1.
Colusa, California
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Colusa is the county seat of Colusa County, California. The population was 5,971 at the 2010 census, up from 5,402 at the 2000 census, colusi originates from the local Coru Indian tribe, who in the 1840s lived on the opposite side of the Sacramento River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.8 square miles. According to the United States Geological Survey, the location is at 39°12′52″N 122°00′34″W. Colusa is on the Sacramento River, which has a high levee so that the river is not clearly apparent from the city. Colusa features a historic Chinatown, Carnegie Library building constructed in 1905, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Colusa has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csa on climate maps
Colusa, California
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Colusa City Hall
Colusa, California
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Colusa County Courthouse in 1908
2.
University of Mississippi Medical Center
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University of Mississippi Medical Center is the health sciences campus of the University of Mississippi and is located in Jackson, Mississippi, United States. UMMC, also referred to as the Medical Center, is the only academic medical center. UMMC houses six health science schools, Medicine, Dentistry, Nursing, Health Related Professions, Graduate Studies in the Health Sciences, the University of Mississippi Medical Center is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges to award baccalaureate, masters and doctorate degrees. The Medical Center also is accredited by The Joint Commission, the IHL Board of Trustees appoints the UM chancellor, who then recommends a candidate for UMMC’s vice chancellor for health affairs. The vice chancellor also serves as the dean of the University of Mississippi School of Medicine, louAnn Woodward, MD, was named March 1,2015, to fill the vice chancellor position. She is responsible for the strategic direction of the Medical Center. She is the first woman and the 10th person to hold the post in the Medical Center’s 60-year history, enrollment in UMMC’s 28 degree programs is more than 2,900 students. Admission preference is given to Mississippi residents in an effort to supply professionals to meet the states health-care needs, the Associated Student Body is the student government association for UMMC. It serves as a mechanism to organize student extracurricular activities and to student concerns, ideas. UMMC is the hospital in the state designated as a Level 1 trauma center. A portion of land on the UMMC campus was once the site of the Mississippi Insane Asylum, which moved its operations in 1935 and became Mississippi State Hospital. UMMC has the hospital in the state designated as a Level 1 trauma center. The Medical Center also has the organ transplant program and OB/GYN emergency room in Mississippi. With a total of 1,003 beds, including Holmes County and Grenada locations, UMMC is the largest diagnostic, treatment and referral care system in the state. Based on the latest fiscal year statistics, inpatient admissions at the multiple locations totaled more than 33,000, the UMMC emergency rooms in Jackson had 70,000 visits, while Grenada had 18,324 and Holmes County had 6,657. Hospitals include, University Hospital Wallace Conerly Critical Care Hospital Winfred L. Wiser Hospital for Women, UP providers see about 404,870 patients each year in 170 locations in 38 counties. UMMC faculty and advanced practice providers see patients at several on-, specialized clinics include, UP Pavilion – Jackson, Miss. UP Grants Ferry – Flowood, Miss, UP Lakeland Medicine Center – Jackson, Miss UP Northeast Jackson at Select Specialty Hospital – Jackson, Miss
University of Mississippi Medical Center
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University of Mississippi Medical Center
University of Mississippi Medical Center
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University Medical Center, circa 1950
3.
Jackson, Mississippi
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Jackson, officially the City of Jackson, is the capital city and largest urban center of the U. S. state of Mississippi. It is the seat of Hinds County, equally sharing its county power with the Town of Raymond. The City of Jackson also owns more than 3,000 acres, Jackson is on the Pearl River, which drains into the Gulf of Mexico, and it is part of the Jackson Prairie region of the state. The city is named after General Andrew Jackson, who was honored for his role in the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812, the current slogan for the city is The City with Soul. It has had numerous musicians prominent in blues, gospel, folk and jazz, the city is the anchor for the metropolitan statistical area. While its population declined from 184,256 at the 2000 census to 173,514 at the 2010 census, the 2010 census ascribed a population of 539,057 to the five-county Jackson metropolitan area. The Choctaw name for the locale was Chisha Foka, the area now called Jackson was obtained by the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Doaks Stand in 1820, by which the Choctaw ceded some of their land. After the treaty was ratified, European-American settlers began to move into the area, under pressure from the U. S. government, the Choctaw Native Americans agreed to removal after 1830 from all their lands east of the Mississippi River under the terms of several treaties. They gave up their membership and became state and United States citizens at the time. Today, most Choctaw in Mississippi have reorganized and are part of the federally recognized Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and they live in several majority-Indian communities located throughout the state. The largest community is located in Choctaw 100 mi northeast of Jackson, the village became known as LeFleurs Bluff. During the late 18th century and early 19th century, this site had a trading post and it was connected to markets in Tennessee. Tennessee soldiers returning from the military campaigns near New Orleans in 1815 built a road that connected Lake Pontchartrain in Louisiana to this district. A United States treaty with the Choctaw, the Treaty of Doaks Stand in 1820, LeFleurs Bluff was developed when it was chosen as the site for the new states capital city. The Mississippi General Assembly decided in 1821 that the state needed a centrally located capital and they commissioned Thomas Hinds, James Patton, and William Lattimore to look for a suitable site. The absolute center of the state was a swamp, so the group had to widen their search, after surveying areas north and east of Jackson, they proceeded southwest along the Pearl River until they reached LeFleurs Bluff in todays Hinds County. The Assembly passed an act on November 28,1821, authorizing the site as the permanent seat of the government of the state of Mississippi, One Whig politician lamented the new capital as a serious violation of principle because it was not at the absolute center of the state. The capital was named for General Andrew Jackson, to honor his victory at the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812 and he was later elected as the seventh President of the United States
Jackson, Mississippi
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Seal
Jackson, Mississippi
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Images top, left to right:
Mississippi State Capitol,
Old Mississippi State Capitol, Lamar Life Building,
Mississippi Governor's Mansion
Jackson, Mississippi
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Andrew Jackson,
7th President of the United States and the city's namesake
Jackson, Mississippi
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"Raising the Stars and Stripes Over the Capitol of the State of Mississippi," engraving from
Harper's Weekly, 20 June 1863, after the capture of Jackson by Union forces during the American Civil War.
