Several million tons are produced annually as a by-product of the dairy industry, whey is made up of 6. 5% solids of which 4. 8% is lactose that may be purified by crystallisation. Whey or milk plasma is the liquid remaining after milk is curdled and strained, lactose makes up about 2–8% of milk by weight. Industrially, lactose is produced from whey permeate – that is whey filtrated for all major proteins, the protein fraction is used in infant nutrition and sport nutrition while the permeate can be evaporated to 60–65% solids and crystallized while cooling. Lactose can also be precipitated from whey using ethanol, since it is insoluble in ethanol, lactose precipitates, in about 65% yield. Infant mammals nurse on their mothers to drink milk, which is rich in lactose, the intestinal villi secrete the enzyme called lactase to digest it. This enzyme cleaves the molecule into its two subunits, the simple sugars glucose and galactose, which can be absorbed. Since lactose occurs mostly in milk, in most mammals, the production of lactase gradually decreases with maturity due to a lack of continuing consumption. Many people with ancestry in Europe, West Asia, South Asia, the Sahel belt in West Africa, East Africa, in many of these areas, milk from mammals such as cattle, goats, and sheep is used as a large source of food. Hence, it was in these regions that genes for lifelong lactase production first evolved, the genes of adult lactose tolerance have evolved independently in various ethnic groups
Lactose
–
Chemistry
Lactose
–
Lactose (milk sugar)
19.
PH
–
In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
PH
–
Lemon juice tastes sour because it contains 5% to 6%
citric acid, which has a pH of 2.2.
PH
–
Chart showing the variation of color of universal indicator paper with pH
PH
–
pH values of some common substances
20.
Casein
–
Casein is the name for a family of related phosphoproteins. These proteins are found in mammalian milk, making up 80% of the proteins in cows milk. Casein has a variety of uses, from being a major component of cheese, to use as a food additive. As a food source, casein supplies amino acids, carbohydrates, casein contains a high number of proline residues, which do not interact. There are also no disulfide bridges, as a result, it has relatively little tertiary structure. It is relatively hydrophobic, making it soluble in water. However, in sharp contrast to surfactant micelles, the interior of a micelle is highly hydrated. The caseins in the micelles are held together by calcium ions, any of several molecular models could account for the special conformation of casein in the micelles. One of them proposes the micellar nucleus is formed by several submicelles, another model suggests the nucleus is formed by casein-interlinked fibrils. Finally, the most recent model proposes a link among the caseins for gelling to take place. All three models consider micelles as colloidal particles formed by casein aggregates wrapped up in soluble κ-casein molecules, the isoelectric point of casein is 4.6. Since milks pH is 6.6, casein has a charge in milk. While it is insoluble in neutral salt solutions, it is readily dispersible in dilute alkalis and in salt solutions such as aqueous sodium oxalate. The enzyme trypsin can hydrolyze a phosphate-containing peptone and it is used to form a type of organic adhesive. Casein paint is a fast-drying, water-soluble medium used by artists and it is still widely used by scene painters, although acrylic has made inroads in that field as well. Casein-based glues, formulated from casein, water, hydrated lime and sodium hydroxide were popular for woodworking, including for aircraft, casein glue is also used in transformer manufacturing due to its oil permeability. While largely replaced with synthetic resins, casein-based glues still have a use in niche applications, such as laminating fireproof doors. Cheese consists of proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats and it is produced by coagulation of casein
Casein
–
Casein preparation in an old etching operation in Müllheim
Casein
–
Cheesemaking
21.
Precipitation (chemistry)
–
Precipitation is the creation of a solid from a solution. When the reaction occurs in a solution, the solid formed is called the precipitate. The chemical that causes the solid to form is called the precipitant, without sufficient force of gravity to bring the solid particles together, the precipitate remains in suspension. After sedimentation, especially when using a centrifuge to press it into a compact mass, Precipitation can be used as a medium. The precipitate-free liquid remaining above the solid is called the supernate or supernatant, powders derived from precipitation have also historically been known as flowers. When the solid appears in the form of fibers which have been through chemical processing. Sometimes the formation of a precipitate indicates the occurrence of a chemical reaction, if silver nitrate solution is poured into a solution of sodium chloride, a chemical reaction occurs forming a white precipitate of silver chloride. When potassium iodide solution reacts with lead nitrate solution, a precipitate of lead iodide is formed. Precipitation may occur if the concentration of a compound exceeds its solubility, Precipitation may occur rapidly from a supersaturated solution. Precipitation in solids is routinely used to synthesize nanoclusters, an important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of nucleation. The creation of a solid particle includes the formation of an interface, which requires some energy based on the relative surface energy of the solid. If this energy is not available, and no suitable nucleation surface is available, Precipitation reactions can be used for making pigments, removing salts from water in water treatment, and in classical qualitative inorganic analysis. Precipitation is also useful to isolate the products of a reaction during workup, ideally, the product of the reaction is insoluble in the reaction solvent. Thus, it precipitates as it is formed, preferably forming pure crystals, an example of this would be the synthesis of porphyrins in refluxing propionic acid. Thereafter, the precipitate may easily be separated by filtration, decanting, an example would be the synthesis of chromic tetraphenylporphyrin chloride, water is added to the DMF reaction solution, and the product precipitates. Precipitation is also useful in purifying products, crude bmim-Cl is taken up in acetonitrile, and dropped into ethyl acetate, another important application of an antisolvent is in ethanol precipitation of DNA. In metallurgy, precipitation from a solution is also a useful way to strengthen alloys. An example of a reaction, Aqueous silver nitrate is added to a solution containing potassium chloride
Precipitation (chemistry)
–
Crystals of meso -tetratolylporphyrin from a
reflux of
propanoic acid precipitate on cooling
Precipitation (chemistry)
–
Chemical Precipitation
Precipitation (chemistry)
–
Copper from a wire
displaces silver in a silver nitrate solution it is dipped into, and solid silver precipitates out.
22.
Viscous
–
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the concept of thickness, for example. Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluids viscosity, a fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity, and are said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity, such as pitch. The word viscosity is derived from the Latin viscum, meaning mistletoe, the dynamic viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the situation known as a Couette flow. This fluid has to be homogeneous in the layer and at different shear stresses, if the speed of the top plate is small enough, the fluid particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u at the top. Each layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it, in particular, the fluid will apply on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An external force is required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed. The magnitude F of this force is found to be proportional to the u and the area A of each plate. The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity of the fluid, the ratio u/y is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Isaac Newton expressed the forces by the differential equation τ = μ ∂ u ∂ y, where τ = F/A. This formula assumes that the flow is moving along parallel lines and this equation can be used where the velocity does not vary linearly with y, such as in fluid flowing through a pipe. Use of the Greek letter mu for the dynamic viscosity is common among mechanical and chemical engineers. However, the Greek letter eta is used by chemists, physicists
Viscous
–
Pitch has a viscosity approximately 230 billion (2.3 × 10 11) times that of water.
Viscous
–
A simulation of substances with different viscosities. The substance above has lower viscosity than the substance below
Viscous
–
Example of the viscosity of milk and water. Liquids with higher viscosities make smaller splashes when poured at the same velocity.
Viscous
–
Honey being drizzled.
23.
Soda bread
–
Soda bread is a variety of quick bread traditionally made in a variety of cuisines in which sodium bicarbonate is used as a leavening agent instead of the traditional yeast. The ingredients of traditional soda bread are flour, bread soda, salt, the buttermilk in the dough contains lactic acid, which reacts with the baking soda to form tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide. Other ingredients can be added such as butter, egg, raisins, an advantage of quick breads is their ability to be prepared quickly and reliably, without requiring the time-consuming skilled labor and temperature control needed for traditional yeast breads. In the US, soda breads were first publicised by Amelia Simmons as a quick and cheap method of making in her book American Cookery. By 1824, The Virginia Housewife by Mary Randolph was published containing a recipe for Soda Cake, in Europe, soda breads began to appear in the mid-19th century when bicarbonate of soda first became available for use as a raising agent. Breads, griddle cakes and scones with bicarbonate of soda, plus cream of tartar or tartaric acid became popular in Austria, Britain, traditional soda bread, eaten in Serbian cuisine, also uses bicarbonate of soda, particularly the traditional česnica, a soda bread made at Christmas. In Ireland, the flour is made from soft wheat, so soda bread is best made with a cake or pastry flour. In some recipes, the buttermilk is replaced by live yogurt or even stout, because the leavening action starts immediately, bakers recommend the minimum amount of mixing of the ingredients before baking, the dough should not be kneaded. Various forms of bread are popular throughout Ireland. Soda breads are made using wholemeal, white flour, or both, in Ulster, the wholemeal variety is usually known as wheaten bread and is normally sweetened, while the term soda bread is restricted to the white savoury form. In the southern provinces of Ireland, the variety is usually known as brown bread and is almost identical to the Ulster wheaten. In some parts of Fermanagh, the white form of the bread is described as fadge. The griddle cakes, griddle bread take a more rounded shape and have a cut in the top to allow the bread to expand. The griddle cake or farl is a flattened type of bread. It is cooked on a griddle, allowing it to take a flat shape. The soda farl is one of the elements of the Ulster fry. Bannocks are flat cakes of barley or oatmeal dough formed into a round or oval shape, the most authentic versions are unleavened, but from the early 19th century bannocks have been made using baking powder, or a combination of baking soda and buttermilk or clabbered milk. Before the 19th century, bannocks were cooked on a bannock stone, several varieties of bannock include Selkirk bannocks, beremeal bannocks, Michaelmas bannock, Yetholm bannock, and Yule bannock
Soda bread
–
A soda
farl; made by cutting a flattened round of dough into four pieces, then baking.
Soda bread
–
Whole wheat soda bread (known as wheaten bread in parts of
Ireland)
Soda bread
–
Home-made Irish brown soda bread
Soda bread
–
Members of a Serbian family break soda bread [
citation needed] or
česnica at a Christmas dinner
24.
Leavening agent
–
A leaven /ˈlɛvən/, often called a leavening agent /ˈlɛvənɪŋ/, is any one of a number of substances used in doughs and batters that cause a foaming action that lightens and softens. An alternative or supplement to leavening agents is an action by which air is incorporated. Leavening agents can be biological or synthetic chemical compounds, the gas produced is often carbon dioxide, or occasionally hydrogen, or another. When a dough or batter is mixed, the starch in the flour, then the starch gelatinizes and sets, leaving gas bubbles that remain. Most are based on a combination of acid and a salt of bicarbonate, after they act, these compounds leave behind a chemical salt. Chemical leavens are used in breads and cakes, as well as cookies. Chemical leavening were publicized by Amelia Simmons in her American Cookery, published in 1796 and these are generally referred to as baking powders. Sour milk and carbonates were used in the 1800s, the breakthrough in chemical leavening agents occurred in the 1930s with the introduction of monocalcium phosphates. Other leavening agents developed include sodium sulfate, disodium pyrophosphate. These compounds combine with sodium bicarbonate to give carbon dioxide in a predictable manner, steam and air are used as leavening agents when they expand upon heating. To take advantage of this style of leavening, the baking must be done at high temperatures to flash the water to steam. This effect is used in popovers, Yorkshire puddings. Nitrous oxide is used as a propellant in aerosol whip cream cans, large densities of N2O are dissolved in cream at high pressure. When expelled from the can, the nitrous oxide escapes emulsion instantly, creaming is the process of beating sugar crystals and solid fat together in a mixer. This integrates tiny air bubbles into the mixture, since the sugar crystals physically cut through the structure of the fat, creamed mixtures are usually further leavened by a chemical leaven like baking soda. This is often used in cookies, using a whisk on certain liquids, notably cream or egg whites, can also create foams through mechanical action. This is the method employed in the making of sponge cakes, the process has nevertheless been adapted by industrial bakers in other parts of the world. Aerated Bread Company, bakeries started in 1862 in the UK that made carbon dioxide leavened bread Baking powder Chametz Unleavened bread Matz, S. Bakery Technology and Engineering, wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Leavening agent
Leavening agent
–
Types
25.
Marination
–
Marination is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. The origin of the word alludes to the use of brine in the pickling process, the liquid in question, the marinade, can be either acidic or enzymatic. In addition to ingredients, a marinade often contains oils, herbs. It is commonly used to flavor foods and to tenderize tougher cuts of meat, the process may last seconds or days. Different marinades are used in different cuisines, for example, in Indian cuisine the marinade is usually prepared with a mixture of spices. In meats, the causes the tissue to break down. A good marinade has a balance of acid, oil, if raw marinated meat is frozen, the marinade can break down the surface and turn the outer layer mushy. Often confused with marinating, macerating is a form of food preparation. Raw pork, seafood, beef and poultry may contain harmful bacteria which may contaminate the marinade, marinating should be done in the refrigerator to inhibit bacterial growth. Used marinade should not be made into a sauce unless rendered safe by boiling directly before use, otherwise, the container used for marinating should be glass or food safe plastic. Metal, including pottery glazes which can lead, reacts with the acid in the marinade
Marination
–
Chicken in marinade
Marination
–
Beef marinating for a Korean barbecue dish
Marination
–
Poultry and game
Marination
26.