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
5.
Medgar Evers
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Medgar Wiley Evers was an American civil rights activist from Mississippi who worked to overturn segregation at the University of Mississippi and to enact social justice and voting rights. He was murdered by a segregationist, a World War II veteran and college graduate, he became active in the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s. He became a secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. He also worked on voting rights and registration, economic opportunity, access to public facilities, Evers was assassinated by Byron De La Beckwith, a member of the White Citizens Council, a group formed in 1954 to resist integration of schools and civil rights activity. As a veteran, Evers was buried with military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. His murder and the trials inspired civil rights protests, as well as numerous works of art, music. All-white juries failed to reach verdicts in the first two trials of Beckwith and he was convicted in a new state trial in 1994, based on new evidence. Myrlie Evers, widow of the activist, became a noted activist in her own right and his brother Charles Evers was the first African-American mayor elected in Mississippi in the post-Reconstruction era when he won in 1969 in Fayette. Evers was born July 2,1925, in Decatur, Mississippi, the family included Jesses two children from a previous marriage. The Evers family owned a farm, and James also worked at a sawmill. Evers walked twelve miles to attend segregated schools, and earned his high school diploma, Evers served in the United States Army during World War II from 1943 to 1945. He was sent to the European Theater and he fought in the Battle of Normandy in June 1944, after the end of the war, Evers was honorably discharged as a sergeant. In 1948, Evers enrolled at Alcorn College majoring in business administration and he also competed on the debate, football, and track teams, sang in the choir, and was junior class president. He earned his Bachelor of Arts in 1952, on December 24,1951, he married classmate Myrlie Beasley. Together they had three children, Darrell Kenyatta, Reena Denise, and James Van Dyke Evers, the couple moved to Mound Bayou, Mississippi a town developed by African Americans, where Evers became a salesman for T. R. M. Howards Magnolia Mutual Life Insurance Company. Howard was also president of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, Evers and his brother Charles also attended the RCNLs annual conferences in Mound Bayou between 1952 and 1954, which drew crowds of ten thousand or more. In 1954, Evers applied to the segregated University of Mississippi Law School and he submitted his application in concert with the NAACP as a test case. That year the US Supreme Court had ruled that segregation of schools was unconstitutional
Medgar Evers
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Medgar Evers
Medgar Evers
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Medgar Evers's house at 2332 Margaret Walker Alexander Drive, where the activist was fatally shot after getting out of his car.
Medgar Evers
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Medgar Evers's grave in
Arlington National Cemetery in 2007.
Medgar Evers
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Statue of Evers at the Medgar Evers Boulevard Library in
Jackson, Mississippi.
6.
White supremacist
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White supremacy has roots in scientific racism and often relies on pseudoscientific arguments. The term is typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates. Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, White supremacist groups have typically opposed people of color and Jews. White supremacy was dominant in the United States even after the American Civil War, in large areas of the U. S. this included the holding of non-whites in chattel slavery with four million denied freedom from bondage. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy cited as a cause for state secession, in an editorial about Native Americans in 1890, author L. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, the denial of social and political freedom continued into the mid-20th century resulting in the Civil Rights Movement. On the U. S. immigration laws prior to 1965, many U. S. states banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were invalidated by the Supreme Court of the United States decision in Loving v. Virginia. Additionally, white leaders often viewed Native Americans as obstacles to economic and political progress with respect to the claims to land. The terms recent rise in popularity among leftist activists has been characterized by some as counterproductive, in an opinion piece in The Atlantic, Conor Friedersdorf has said that the usage of the term by activists creates confusion because it strays from the common definition. Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Germanic people or Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century, gobineaus theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan or Germanic peoples and Jewish cultures. Many modern-day white supremacist groups around the world reuse Nazi symbolism, including the swastika, racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times under the Dutch Empire, and continued when the British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795. Apartheid as an officially structured policy was introduced by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party after the election of 1948. Legislation divided inhabitants into four racial groups—black, white, coloured, and Indian, in 1970, the Afrikaner-run government abolished non-white political representation, and starting that year black people were deprived of South African citizenship. South Africa abolished apartheid in 1991, in Rhodesia, a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom during an unsuccessful attempt to avoid immediate majority rule. Neo-Nazi organisations embracing white-supremacist ideology are present in countries in the world. It has been claimed in 2007, that Russian Neo-Nazis accounted for half of the worlds total, White racial advantages occur both at a collective and an individual level. Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows, By white supremacy I do not mean to allude only to the racism of white supremacist hate groups. Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, the term expresses historic continuities between a pre-African-American Civil Rights Movement era of open white supremacism and the current racial power structure of the United States
White supremacist
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Members of the second
Ku Klux Klan at a rally in 1923.
White supremacist
–
The Good Citizen 1926 Published by
Pillar of Fire Church
7.
Klansman
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Historically the KKK used terrorism, both physical assault and murder, against groups or individuals whom they opposed. All three movements have called for the purification of American society, and all are considered right-wing extremist organizations, the first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. It sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, with numerous chapters across the South, it was suppressed around 1871, through federal law enforcement. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes, robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be terrifying, the second group was founded in 1915, and it flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, particularly in urban areas of the Midwest and West. This second organization adopted a white costume and used code words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings. The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of small, local and they have focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. It is classified as a group by the Anti-Defamation League. As of 2016, the Anti-Defamation League puts total Klan membership nationwide at around 3,000, the second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to Americas Anglo-Saxon blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism. Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK, the manual of rituals was printed by Laps D. McCord of Pulaski. According to The Cyclopædia of Fraternities, Beginning in April,1867, the members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein. Although there was little organizational structure above the level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name. Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement promoting resistance, for example, Confederate veteran John W. Morton founded a chapter in Nashville, Tennessee. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies, it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the government passed the Enforcement Acts. The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives and it seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence, it drove some people out of politics. Rable argues that the Klan was a failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says, the Klan declined in strength in part because of weaknesses, its lack of central organization. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South, for instance, the Red Shirts are credited with helping elect Wade Hampton as governor in South Carolina
Klansman
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A cartoon threatening that the KKK would
lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.