Chicken (food)
–
Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. In developed countries, chickens are usually subject to intensive farming methods, the modern chicken is a descendant of red junglefowl hybrids along with the grey junglefowl first raised thousands of years ago in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Chicken as a meat has been depicted in Babylonian carvings from around 600 BC, Chicken was one of the most common meats available in the Middle Ages. It was eaten over most of the Eastern hemisphere and a number of different kinds of such as capons, pullets. It was one of the ingredients in the so-called white dish. In the United States in the 1800s, chicken was more expensive than other meats, Chicken consumption in the United States increased during World War II due to a shortage of beef and pork. In Europe, consumption of chicken overtook that of beef and veal in 1996, modern varieties of chicken such as the Cornish Cross, are bred specifically for meat production, with an emphasis placed on the ratio of feed to meat produced by the animal. The most common breeds of chicken consumed in the US are Cornish, chickens raised specifically for food are called broilers. In the United States, broilers are typically butchered at a young age, modern Cornish Cross hybrids, for example, are butchered as early as 8 weeks for fryers and 12 weeks for roasting birds. Capons produce more and fattier meat, for this reason, they are considered a delicacy and were particularly popular in the Middle Ages. Main Breast, These are white meat and are relatively dry, leg, Comprises two segments, The drumstick, this is dark meat and is the lower part of the leg, the thigh, also dark meat, this is the upper part of the leg. Wing, Often served as a meal or bar food. Buffalo wings are a typical example, Comprises three segments, the drumette, shaped like a small drumstick, the middle flat segment, containing two bones, and the tip, sometimes discarded. Other Chicken feet, These contain relatively little meat, and are mainly for the skin. Although considered exotic in Western cuisine, the feet are common fare in other cuisines, especially in the Caribbean, giblets, organs such as the heart, gizzards, and liver may be included inside a butchered chicken or sold separately. Head, Considered a delicacy in China, the head is split down the middle, kidneys, Normally left in when a broiler carcass is processed, they are found in deep pockets on each side of the vertebral column. Neck, This is served in various Asian dishes and it is stuffed to make helzel among Ashkenazi Jews. Oysters, Located on the back, near the thigh, these small, pygostyle and testicles, These are commonly eaten in East Asia and some parts of South East Asia
Chicken (food)
–
Oven-roasted rosemary and lemon chicken
Chicken (food)
–
Chicken fry
Chicken (food)
–
Chicken in a public market
Chicken (food)
–
A poussin, or juvenile chicken
27.
Pork
–
Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail
Pork
–
Pork belly cut, shows layers of muscle and fats
Pork
Pork
–
Slow-roasting pig on a
rotisserie
Pork
–
Pork being prepared in
France during the mid-19th century
28.
Churning (butter)
–
Churning is the process of shaking up cream to make butter, and various forms of butter churn have been used for the purpose. In Europe from the Middle Ages until the Industrial Revolution, this was generally as simple as a barrel with a plunger in it, afterward, mechanical means of churning were usually substituted and are considered to be far better. Butter is essentially the fat of milk and it is usually made from sweet cream. In the USA, Ireland, the UK and the Nordic countries, unsalted butters are most commonly used in the rest of Europe. However, it can also be made from acidulated or bacteriologically soured cream, well into the 19th century butter was still made from cream that had been allowed to stand and sour naturally. The cream was then skimmed from the top of the milk, buttermaking was done by hand in butter churns. The natural souring process is, however, a sensitive one. The commercial cream separator was introduced at the end of the 19th century, changing whole milk to butter is a process of transforming a fat-in-water emulsion to a water-in-fat emulsion. Whole milk is an emulsion of tiny fat globules surrounded by lipoprotein membranes that keep the fat globules separate from one another. Butter is made from cream that has separated from whole milk and then cooled. However, making good butter also depends upon factors, such as the fat content of the cream. The process can be summarized in 3 steps, Churning physically agitates the cream until it ruptures the fragile membranes surrounding the milk fat, once broken, the fat droplets can join with each other and form clumps of fat. As churning continues, larger clusters of fat collect until they begin to form a network with the air bubbles that are generated by the churning, as the fat clumps increase in size, there are also fewer to enclose the air cells. So the bubbles pop, run together, and the foam begins to leak, the cream separates into butter and buttermilk. The buttermilk is drained off, and the butter is kneaded to form a network of fat crystals that becomes the continuous phase, or dispersion medium. Working the butter also creates its desired smoothness, eventually, the water droplets become so finely dispersed in the fat that butter’s texture seems dry. Then it is frozen into cubes, then melted, then again into bigger chunks to sell. Butter churns have varied over time as technology and materials have changed, Butter was first made by placing the cream in a container made from animal material and shaking until the milk has broken down into butter
Churning (butter)
–
Farmer girl churning butter
Churning (butter)
–
Butter churner pot
Churning (butter)
–
A barrel-type butter churn.
Churning (butter)
–
Churn with plunger Ethnographic Museum of Western Liguria, Cervo, Italy
29.
Pasteurized
–
Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process that kills microbes in food and drink, such as milk, juice, canned food, and others. It was invented by French scientist Louis Pasteur during the nineteenth century, in 1864 Pasteur discovered that heating beer and wine was enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused spoilage, preventing these beverages from turning sour. The process achieves this by eliminating pathogenic microbes and lowering microbial numbers to prolong the quality of the beverage, today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries to achieve food preservation and food safety. Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food, instead, it aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease. Commercial-scale sterilization of food is not common because it affects the taste. Certain foods, such as products, may be superheated to ensure pathogenic microbes are destroyed. The process of heating wine for preservation purposes has been known in China since 1117, much later, in 1768, an Italian priest and scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani proved experimentally that heat killed bacteria, and that they do not reappear if the product is hermetically sealed. He placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax, in that same year, the French military offered a cash prize of 12,000 francs for a new method to preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810, later that year, Appert published LArt de conserver les substances animales et végétales. This was the first cookbook of its kind on modern food preservation methods, la Maison Appert, in the town of Massy, near Paris, became the first food-bottling factory in the world, preserving a variety of food in sealed bottles. Apperts method was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and fowl to eggs, milk and his greatest success for publicity was an entire sheep. He left air space at the top of the bottle, the bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it, while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called appertisation, in his honor, Apperts method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, British inventor and merchant Peter Durand, also of French origin, patented his own method, in 1812, Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves. Just a decade later, Apperts method of canning had made its way to America, Apperts preservation by boiling involved heating the food to an unnecessarily high temperature, and for an unnecessarily long time, which could destroy some of the flavor of the preserved food. A less aggressive method was developed by the French chemist Louis Pasteur during an 1864 summer holiday in Arbois, in honour of Pasteur, the process became known as pasteurization. Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring, in the United States in the 1870s, it was common for milk to contain substances intended to mask spoilage before milk was regulated. Milk is an excellent medium for growth, and when stored at ambient temperature bacteria
Pasteurized
–
Cream pasteurizing and cooling coils at Murgon Butter Factory, 1939
Pasteurized
–
400 lbs of milk in cheese vat
30.
Homogenization (chemistry)
–
Homogenization or homogenisation is any of several processes used to make a mixture of two mutually non-soluble liquids the same throughout. This is achieved by turning one of the liquids into a state consisting of small particles distributed uniformly throughout the other liquid. A typical example is the homogenization of milk, where the fat globules are reduced in size. Homogenization is the process of converting two immiscible liquids into an emulsion, homogenization is achieved by a mechanical device called a homogenizer. One of the oldest applications of homogenization is in milk processing and it is normally preceded by standardization. The fat in milk normally separates from the water and collects at the top, homogenization breaks the fat into smaller sizes so it no longer separates, allowing the sale of non-separating milk at any fat specification. Milk homogenization is accomplished by mixing massive amounts of harvested milk to create a constant, yet another method of homogenization uses extruders, hammermills, or colloid mills to mill solids. Milk homogenization is a tool of the milk food industry to prevent creating various levels of flavor. Another application of homogenization is in soft drinks like cola products, the reactant mixture is rendered to intense homogenization, to as much as 35,000 psi, so that various constituents do not separate out during storage or distribution. Ultrasonic homogenizer Shake well French pressure cell press Homogenizer Cell disruption Explanation of the technology along with theories on how the mechanism actually works
Homogenization (chemistry)
–
Homogenizing valve, a method to homogenize at high pressure.
31.
Inoculation
–
The terms inoculation, vaccination, immunization and injection are often used synonymously to refer to artificial induction of immunity against various infectious diseases. This is supported by some dictionaries, however, there are some important historical and current differences. In English medicine, inoculation referred only to the prevention of smallpox until the very early 1800s, when Edward Jenner introduced smallpox vaccine in 1798, this was initially called cowpox inoculation or vaccine inoculation. Soon, to avoid confusion, smallpox inoculation was referred to as variolation, then, in 1891 Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms vaccine and vaccination should be extended to include the new protective procedures being developed. Immunization refers to the use of all vaccines but also extends to the use of antitoxin, Inoculation is now more or less synonymous in nontechnical usage with injection etc. and the question e. g. Have you had your flu injection/vaccination/inoculation/immunization, the focus is on what is being given and why, not the literal meaning of the technique used. Inoculation also has a meaning for procedures done in vitro. In almost all cases the material inoculated is called the inoculum, or less commonly the inoculant, the term inoculation entered medical English through horticultural usage meaning to graft a bud from one plant into another. It is derived from the Latin in + oculus, though innoculation/innoculate is sometimes seen, this is incorrect, possibly erroneously thought to be related to innocuous, which is derived from the Latin in + nocuus. Inoculation originated as a method for the prevention of smallpox by deliberate introduction of material from smallpox pustules into the skin and this generally produced a less severe infection than naturally-acquired smallpox, but still induced immunity to it. This first method for smallpox prevention, smallpox inoculation, is now known as variolation. The earliest hints of the practice of inoculation for smallpox in China come during the 10th century, however, the sinologist Joseph Needham states that this information comes from the Zhongdou xinfa written in 1808 by Zhu Yiliang, centuries after the alleged events. Inoculation was first vividly described by Yu Chang in his book Yuyi cao, or Notes on My Judgment and this was called to implant the sprouts, an idea of transplanting the disease which fit their conception of beansprouts in germination. Wrap the scabs carefully in paper and put them into a small container bottle, cork it tightly so that the activity is not dissipated. The container must not be exposed to sunlight or warmed beside a fire and it is best to carry it for some time on the person so that the scabs dry naturally and slowly. The container should be marked clearly with the date on which the contents were taken from the patient, in winter, the material has yang potency within it, so it remains active even after being kept from thirty to forty days. But in summer the yang potency will be lost in approximately twenty days, According to Voltaire, the Turks derived their use of inoculation to neighbouring Circassia. This pustule produces the effect in the arm it is laid in as yeast in a piece of dough, it ferments
Inoculation
–
Mary Wortley Montagu, by
Charles Jervas, after 1716
Inoculation
–
Comparison of smallpox (left) and cowpox (right) inoculations 16 days after administration
32.
Ice cream
–
Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It is usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream and it is typically sweetened with sugar or sugar substitutes. Typically, flavourings and colourings are added in addition to stabilizers, the mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at low temperatures. It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases, the meaning of the phrase ice cream varies from one country to another. Phrases such as frozen custard, frozen yogurt, sorbet, gelato, products that do not meet the criteria to be called ice cream are labelled frozen dairy dessert instead. In other countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants, analogues made from dairy alternatives, such as goats or sheeps milk, or milk substitutes, are available for those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. Ice cream may be served in dishes, for eating with a spoon, or in cones, Ice cream may be served with other desserts, such as apple pie. Ice cream is used to other desserts, including ice cream floats, sundaes, milkshakes, ice cream cakes and even baked items. During the 5th century BC, ancient Greeks ate snow mixed with honey, the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, encouraged his Ancient Greek patients to eat ice as it livens the life-juices and increases the well-being. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special chilled food, made of water and vermicelli. The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavours, a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC. The Roman Emperor Nero had ice brought from the mountains and combined it with fruit toppings to create chilled delicacies, in the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets. When Italian duchess Catherine de Medici married the Duke of Orléans in 1533, there is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century. The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latinis Lo Scalco alla Moderna. Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialots Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits, Massialots recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the consistency of sugar. Ice cream recipes first appeared in England in the 18th century, the recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Ealess Receipts in London in 1718
Ice cream
–
A
cocktail glass of ice cream, with
whipped cream and a wafer
Ice cream
–
A
yakhchal, an ancient type of ice house, in
Yazd,
Iran
Ice cream
–
Italian duchess
Catherine de' Medici, credited with introducing ice cream into Europe in the 16th century
Ice cream
–
Title page to The Art of Cookery by
Hannah Glasse
33.