Klansman
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Ku Klux Klan's emblem
Klansman
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A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy
Klansman
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Nathan Bedford Forrest
8.
Greenwood, Mississippi
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It was a center of cotton planter culture in the 19th century. The population was 16,087 at the 2010 census and it is the principal city of the Greenwood Micropolitan Statistical Area. The Tallahatchie and the Yalobusha rivers meet at Greenwood to form the Yazoo River, throughout the 1960s, Greenwood was the site of major protests and conflicts as African Americans worked to achieve racial integration and voting access during the civil rights movement. The flood plain of the Mississippi River has long been an area rich in vegetation and wildlife, fed by the Mississippi, Long before Europeans migrated to America, the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian nations settled in the Deltas bottomlands and throughout what is now central Mississippi. They were descended from indigenous peoples who had lived in the area for thousands of years, including the Mississippian culture, in the nineteenth century, the Five Civilized Tribes in the Southeast suffered increasing encroachment on their territory by European-American settlers from the United States. The government opened the land for sale and settlement by European Americans, the first Euro-American settlement on the banks of the Yazoo River was a trading post founded in 1834 by Colonel John Dilliard and known as Dilliards Landing. The settlement had competition from Greenwood Leflores rival landing called Point Leflore just three miles up the Yazoo River, in 1844 it was incorporated as Greenwood, named after Chief Greenwood LeFlore. The city served as a point for cotton to major markets in New Orleans, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Memphis, Tennessee. Greenwood continued to prosper, based on slave labor on the plantations and in shipping. The end of the Civil War in 1865 and the years of Reconstruction changed the labor market to one of free labor. The state was mostly undeveloped frontier, and many withdrew from working for others. In the nineteenth century, many managed to clear and buy their own farms in the bottomlands. With the disruption of war and changes to labor, cotton production initially declined, Greenwood again emerged as a prime shipping point for cotton. Downtowns Front Street bordering the Yazoo filled with cotton factors and related businesses, the city continued to prosper in this way well into the 1940s, although cotton production suffered during the infestation of the boll weevil in the early 20th century. For many years, the bridge over the Yazoo displayed the sign, the industry was largely mechanized in the 20th century before World War II, displacing thousands of sharecroppers and tenant farmers. Greenwoods Grand Boulevard was once named one of Americas 10 most beautiful streets by the U. S, chambers of Commerce and the Garden Clubs of America. Sally Humphreys Gwin, a member of the Greenwood Garden Club. In 1950, Gwin received a citation from the National Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution in recognition of her work in the conservation of trees, chapters were established across the state
Greenwood, Mississippi
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Front Street in Greenwood, Mississippi
Greenwood, Mississippi
Greenwood, Mississippi
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Howard Street, Greenwood
Greenwood, Mississippi
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Furry Lewis
9.
Mississippi
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Mississippi /ˌmɪsᵻˈsɪpi/ is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River, the state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States, located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, by the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Deltas property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis. Clearing altered the Deltas ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi, much land is now held by agribusinesses. The states catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States, since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U. S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U. S. state, since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party, African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country, the states name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi, in addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains,807 feet above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast, the states mean elevation is 300 feet above sea level. Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, the coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations, yellow-brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt. The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, the northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain
Mississippi
Mississippi
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Flag
Mississippi
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Bottomland hardwood swamp near
Ashland, Mississippi
Mississippi
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Jackson, Mississippi
10.
Assassination
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Assassination is the murder of a prominent person, often a political leader or ruler, usually for political reasons or payment. The word assassin is believed to derive from the word Hashshashin. It referred to a group of Nizari Shia Persians who worked against various Arab, founded by the Persian Hassan-i Sabbah, the Assassins were active in the fortress of Alamut in Iran from the 8th to the 14th centuries, and also controlled the castle of Masyaf in Syria. The group killed members of the Persian, Abbasid, Seljuq, the word for murder in many Romance languages is derived from this same root word. Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics and it dates back at least as far as recorded history. The Old Testament story of Judith illustrates how a woman frees the Israelites by tricking and assassinating Holofernes, a warlord of the rival Assyrians, with whom the Israelites were at war. King Joash of Judah was recorded as being assassinated by his own servants, Joab assassinated Absalom, King Davids son, chanakya wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies, other famous victims are Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman consul Julius Caesar. Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later, the practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Kes failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassination were performed by an individual or a small group, the earliest were the sicarii in 6 A. D. who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe and this account is, however, contentious among historians, it being most commonly asserted that he died of natural causes. The myth of the Curse of King Zvonimir is based on the legend of his assassination, in 1192, Conrad of Montferrat, the de facto King of Jerusalem, was killed by an assassin. The reigns of King Przemysł II of Poland, William the Silent of the Netherlands, in Russia alone, two emperors, Paul I and his grandson Alexander II, were assassinated within 80 years. In the United Kingdom, only one Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has ever been assassinated—Spencer Perceval on May 11,1812. In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, there have been at least 20 known attempts on U. S. presidents lives. Huey Long, a Senator, was assassinated in September of 1935, the Polish Home Army conducted a regular campaign of assassinations against top Nazi German officials in occupied Poland. Adolf Hitler, meanwhile, was almost killed by his own officers, indias Father of the Nation, Mohandas K. Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30,1948, by Nathuram Godse
Assassination
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The word "assassin" was derived from
Hasan-i Sabbah and his
Assassin's Order of Nizari Ismailism.