Pancake mix
–
In Britain, pancakes are often unleavened and resemble a crêpe. In North America, an agent is used. American pancakes are similar to Scotch pancakes or drop scones, archaeological evidence suggests that pancakes were probably the earliest and most widespread cereal food eaten in prehistoric societies. The pancakes shape and structure varies worldwide, a crêpe is a thin Breton pancake of French origin cooked on one or both sides in a special pan or crepe maker to achieve a lacelike network of fine bubbles. When potato is used as a portion of the batter. Commercially prepared pancake mixes are available in some countries, Pancakes serve a similar function to waffles. In Britain and the Commonwealth, they are associated with Shrove Tuesday, commonly known as Pancake Day, the Ancient Greeks made pancakes called τηγανίτης, ταγηνίτης or ταγηνίας, all words deriving from τάγηνον, frying pan. The earliest attested references to tagenias are in the works of the 5th-century BC poets Cratinus, tagenites were made with wheat flour, olive oil, honey, and curdled milk, and were served for breakfast. Another kind of pancake was σταιτίτης, from σταίτινος, of flour or dough of spelt, derived from σταῖς, athenaeus mentions, in his Deipnosophistae, staititas topped with honey, sesame, and cheese. The Middle English word pancake appears in English in the 15th century, the Ancient Romans called their fried concoctions alia dulcia, Latin for other sweets. These were much different from what are known as pancakes today, Pancakes in the Horn of Africa are known as injera. Injera is a yeast-risen flatbread with a unique, slightly spongy texture, traditionally, it is made out of teff flour and is a national dish in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Canjeero, also known as lahooh or lahoh, is a kind of flatbread eaten in Somalia. In Eritrea and Ethiopia, injera are usually served with one or more known as wat or with salads or with other injera. The right hand is used to small pieces from the injera to use to pick up. The injera under these stews soaks up juices and flavours and, after the stews, injera thus acts simultaneously as food, eating utensil and plate. When the tablecloth formed by the injera is finished, the meal is over, lahoh is a pancake-like bread originating in Somalia, Djibouti and Yemen. It is often eaten along with honey, ghee and tea, during lunch, lahoh is sometimes consumed with curry, soup or stew
Pancake mix
–
Pancakes with cream and fruit
Pancake mix
–
Blueberry pancakes
Pancake mix
–
Okonomiyaki is a Japanese
savoury pancake containing a variety of ingredients.
Pancake mix
–
Æbleskiver being prepared
34.
Paneer
–
Paneer is a fresh cheese common in South Asia, especially in Indian, Pakistani, Afghan, Nepali, Sri Lankan, and Bangladeshi cuisines. It is an unaged, acid-set, non-melting farmer cheese or curd cheese made by curdling heated milk with lemon juice, vinegar and its crumbly and moist form is called chhena in eastern India and in Bangladesh. The word paneer is of Persian origin, the Turkish word peynir, the Persian word panir, the Azerbaijani word panir, and the Armenian word panir, all derived from paneer, refers to any type of cheese. The origin of paneer itself is debated, vedic Indian, Afghan-Iranian and Portuguese-Bengali origins have been proposed for paneer. Vedic literature refers to a substance that is interpreted by authors, such as Sanjeev Kapoor. According to Arthur Berriedale Keith, a kind of cheese is referred to in Rigveda 6.48.18. However, Otto Schrader believes that the Rigveda only mentions a skin of sour milk, based on texts such as Charaka Samhita, BN Mathur wrote that the earliest evidence of a heat-acid coagulated milk product in India can be traced to 75-300 CE, in the Kushan-Satavahana era. Interpret this product as the present-day paneer, according to them, paneer is indigenous to north-western part of South Asia, and was introduced in India by Afghan and Iranian travelers. Ghodekar of Indias National Dairy Research Institute also believed that paneer was introduced into India by Afghan and Iranian invaders, according to writers such as K. T. Achaya, Andrea S. Wiley and Pat Chapman, the Portuguese introduced the technique of breaking milk with acid to Bengal in the 17th century, thus, Indian acid-set cheeses such as paneer and chhena were first prepared in Bengal, under Portuguese influence. Paneer is prepared by adding food acid, such as juice, vinegar, citric acid or yogurt. The curds are drained in muslin or cheesecloth and the water is pressed out. The resulting paneer is dipped in chilled water for 2–3 hours to improve its texture, from this point, the preparation of paneer diverges based on its use and regional tradition. In most Nepalese cuisines, the curds are wrapped in cloth, pressing for a shorter time results in a softer, fluffier cheese. In Bengali and other east Indian cuisines, the curds are beaten or kneaded by hand into a dough-like consistency, in these regions, chhena is distinguished from paneer, a salty semi-hard cheese with a sharper flavor and high salt content. Hard ponir is typically eaten in slices at teatime with biscuits or various types of bread, in the area surrounding the Gujarati city of Surat, Surti Paneer is made by draining the curds and ripening them in whey for 12 to 36 hours. Paneer is the most common type of cheese used in traditional Indian, the use of paneer is more common in India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan. It is sometimes wrapped in dough and deep-fried or served with spinach or peas
Paneer
–
Paneer
Paneer
–
Mattar paneer, a vegetarian dish from India
Paneer
–
Saag paneer or
palak paneer, a spinach-based curry dish
Paneer
–
Panner Butter Masala
35.
Powdered milk
–
Powdered milk or dried milk is a manufactured dairy product made by evaporating milk to dryness. One purpose of drying milk is to preserve it, milk powder has a far longer shelf life than milk and does not need to be refrigerated. Another purpose is to reduce its bulk for economy of transportation, powdered milk and dairy products include such items as dry whole milk, nonfat dry milk, dry buttermilk, dry whey products and dry dairy blends. Many dairy products exported conform to standards laid out in Codex Alimentarius, many forms of milk powder are traded on exchanges. Powdered milk is used for food and health, and also in biotechnology, the first commercial production of dried milk was organized by the Russian chemist M. Dirchoff in 1832. In 1855, T. S. Grimwade took a patent on a dried milk procedure, in modern times, powdered milk is usually made by spray drying nonfat skimmed milk, whole milk, buttermilk or whey. Pasteurized milk is first concentrated in an evaporator to approximately 50% milk solids, the resulting concentrated milk is then sprayed into a heated chamber where the water almost instantly evaporates, leaving fine particles of powdered milk solids. Alternatively, the milk can be dried by drum drying, milk is applied as a thin film to the surface of a heated drum, and the dried milk solids are then scraped off. However, powdered milk made this way tends to have a cooked flavor, another process is freeze drying, which preserves many nutrients in milk, compared to drum drying. The drying method and the treatment of the milk as it is processed alters the properties of the milk powder, such as its solubility in cold water, its flavor. Powdered milk is widely used in various sweets such as the famous Indian milk balls known as gulab jamun. Powdered milk is also an item in UN food aid supplies, fallout shelters, warehouses. It is widely used in developing countries because of reduced transport. Like other dry foods, it is considered nonperishable, and is favored by survivalists, hikers, because of its resemblance to cocaine and other drugs, powdered milk is sometimes used in filmmaking as a non-toxic prop that may be insufflated. The weight of nonfat dry milk to use is about 10% of the water weight, alternatively, one cup of potable fluid milk from powdered milk requires one cup of potable water and one-third cup of powdered milk. Milk powders contain all twenty-one standard amino acids, the blocks of proteins. According to USAID, the typical amounts of major nutrients in the unreconstituted nonfat dry milk are 36% protein, 52% carbohydrates, calcium 1. 3%. Whole milk powder, on the hand, contains on average 25-27% protein, 36-38% carbohydrates, 26-40% fat
Powdered milk
–
Powdered milk
Powdered milk
–
Modified dry whole milk, fortified with
vitamin D. This is the original container from 1947, provided by the Ministry of Food in London, England
Powdered milk
–
Incolac powdered milk
Powdered milk
–
National household dried machine skimmed milk. This was U.S.-produced dry milk for food
export in June 1944.