Assassination
–
Assassination of King
Henry III of France
Assassination
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Assassination of King
Przemysł II of Poland
Assassination
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Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln; 1865 depiction. Assassin
John Wilkes Booth on the right.
11.
Civil rights
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Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
Civil rights
–
Savka Dabčević-Kučar,
Croatian Spring participant; Europe's first female prime minister
12.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
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A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
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Flag
California
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Mount Shasta
California
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Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
13.
Postmaster
–
A postmaster is the head of an individual post office. When a postmaster is responsible for an entire mail distribution organization, in the United States, women have served as postmasters since the Revolutionary War and even earlier, under British rule. In Canada, many places are named after the first postmaster. In the days of horse-drawn carriages, a postmaster was an individual from whom horses and/or riders could be hired, the postmaster would reside in a post house. In the United States, many postmasters are members of a management organization which consults with the United States Postal Service for compensation, the level of pay is based on deliveries and revenue of the post office. Levels are from EAS18 through 26, smaller remotely managed post offices no longer have Postmasters and report to a nearby larger office. Larger metropolitan post offices are PCES
Postmaster
–
History
14.
United States Marine Corps
–
The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
United States Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
–
United States Marine Corps portal
United States Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
–
A Marine
Corporal and
Lance Corporal of
3rd Battalion, 6th Marines engaging the enemy during
Operation Moshtarak in Afghanistan's
Helmand Province.
15.
Pacific War
–
The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
Pacific War
–
Map showing the main areas of the conflict and Allied landings in the Pacific, 1942–45.
Pacific War
–
Generalissimo
Chiang Kai-shek, Allied Commander-in-Chief in the China theatre from 1942 to 1945.
Pacific War
–
Generalissimo
Chiang Kai-shek and
Joseph Stilwell, Allied Commander-in-Chief in the China theatre from 1942–1945.
Pacific War
–
The Pacific War Council as photographed on 12 October 1942. Pictured are representatives from the United States (seated)
China, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, and the
Philippine Commonwealth.
16.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
17.
Battle of Guadalcanal
–
It was the first major offensive by Allied forces against the Empire of Japan. The Allies also intended to use Guadalcanal and Tulagi as bases to support a campaign to capture or neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain. Powerful American and Australian naval forces supported the landings, surprised by the Allied offensive, the Japanese made several attempts between August and November to retake Henderson Field. In December, the Japanese abandoned their efforts to retake Guadalcanal and evacuated their forces by 7 February 1943. The Guadalcanal campaign was a significant strategic combined arms Allied victory in the Pacific theater, along with the Battle of Midway, it has been called a turning point in the war against Japan. The Japanese had reached the peak of their conquests in the Pacific, on 7 December 1941, Japanese forces attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack crippled much of the U. S. battleship fleet and precipitated an open, to further those goals, Japanese forces captured the Philippines, Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Wake Island, Gilbert Islands, New Britain and Guam. Joining the U. S. in the war against Japan were the rest of the Allied powers, several of whom, including the United Kingdom, Australia, coral Sea was a tactical stalemate, but a strategic Allied victory which became clear only much later. Up to this point, the Allies had been on the defensive in the Pacific, originally the objectives were the occupation of the Santa Cruz Islands, codenamed Huddle, Tulagi, codenamed Watchtower, and adjacent positions. Guadalcanal, eventually the focus of the operation, was not even mentioned in the early directive, the Imperial Japanese Navy had occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and had constructed a seaplane base nearby. By August 1942, the Japanese had about 900 naval troops on Tulagi and these bases would protect Japans major base at Rabaul, threaten Allied supply and communication lines and establish a staging area for a planned offensive against Fiji, New Caledonia and Samoa. The Japanese planned to deploy 45 fighters and 60 bombers to Guadalcanal, in the overall strategy for 1942 these aircraft could provide air cover for Japanese naval forces advancing farther into the South Pacific. The Allied plan to invade the southern Solomons was conceived by U. S. Admiral Ernest King, Commander in Chief, United States Fleet. He proposed the offensive to deny the use of the islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the United States and Australia and to use them as starting points. With US President Franklin D. Roosevelts tacit consent, King also advocated the invasion of Guadalcanal, an early obstacle was a desire by both the Army and Roosevelt to initiate action in Europe. The directive held that the goal was the American reconquest of the Philippines. Joint Chiefs of Staff created the South Pacific theater, with Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley taking command on 19 June 1942, Admiral Chester Nimitz, based at Pearl Harbor, was designated as overall Allied commander in chief for Pacific forces. In preparation for the offensive in the Pacific in May 1942, other Allied land, naval and air force units were sent to establish or reinforce bases in Fiji, Samoa, New Hebrides and New Caledonia
Battle of Guadalcanal
–
United States Marines rest in the field during the Guadalcanal campaign. According to Ken Burns' film
The War, the Marine in the right background is Sidney Phillips of Mobile, Alabama. Another source dates this photo to 8/8/42, and identifies the reclining Marine with hands behind head as "Bill Coggin".
Battle of Guadalcanal
–
Japanese control of the western Pacific area between May and August 1942.
Guadalcanal is located in the lower right center of the map.
Battle of Guadalcanal
–
U.S. Marines debark from
LCP(L)s onto Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942.
Battle of Guadalcanal
–
Dead Japanese soldiers on the sandbar at the mouth of Alligator Creek, Guadalcanal after the
Battle of the Tenaru.
18.