36.
Baked goods
–
Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many types of foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred from the surface of cakes, cookies, as heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre. Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by using both methods simultaneously, or one after the other, Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit. Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally performed at home by women for domestic consumption and by men in bakeries. When production was industrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories, the art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common but important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker, all types of food can be baked, but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have developed to provide this protection. In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers, pretzels, and more. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are often roasted. Roasting, however, is suitable for finer cuts of meat. One of these is the known as en croûte, which protects the food from direct heat. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en croûte, the en croûte method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favourite method of cooking venison. In this case, the casing is made from a paste of flour. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten, another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking, is to cook it en papillote. In this method, the food is covered by baking paper to protect it while it is being baked, the cooked parcel of food is sometimes served unopened, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves which adds an element of surprise. Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury or sweet dishes, in combination with dairy products especially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For example, although a baked custard can be made using starch, baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an ovens direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose
Baked goods
–
Bedouins making and baking bread
Baked goods
–
Anders Zorn - Bread baking (1889)
Baked goods
–
A
Palestinian woman baking
markook bread on
tava or Saj oven in
Artas,
Bethlehem
Baked goods
–
A
terracotta baking mould for
pastry or
bread, representing goats and a lion attacking a cow. Early 2nd millennium BC, Royal palace at
Mari, Syria
37.
Fermented milk products
–
The fermentation process increases the shelf-life of the product, while enhancing the taste and improving the digestibility of milk. There is evidence that fermented milk products have produced since around 10,000 BC. A range of different Lactobacilli strains has been grown in laboratories allowing for a range of cultured milk products with different tastes. Many different types of cultured milk products can be found around the world, * Streptococcus lactis has been renamed to Lactococcus lactis subsp
Fermented milk products
–
Dadiah is a traditional fermented milk of
West Sumatra,
Indonesia prepared with fresh,
raw and unheated
buffalo milk
38.
Albania
–
Albania, officially the Republic of Albania, is a country in Southeastern Europe. It has a population of 3.03 million as of 2016, Tirana is the nations capital and largest city, followed by Durrës and Vlorë. The country has a coastline on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea to the west. Albania is less than 72 km from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which connects the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea. In antiquity, the area of Albania was home to several Illyrian, Thracian. After the Illyrian Wars, it part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior. In 1190, the first Albanian state, the Principality of Arbanon was established by archon Progon in the region of Krujë, the territory of Albania was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, of which it remained part of for the next five centuries. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, following the Balkan Wars, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy in 1939, which formed Greater Albania, before becoming a Nazi German protectorate in 1943. The following year, a socialist Peoples Republic was established under the leadership of Enver Hoxha, Albania experienced widespread social and political transformations in the communist era, as well as isolation from much of the international community. In 1991, the Socialist Republic was dissolved and the Republic of Albania was established, Albania is a democratic and developing country with an upper-middle income economy. The service sector dominates the economy, followed by the industrial. After the fall of communism in Albania, Free-market reforms have opened the country to foreign investment, especially in the development of energy, Albania has a high HDI and provides universal health care system and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the Council of Europe, the OSCE and it is also an official candidate for membership in the European Union. Albania is one of the members of the Energy Community, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation. It is home to the largest lake in Southern Europe and one of the oldest lakes in Europe, Albania is the Medieval Latin name of the country. The name may have a continuation in the name of a settlement called Albanon and Arbanon. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country Arbëri or Arbëni, Albanians today call their country Shqipëri. As early as the 17th century the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria, the two terms are popularly interpreted as Land of the Eagles and Children of the Eagles
Albania
–
Albanian Peasants costumes - illustration by Percy Anderson for Costume Fanciful, Historical and Theatrical, 1906
Albania
–
Flag
Albania
–
After serving the
Ottoman Empire for 20 years
Skanderbeg deserted and began a rebellion (helmet of
George Kastrioti preserved in
Vienna).
Albania
–
Köprülü Mehmed Pasha was the most effective and influential
Ottoman Grand Vizier of
Albanian origin.
39.
Chaas
–
Chaas, also pronounced Chaach and known by several other names in other Indian languages, is a yogurt-based drink popular across India. People in India have a tendency to translate Chaas into English as buttermilk, but this would be a misnomer, Chaas is the name by which this beverage is known in the Gujarati and Urdu languages, and in some regions of Hindi-speaking north India. It is known as Mattha in other parts of Hindi-speaking north India, as Mor in Tamil, as Mooru in Malayalam, as majjige in Kannada and Telugu, as taak or tak in Marathi and as ghol in Bengali. Chaas is made by churning yogurt and cold water together in a pot and this can be consumed plain or seasoned with a variety of spices. Chaas can be made from yogurt, and the natural flavour of such Chaas is mildly sweet. This type of Chaas is very close to Lassi, with two differences, Chaas is more dilute than lassi and unlike lassi, Chaas does not have added sugar. Although Chaas can be made from yogurt, it is more commonly made at home from yogurt that is a few days old and has become sour due to age. Indeed, one of the purposes for making Chaas at home is to finish off old yogurt that is lying in the fridge for long. Such Chaas has a tangy, slightly sour taste which is considered delicious, a pinch of salt is usually added to it for further enhancement of taste, and other seasonings can be added also, as described below. A third variation of Chaas is obtained by adding actual buttermilk into the Chaas and this gives a slightly sour-bitter taste to the final product, and it is necessary to add seasonings to mask these flavours. Chaas made using buttermilk is very healthy but the taste is not relished by all, however, if proper seasonings and spices are used, it can be delicious. This type of Chaas is more unusual and rare compared to the other types, Chaas can be consumed plain, but a little salt is usually added. This is the most common seasoning for Chaas, numerous other seasonings and spices can be added to salted Chaas, either singly or in combination with each other. These spices are usually roasted in a wok, using a spoonful of cooking oil, the spices which can be added thus are, Coarsely ground and roasted cumin seeds, curry leaves, asafoetida, grated ginger, very finely diced green chillies and Mustard seeds. Sugar can also be added to Chaas, but if sugar is added, adding sugar to Chaas makes it very similar to lassi, the main difference being that Chaas is more dilute than lassi. Lassi is more popular in Punjab and certain regions of north India, vendors have come up with several proprietary products and standardized flavours of Chaas which are produced on an industrial scale and sold as bottled drinks. The best-seller among such brands is Amuls Masala Chass, which has standardized several traditional flavours for the mass bottled-drink market, other popular modern flavours which are only available as bottled drinks and cannot be made at home or in restaurants include rose-flavoured Chaas and Chaas flavoured with mint. Both these flavours are of the variety and are different from flavoured lassi only for being more dilute
Chaas
–
A glass full of Chaach
40.
Rajasthan
–
Rajasthan is Indias largest state by area. Elsewhere it is bordered by the other Indian states, Punjab to the north, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, and Gujarat to the southwest. Rajasthan is also home to two national reserves, the Ranthambore National Park in Sawai Madhopur and Sariska Tiger Reserve in Alwar. The state was formed on 30 March 1949 when Rajputana – the name adopted by the British Raj for its dependencies in the region – was merged into the Dominion of India. Its capital and largest city is Jaipur, also known as Pink City, other important cities are Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner, Kota and Ajmer. Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation, kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Matsya Kingdom of the Vedic civilisation of India, is said to roughly corresponded to the state of Jaipur in Rajasthan. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagar, which is said to have named after its founder king Virata. Bhargava identifies the two districts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar and parts of Jaipur district along with Haryana districts of Mahendragarh, bhargava also locates the present day Sahibi River as the Vedic Drishadwati River, which along with Saraswati River formed the borders of the Vedic state of Brahmavarta. Manu and Bhrigu narrated the Manusmriti to a congregation of seers in this area only, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain and established the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps state. Gurjars ruled for many dynasties in this part of the country, up to the tenth century almost the whole of North India, acknowledged the supremacy of the Gurjars with their seat of power at Kannauj. The Gurjar Pratihar Empire acted as a barrier for Arab invaders from the 8th to the 11th century, the chief accomplishment of the Gurjara Pratihara empire lies in its successful resistance to foreign invasions from the west, starting in the days of Junaid. Majumdar says that this was acknowledged by the Arab writers. He further notes that historians of India have wondered at the progress of Muslim invaders in India. Traditionally the Rajputs, Jats, Meenas, REBARI, Gurjars, Bhils, Rajpurohit, Charans, Yadavs, Bishnois, Sermals, PhulMali, all these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and the land. Millions of them were killed trying to protect their land, a number of Gurjars had been exterminated in Bhinmal and Ajmer areas fighting with the invaders. Meenas were rulers of Bundi, Hadoti and the Dhundhar region, hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in 1501. Hem Chandra was killed in the battlefield at Second Battle of Panipat fighting against Mughals on 5 November 1556, maharana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar in the famous Battle of Haldighati and later operated from hilly areas of his kingdom
Rajasthan
–
A portrait of
Hemu from the 1910s.
Rajasthan
–
Location of Rajasthan in
India
Rajasthan
–
Maharana Pratap Singh, legendary sixteenth-century
Rajput ruler of
Mewar
Rajasthan
–
Chittorgarh Fort the largest fort in Asia.
41.
Southern United States
–
The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
Southern United States
–
Texas Hill Country
Southern United States
–
The Southern United States as defined by the
United States Census Bureau. The "South" and its regions are defined in various ways, however. (See
Geography section.)
Southern United States
–
Bluegrass region in Kentucky
Southern United States
–
Glass Mountains at Glass Mountains State Park, Oklahoma
42.
Doogh
–
Doogh, ayran or tan is a savory yogurt-based beverage. It is popular in Iran, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, North Caucasus and it is made by mixing yoghurt and chilled or iced water and has been variously described as diluted yogurt. It is sometimes carbonated and seasoned with mint, according to Shirin Simmons, doogh has long been a popular drink and was consumed in ancient Persia. Described by an 1886 source as a drink of curdled milk and water seasoned with mint, its name derives from the Persian word for milking. According to Nevin Halıcı, ayran is a traditional Turkish drink and was consumed by nomadic Turks prior to 1000 CE. According to Celalettin Koçak and Yahya Kemal Avşar, ayran was first developed thousands of years ago by the Göktürks, salt is added, and dried mint or pennyroyal can be mixed in as well. One variation includes diced cucumbers to provide a texture to the beverage. Some varieties of doogh have carbonation, cacık Chaas Chal Chalap Kefir Kumis Lassi List of fermented foods List of yogurt-based dishes and beverages Qatiq Yakult Buttermilk
Doogh
–
Bottles of doogh sold in a
rest stop restaurant,
Iran
Doogh
–
Bottle of carbonated tan sold in
Yerevan,
Armenia
43.
Iran
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
Iran
–
Cave painting in Doushe cave,
Lorestan, Iran,
8th millennium BC
Iran
–
Flag
Iran
–
A depiction of the united
Medes and
Persians in
Apadana,
Persepolis
Iran
–
Ruins of the
Gate of All Nations,
Persepolis
44.
Scandinavia
–
Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
Scandinavia
–
Scandinavia
Scandinavia
–
Late
Baltic Ice Lake around 10,300 years
B.P., with a channel near Mount
Billingen through what is now central
Sweden (political boundaries added)
Scandinavia
–
Kautokeino, the main
Sami city in
Norway
45.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
46.
Kefir
–
Kefir or kephir, alternatively milk kefir, or búlgaros, is a fermented milk drink that originated in the north Caucasus Mountains made with kefir grains, a yeast/bacterial fermentation starter. It is prepared by inoculating cow, goat, or Sheep milk with kefir grains, traditional kefir was made in goatskin bags that were hung near a doorway, the bag would be knocked by anyone passing through to help keep the milk and kefir grains well mixed. The word kefir, known in Russian since at least 1884, is probably of North Caucasian origin, Kefir has become the most commonly used term, but other names are found in different geographic regions. Traditional kefir is fermented at ambient temperatures, generally overnight, Fermentation of the lactose yields a sour, carbonated, slightly alcoholic beverage, with a consistency and taste similar to thin yogurt. The kefir grains initiating the fermentation are a combination of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts in a matrix of proteins, lipids and this symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast forms grains that resemble cauliflower. A complex and highly variable community of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts can be found in these grains although some predominate, Lactobacillus species are always present. Even successive batches of kefir may differ due to such as the kefir grains rising out of the milk while fermenting, or curds forming around the grains. Kefir grains contain kefiran, a polysaccharide, which imparts a creamy texture. Grains may grow to the size of walnuts, and in some cases larger, the composition of kefir depends greatly on the type of milk that was fermented, including the concentration of vitamin B12. During fermentation, changes in composition of nutrients and other ingredients occur, lactose, the sugar present in milk, is broken down mostly to lactic acid by the lactic acid bacteria, which results in acidification of the product. Propionibacteria further break down some of the acid into propionic acid. A portion of lactose is converted to kefiran, which is indigestible by gastric digestion, other substances that contribute to the flavor of kefir are pyruvic acid, acetic acid, diacetyl and acetoin, citric acid, acetaldehyde and amino acids resulting from protein breakdown. The slow-acting yeasts, late in the process, break lactose down into ethanol. Depending on the process, ethanol concentration can be as high as 1–2%, with the kefir having a bubbly appearance and this makes kefir different from yogurt and most other sour milk products where only bacteria ferment the lactose into acids. Most modern processes, which use shorter fermentation times, result in much lower concentrations of 0. 2–0. 3%. As a result of the fermentation, very little remains in kefir. People with lactose intolerance are able to tolerate kefir, provided the number of bacteria present in this beverage consumed is high enough. It has also shown that fermented milk products have a slower transit time than milk
Kefir
–
Kefir
Kefir
–
Kefir grains, a
symbiotic culture of
bacteria and
yeasts
Kefir
–
90 grams of kefir grains
Kefir
–
Lithuanian kefir-based
cold borscht (šaltibarščiai)
47.