Battle of Tarawa
–
The Battle of Tarawa was a battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that was fought from November 20 to November 23,1943. It took place at the Tarawa Atoll in the Gilbert Islands, nearly 6,400 Japanese, Koreans, and Americans died in the fighting, mostly on and around the small island of Betio, in the extreme southwest of Tarawa Atoll. The Battle of Tarawa was the first American offensive in the critical central Pacific region and it was also the first time in the Pacific War that the United States faced serious Japanese opposition to an amphibious landing. The Gilbert Islands are part of Micronesia and they became a colony of the British Empire in January 1916. They were invaded and occupied by the Empire of Japan in December 1941, the battle was fought almost two years later. In July 1979 the islands became independent from the United Kingdom, in order to set up forward air bases capable of supporting operations across the mid-Pacific, to the Philippines, and into Japan, the U. S. planned to take the Mariana Islands. Naval doctrine of the time held that in order for attacks to succeed, land-based aircraft would be required to weaken the defenses, the nearest islands capable of supporting such an effort were the Marshall Islands, northeast of Guadalcanal. Thus, to launch an invasion of the Marianas, the battle had to start far to the east. Following the completion of the Guadalcanal campaign, the 2nd Marine Division had been withdrawn to New Zealand for rest, losses were replaced and the men given a chance to recover from the malaria and other illnesses that had weakened them through the fighting in the Solomons. On July 20,1943, the Joint Chiefs directed Admiral Chester Nimitz to prepare plans for an operation in the Gilbert Islands. Located about 2,400 miles southwest of Pearl Harbor, Betio is the largest island in the Tarawa Atoll, the small, flat island lies at the southernmost reach of the lagoon, and was the base of the majority of the Japanese troops. Shaped roughly like a long, thin triangle, the island is approximately 2 miles long. It is narrow, being only 800 yards wide at its widest point, a long pier was constructed jutting out from the north shore onto which cargo ships could unload cargo while anchored beyond the 500-metre -wide shallow reef which surrounded the island. The northern coast of the faces into the lagoon, while the southern and western sides face the deep waters of the open ocean. Following Colonel Evans Carlsons diversionary Makin Island raid of August 1942, the 6th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force reinforced the island in February 1943. In command was Rear Admiral Tomonari Saichiro, an engineer who directed the construction of the sophisticated defensive structures on Betio. Upon their arrival, the 6th Yokosuka became a force. Tomonaris primary goal in the Japanese defensive scheme was to stop the attackers in the water or pin them on the beaches, a tremendous number of pill boxes and firing pits were constructed, with excellent fields of fire over the water and sandy shore
Battle of Tarawa
–
Lt
Alexander Bonnyman (4th from right) and his assault party storming a Japanese stronghold. Bonnyman received the
Medal of Honor posthumously.
Battle of Tarawa
–
Map of Betio, Tarawa Atoll
Battle of Tarawa
–
Combat transports at Tarawa
Battle of Tarawa
–
Marines alongside an LVT-1 "Alligator"
19.
Providence, Rhode Island
–
Providence is the capital of and most populous city in the U. S. state of Rhode Island, founded in 1636, and one of the oldest cities in the United States. It is located in Providence County and is the third most populous city in New England, after Boston, Providence has a city population of 179,154, it is also part of the Providence metropolitan area which extends into southern Massachusetts. The Providence metropolitan area has an population of 1,604,291. This can be considered, in turn, to be part of the Greater Boston commuting area, Providence was founded by Roger Williams, a religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He named the area in honor of Gods merciful Providence, which he believed was responsible for revealing such a haven for him, the city is situated at the mouth of the Providence River at the head of Narragansett Bay. Providence was one of the first cities in the country to industrialize and became noted for its tool, jewelry. The city was nicknamed the Beehive of Industry, it began rebranding itself as the Creative Capital in 2009 to emphasize its educational resources. The area that is now Providence was first settled in June 1636 by Roger Williams and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies of the United States, Williams and his company felt compelled to withdraw from Massachusetts Bay Colony. Providence quickly became a refuge for persecuted religious dissenters, as Williams himself had been exiled from Massachusetts, Providence residents were among the first Patriots to spill blood in the leadup to the American Revolution during the Gaspée Affair of 1772. Rhode Island was the first of the thirteen colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown on May 4,1776. It was also the last of the thirteen colonies to ratify the United States Constitution on May 29,1790, following the war, Providence was the countrys ninth-largest city with 7,614 people. The economy shifted from maritime endeavors to manufacturing, in particular machinery, tools, silverware, jewelry, by the start of the 20th century, Providence boasted some of the largest manufacturing plants in the country, including Brown & Sharpe, Nicholson File, and Gorham Silverware. Providence residents ratified a city charter in 1831 as the population passed 17,000. From its incorporation as a city in 1832 until 1878, the seat of city government was located in the Market House, located in Market Square, the city offices quickly outgrew this building, and the City Council resolved to create a permanent municipal building in 1845. The city offices moved into the City Hall in 1878, during the Civil War, local politics split over slavery as many had ties to Southern cotton. Despite ambivalence concerning the war, the number of military volunteers routinely exceeded quota, by the early 1900s, Providence was one of the wealthiest cities in the United States. Immigrant labor powered one of the nations largest industrial manufacturing centers, Providence was a major manufacturer of industrial products from steam engines to precision tools to silverware, screws, and textiles. From 1975 until 1982, $606 million of local and national Community Development funds were invested throughout the city.4 million ft² Providence Place Mall, despite new investment, poverty remains an entrenched problem as it does in most post-industrial New England cities
Providence, Rhode Island
–
From top left:
Downtown Providence skyline and the
Providence River from the
Point Street Bridge,
Federal Hill,
University Hall at
Brown University,
Roger Williams Park, the
First Baptist Church in America,
WaterFire at
Waterplace Park, and the
Rhode Island State House.
Providence, Rhode Island
–
First Baptist Church in America, founded 1638, present building occupied in 1776, is the oldest Baptist congregation in America
Providence, Rhode Island
–
Providence in the mid-nineteenth century
Providence, Rhode Island
–
Market Square was the center of civic life in the 19th Century, and
Market House was home to the city council before
City Hall was built.
20.
United States Supreme Court
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
United States Supreme Court
–
Chief Justice Marshall
United States Supreme Court
–
Supreme Court of the United States
United States Supreme Court
–
The Roberts Court, October 2010 Back row (left to right):
Sonia Sotomayor,
Stephen G. Breyer,
Samuel A. Alito, and
Elena Kagan. Front row (left to right):
Clarence Thomas,
Antonin Scalia,
Chief Justice John Roberts,
Anthony Kennedy, and
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
United States Supreme Court
–
Roberts, John
John Roberts (
Chief Justice)
21.
Brown v. Board of Education
–
The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
Brown v. Board of Education
–
On May 17, 1954, these men, members of the U.S. Supreme Court, ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.
Brown v. Board of Education
–
Educational segregation in the US prior to Brown
Brown v. Board of Education
–
U.S. circuit judges Robert A. Katzmann,
Damon J. Keith, and
Sonia Sotomayor at a 2004 exhibit on the
Fourteenth Amendment,
Thurgood Marshall, and Brown v. Board of Education
22.
Racial segregation
–
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. As a result, the act of separating oneself from other people on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation. Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental, in the United States, segregation was mandated by law in some states and came with anti-miscegenation laws. Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. Wherever there have been multiracial communities, there has been racial segregation, only areas with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social stratification, seem to be exempt. Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has described as quasi-apartheid. Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates and this internal system of apartheid met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection and ensuing independence war. In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i. e. Slavic, according to Wilhelm Raabe, down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend. The ban on marriage was a part of the Nuremberg Laws. At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were extended to Gypsies, Negroes. Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty. To preserve the purity of the German blood, after the war began. In an effort to split Polish identity they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals, based on these groups alleged Germanic component. During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients nor were Jewish professors permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, after Kristallnacht, the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members. Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as undesirable racial groups in the Holocaust, the Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people, the Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000. Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour, although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior, were subject to deeper discriminatory measures
Racial segregation
–
Nur für Deutsche ("Only for Germans") on the tram number 8 in German-occupied
Kraków, Poland.
Racial segregation
–
German warning in occupied Poland 1939 – "No entrance for Poles!"
Racial segregation
–
Young Polish girl wearing Letter "P" patch.
23.
Racial integration
–
Racial integration, or simply integration, includes desegregation. Desegregation is largely a matter, integration largely a social one. The movement toward desegregation, breaking down the nations Jim Crow system, integration, on the other hand, Professor Oscar Handlin maintains, implies several things not yet necessarily accepted in all areas of American society. In one sense it refers to the levelling of all barriers to other than those based on ability, taste. But in another sense integration calls for the distribution of a minority throughout society. Here, according to Handlin, the emphasis is on balance in areas of occupation, education, residency. From the beginning the military establishment rightly understood that the breakup of the unit would in a closed society necessarily mean more than mere desegregation. It constantly used the terms integration and equal treatment and opportunity to describe its racial goals, rarely, if ever, does one find the word desegregation in military files that include much correspondence. Integration happens even without a mandate from the law, desegregation, on the other hand, was the legal remedy to segregation. Making almost the point, Henry Organ, identifying himself as a participant in the Civil Rights Movement on the Peninsula in the 60s. The term integration, on the hand, pertains to a social domain, it does. In their book By the Color of Our Skin Leonard Steinhorn, give white Americans the sensation of having meaningful, repeated contact with blacks without actually having it. Reviewing this book in the libertarian magazine Reason, Michael W. Lynch sums up some of their conclusions as, Blacks and whites live, learn, work, pray, play, and entertain separately. If a significant number of black children arent comfortable with them, it isnt by choice and its one thing for members of the black elite and upper middle class to choose to retire to predominantly black neighborhoods after a lucrative days work in white America. Its quite another for people to be unable to enter that commercial sphere because they spent their formative years in a community that didnt, or couldnt, prepare them for it. Writes Patterson, The greatest problem now facing African-Americans is their isolation from the norms of the dominant culture. Although widespread, this distinction between integration and desegregation is not universally accepted, for example, it is possible to find references to court-ordered integration from sources such as the Detroit News, PBS, or even Encarta. These same sources use the phrase court-ordered desegregation, apparently with exactly the same meaning
Racial integration
–
Planners from the
Ekurhuleni Town Planning department on a routine site valentine in the
Benoni. The team's composition is a reflection of the
New South Africa racial integration policies
Racial integration
–
A white child and black child together at a parade in
North College Hill, Ohio, USA
24.
Black people
–
As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, black is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as black, and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, in the United Kingdom, black was historically equivalent with person of color, a general term for non-European peoples. In South Africa and Latin America, mixed-race people are not classified as black. In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term black or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds. The Romans interacted with and later conquered parts of Mauretania, a state that covered modern Morocco, western Algeria. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard and he claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese woman, in response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish, due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more black women than men. They used more black female slaves in domestic service and agriculture than males, the men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage, leading to many mixed-race children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab masters child, she was considered as umm walad or mother of a child, the child was given rights of inheritance to the fathers property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was patrilineal, the children took their fathers social status at birth and were born free, some succeeded their fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a child of a slave, his mother was Fulani. Such tolerance for black persons, even when technically free, was not so common in Morocco, the long association of sub-Saharan peoples as slaves is shown in the term abd, it is still frequently used in the Arabic-speaking world as a term for black people. In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudans non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of deftly manipulat Arab solidarity to carry out policies of apartheid, American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. The Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid, many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid
Black people
–
Soldiers of the
Free Arabian Legion in Greece, September 1943
Black people
–
Algerian footballer
Yacine Brahimi
Black people
–
Moroccan Gnawa musician
Hassan Hakmoun
Black people
–
Nelson Mandela led the
ANC in the battle against South African Apartheid.
25.
White Citizens Council
–
The Citizens Councils were an associated network of white supremacist organizations in the United States, concentrated in the South. The first was formed on July 11,1954, after 1956, it was known as the Citizens Councils of America. Members used severe intimidation tactics including economic boycotts, firing people from jobs, propaganda, in 1954 the US Supreme Court ruled in Brown vs. Board of Education that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Some sources claim that the White Citizens Council first started after this in Greenwood, others say that it originated in Indianola, Mississippi. The recognized leader was Robert B. Patterson of Indianola, a plantation manager, additional chapters spread to other southern towns. At this time, most southern states enforced racial segregation of all facilities, in places where local laws did not require segregation. Patterson and his followers formed the White Citizens Council in part to respond with economic retaliation and violence to increased civil rights activism. The Regional Council of Negro Leadership, a civil rights organization founded in 1951 by T. R. M. Howard of the all-black town Mound Bayou. Aaron Henry, an official in the RCNL and the future head of the Mississippi NAACP had met Patterson during their childhood. Within a few months, the White Citizens Council had attracted similar racist members, the Council often had the support of the leading white citizens of many communities, including business, law enforcement, civic and sometimes religious leaders, many of whom were members. Unlike the Ku Klux Klan but working in unison, the White Citizens Council met openly, although the White Citizens Council publicly eschewed the use of violence, the economic and political tactics used against registered voters and activists embraced institutional violence. As historian Charles Payne notes, Despite the official disclaimers, violence often followed in the wake of Council intimidation campaigns, occasionally some Councils directly incited violence, such as lynchings, shootings, rapes, and arson. Among these are guns, bows and arrows, sling shots and we hold these truths to be self-evident that all whites are created equal with certain rights, among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of dead niggers. In some cities, the Councils published lists of names of NAACP supporters and signers of anti-segregation petitions in local newspapers in order to encourage economic retaliation. For instance, in Yazoo City, Mississippi in 1955, the Citizens Council published in the paper the names of 53 signers of a petition for school integration. Soon afterward, the petitioners lost their jobs and had their credit cut off, as Charles Payne puts it, the Councils operated by unleashing a wave of economic reprisals against anyone, Black or white, seen as a threat to the status quo. Their targets included black professionals such as teachers, as well as farmers, high school and college students, shop owners, evers was assassinated in 1963 by Byron De La Beckwith, a member of the White Citizens Council as well as the Ku Klux Klan. The Citizens Council paid his expenses in his two trials in 1964, which both resulted in hung juries
White Citizens Council
–
Citizens' Councils logo
White Citizens Council
–
Joe D. Waggonner, Jr.
26.
Boycott
–
The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
Boycott
–
Protesters advocating boycott of
Kentucky Fried Chicken due to
animal rights issues
Boycott
–
Vanity Fair caricature of Charles C. Boycott
Boycott
–
Nameplate of Dr. Werner Liebenthal,
Notary &
Advocate. The plate was hung outside his office on Martin Luther Str,
Schöneberg,
Berlin. In 1933, following the
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service the plate was painted black by the Nazis, who boycotted Jewish owned offices.
Boycott
–
Protesters advocating boycott of
BP due to the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
27.
African Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
African Americans
–
An artist's conception of
Crispus Attucks (1723–1770), the first "
martyr " of the
American Revolution. He was of
Native American and African American descent.
African Americans
–
Jesse Owens shook racial stereotypes both with Nazis and segregationists in the USA at the 1936 Berlin Olympics.
African Americans
–
An African-American boy outside of
Cincinnati,
Ohio in the 1940s.
African Americans
–
March on Washington, August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders.
28.
Ku Klux Klan
–
Historically the KKK used terrorism, both physical assault and murder, against groups or individuals whom they opposed. All three movements have called for the purification of American society, and all are considered right-wing extremist organizations, the first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. It sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, with numerous chapters across the South, it was suppressed around 1871, through federal law enforcement. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes, robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be terrifying, the second group was founded in 1915, and it flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, particularly in urban areas of the Midwest and West. This second organization adopted a white costume and used code words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings. The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of small, local and they have focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. It is classified as a group by the Anti-Defamation League. As of 2016, the Anti-Defamation League puts total Klan membership nationwide at around 3,000, the second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to Americas Anglo-Saxon blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism. Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK, the manual of rituals was printed by Laps D. McCord of Pulaski. According to The Cyclopædia of Fraternities, Beginning in April,1867, the members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein. Although there was little organizational structure above the level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name. Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement promoting resistance, for example, Confederate veteran John W. Morton founded a chapter in Nashville, Tennessee. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies, it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the government passed the Enforcement Acts. The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives and it seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence, it drove some people out of politics. Rable argues that the Klan was a failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says, the Klan declined in strength in part because of weaknesses, its lack of central organization. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South, for instance, the Red Shirts are credited with helping elect Wade Hampton as governor in South Carolina
Ku Klux Klan
–
A cartoon threatening that the KKK would
lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.
Ku Klux Klan
–
Ku Klux Klan's emblem
Ku Klux Klan
–
A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy
Ku Klux Klan
–
Nathan Bedford Forrest
29.
Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
–
These measures were enacted by former Confederate states at the turn of the 20th century, and by Oklahoma upon statehood, although not by the border slave states. Their actions defied the intent of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870, after regaining control of the state legislatures, Democrats were alarmed by a late 19th-century alliance between Republicans and Populists that cost them some elections. In North Carolinas Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, white Democrats conducted a coup detat of the city government and they overturned a duly elected biracial government headed by a white mayor, and widely attacked the black community, destroying lives and property. Many blacks left the city permanently and they succeeded in disenfranchising most of the black citizens, as well as many poor whites in the South, and voter rolls dropped dramatically in each state. The Republican Party was nearly eliminated in the region for decades, from the mid to the late 20th century, a wholesale party realignment took place, with white conservatives joining the Republican Party. Until then Southern Democrats controlled the politics of southern states and established white supremacy, as Congressional apportionment of seats was based on the total population, the Southern white Democrats, the Southern bloc, had tremendous legislative power for decades. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment could have used to reduce Congressional representation for states that denied suffrage on racial grounds. Opponents of the Southern bloc could not overcome their political power, in 1912, the Republican Party was split when Roosevelt ran against the regular Taft. In the South by this time, the Republican Party had been hollowed out by the disenfranchisement of African Americans, democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected as the first southern President since 1856. He was re-elected in 1916, in a much closer presidential contest, during World War I, American military forces were segregated, with black soldiers poorly trained and equipped. Disenfranchisement had far-reaching effects in Congress, where the Democratic Solid South enjoyed about 25 extra seats in Congress for each decade between 1903 and 1953, also, the Democratic dominance in the South meant that southern Senators and Representatives became entrenched in Congress. In addition, because black Southerners were not listed on local voter rolls, juries were all white across the South. Racial segregation in the U. S. military was ended in 1948 by Executive Order of President Harry S. Truman after World War II, legal racial segregation in the South did not end until after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The American Civil War ended in 1865, marking the start of the Reconstruction era in the eleven former Confederate states, Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts, starting in 1867, establishing military districts to oversee the affairs of these states pending reconstruction. Southern whites, fearing black domination, resisted the freedmens exercise of political power, in 1867, black men voted for the first time. By the 1868 presidential election, Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia had still not been re-admitted to the Union, General Ulysses S. Grant was elected as president thanks in part to 700,000 black voters. In February 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified, it was designed to protect blacks right to vote from infringement by the states, the insurgent Ku Klux Klan was formed in 1865 in Tennessee and quickly became a powerful secret vigilante group, with chapters across the South. The Klan initiated a campaign of intimidation directed against blacks and sympathetic whites and their violence included vandalism and destruction of property, physical attacks and assassinations, and lynchings
Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
–
A
white supremacist Democratic Party campaign poster from 1866.
30.
Ross Barnett
–
Ross Robert Barnett was the Governor of Mississippi from 1960 to 1964. He was a prominent member of the Dixiecrats, Southern Democrats who supported racial segregation, born in Standing Pine in Leake County in the heart of Mississippi, Barnett was the youngest of ten children of John William Barnett, a Confederate veteran, and the former Virginia Ann Chadwick. He served in the United States Army during World War I, four years later, he followed that with an LL. B. from the University of Mississippi at Oxford. In 1929, he married Mary Pearl Crawford, a schoolteacher, over the next quarter century, Barnett became one of the states most successful trial lawyers, earning more than $100,000 per year with specialty in damage suits. He often donated his skills to causes and served as president of the Mississippi Bar Association for two years beginning in 1943. Using the income derived from his fees, Barnett sought to try his hand at politics, unsuccessfully running twice for Governor of Mississippi. On his third try in 1959, he won the election and was inaugurated on January 19,1960, during his term in office, he celebrated the centennial of the American Civil War. Barnett traveled to Civil War sites to pay homage to fallen Sons Of Mississippi, during his time as governor, Barnett, a staunch segregationist and Democrat, became noted for his tumultuous clashes with the Civil Rights Movement. Barnett arranged for the arrest of Freedom Riders in 1961 and then imprisoned them at Parchman Farm, while their offenses were minor, the Freedom Riders were strip-searched, had beds taken away, and were humiliated and brutalized in the prison. Barnett was a member of the white supremacist Citizens Councils movement as well, with the accreditation of the states medical school and other universities in jeopardy due to the political interventions, the IHL board reversed their action after the riots on the campus. Barnett was fined $10,000 and sentenced to jail for contempt, only two Mississippi legislators opposed Barnetts efforts to defy the federal authorities, Joe Wroten and Karl Wiesenburg. The Ole Miss Rebels were playing the Kentucky Wildcats,41,000 fans cheered at the stadium waving thousands of Confederate flags. At halftime, a gigantic Confederate flag was unveiled on the field, the crowd shouted We want Ross. Barnett went to the field, grabbed the microphone at the 50-yard line and said to an enthusiastic crowd, I love and I respect our heritage. Until the 1960s, Mississippians had known no alternative to segregation, Barnett, a Baptist Sunday school teacher, declared The Good Lord was the original segregationist. He put the man in Africa. He made us white because he wanted us white, and He intended that we should stay that way, Barnett said that Mississippi had the largest percent of black Americans because they love our way of life here, and that way is segregation. In 1963, Barnett tried to prevent the mens team of Mississippi State University from playing an NCAA Tournament game against the racially integrated team from Loyola of Chicago
Ross Barnett
–
Gov. Barnett with President
William David McCain (left) of
Mississippi Southern College at the signing of the bill which granted the college university status. At right is then Lieutenant Governor
Paul B. Johnson, Jr., who followed Barnett as governor.
Ross Barnett
–
Ross Barnett, 1964
31.
Myrlie Evers
–
She was also chairwoman of the NAACP, and published several books on topics related to civil rights and her husband’s legacy. On January 21,2013, she delivered the invocation at the inauguration of Barack Obama. Myrlie’s parents separated when she just an old, her mother left Vicksburg and had decided that Myrlie was too young to bring with her. Since her maternal grandmother worked all day in service, leaving her no time to raise a child, Myrlie was raised by her grandmother, Annie McCain Beasley. Both women were respected school teachers and they inspired her to follow in their footsteps, Myrlie attended the Magnolia school, took piano lessons, and performed songs, piano pieces or recited poetry at school, in church, and at local clubs. Myrlie graduated from Magnolia High School in Vicksburg in 1950, during her years in high school, Myrlie was also a member of the Chansonettes, a girls’ vocal group from Mount Heroden Baptist Church in Vicksburg. In 1950, Myrlie enrolled at Alcorn A&M College, one of the few colleges in the state that accepted African American students, Myrlie is also a member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority. An incident on her first day on campus altered her plans, Myrlie met and fell in love with Medgar Evers, the couple married on Christmas Eve of 1951. They would move to Mound