Caucasus
–
The Caucasus /ˈkɔːkəsəs/ or Caucasia /kɔːˈkeɪʒə/ is a region at the border of Europe and Asia, situated between the Black and the Caspian seas. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europes highest mountain, politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts. The southern parts consist of independent sovereign states, and the parts are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation. The region is known for its diversity, aside from Indo-European and Turkic languages, the Kartvelian, Northwest Caucasian. Pliny the Elders Natural History derives the name of the Caucasus from Scythian kroy-khasis, German linguist Paul Kretschmer notes that the Latvian word Kruvesis also means ice. According to German philologists Otto Schrader and Alfons A. Nehring, the South Caucasus region and southern Dagestan were the furthest points of Persian expansions, with areas to the north of Caucasus Mountains practically impregnable. The mythological mountain of Qaf, the worlds highest mountain that ancient lore shrouded in mystery, was said to be situated in this region, therefore, the Caucasus might be associated with the legendary mountain. The Ciscaucasus contains the majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan, the Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands, all of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are in South Caucasus. The main Greater Caucasus range is generally perceived to be the line between Asia and Europe. The highest peak in the Caucasus is Mount Elbrus in the western Ciscaucasus in Russia, the Caucasus is one of the most linguistically and culturally diverse regions on Earth. The nation states that comprise the Caucasus today are the post-Soviet states Georgia, Armenia, three territories in the region claim independence but are recognized as such by only a handful or by no independent states, Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Abkhazia and South Ossetia are recognised by the majority of independent states as part of Georgia, the Russian divisions include Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai, and the autonomous republics of Adygea, Karachay–Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan. The region has many different languages and language families, there are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region. Russian is used as a common language, today the peoples of the Northern and Southern Caucasus tend to be either Eastern Orthodox Christians, Oriental Orthodox Christians, or Sunni Muslims. Shia Islam has had many adherents historically in Azerbaijan, located in the part of the region. Located on the peripheries of Turkey, Iran, and Russia, the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, throughout its history, the Caucasus was usually incorporated into the Iranian world
Caucasus
–
Caucasus from the sea by
Ivan Aivazovsky, 1899
Caucasus
–
Caucasus mountain range
Caucasus
–
View of the Caucasus Mountains in
Dagestan, Russia
Caucasus
–
Petroglyphs in
Gobustan,
Azerbaijan, dating back to 10,000 BC indicating a thriving culture. It is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
48.
Lassi
–
Lassi is a popular traditional yogurt-based drink from the Indian Subcontinent. Lassi is a blend of yogurt, water, spices and sometimes fruit, traditional lassi is a savoury drink, sometimes flavoured with ground and roasted cumin. Sweet lassi, however, contains sugar or fruits, instead of spices, salted mint lassi is highly favoured in Bangladesh. In Dharmic religions, yogurt sweetened with honey is used while performing religious rituals, less common is lassi served with milk and topped with a thin layer of clotted cream. Lassis are enjoyed chilled as a refreshment, mostly taken with lunch. With a little turmeric powder mixed in, it is used as a folk remedy for gastroenteritis. In Pakistan, salted lassi is often served with almost all kinds of meals and it is also sold at most dairy shops selling yogurt and milk, and both the salty and sweet variety are available. Traditional mild sweet form of lassi is more common in North India and Punjab and it is prepared by blending yogurt with water and adding sugar and other spices to taste. Salt can be substituted in place of sugar, the resulting beverage is known as salted lassi. Sweet lassi is a form of lassi flavoured with sugar, rosewater and/or lemon, saffron lassis, which are particularly rich, are a specialty of Rajasthan and Gujarat in India and Sindh in Pakistan. Makkhaniya lassi is simply lassi with lumps of butter in it and it is usually creamy like a milkshake. Mango lassi is gaining popularity worldwide and it is made from yogurt, water and mango pulp. It may be made with or without additional sugar and it is widely available in UK, Malaysia, Singapore, the United States, and in many other parts of the world. In various parts of Canada, mango lassi is a drink consisting of sweetened kesar mango pulp mixed with yogurt, cream. It is served in a glass with a straw, often with ground pistachio nuts sprinkled on top. Bhang lassi is a special, narcotic lassi that contains bhang, a derivative of cannabis. It is legal in parts of India and mainly sold during Holi. Uttar Pradesh is known to have licensed bhang shops, and in places one can buy bhang products
Lassi
–
Fat-free lassi
Lassi
–
Salt lassi.
Lassi
–
Mint sweet lassi in
Chandigarh, India.
Lassi
–
Lassi in an earthen tumbler, Kullhad, Varanasi, India.
49.
Punjab region
–
The Punjab, also spelled Panjab, panj-āb, land of five rivers, is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of South Asia, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a unit, the extent of the region is the subject of debate. The foreign invaders mainly targeted the most productive region of the Punjab known as the Majha region. The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis and their language is called Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism, other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism. The name of the region is a compound of two Persian words Panj and āb and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India, Punjab literally means Five Waters referring to the rivers, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest, there are two main definitions of the Punjab region, the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. The third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis. 1947 definition The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan, in Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana, Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab region borders Kashmir to the north, Sindh and Rajasthan to the south, the Pashtun region and Balochistan to the west, and the Hindi belt to the east. Accordingly, the Punjab region is diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains. Present day maps Major cities Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad. Older 1846–1849 definition The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire, According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division, the formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres per year. The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year, Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains
Punjab region
–
Taxila in Pakistan is a
World Heritage Site
Punjab region
–
Punjab Region
Punjab region
–
Menander I Soter (165/155 –130 BC) conqueror of the Punjab, he carved out a
Greek kingdom in the Punjab and ruled the Punjab till his death in 130 B.C.
Punjab region
–
A section of the Lahore Fort built by the Mughal emperor
Akbar.
-and-Milk-(left).jpg)
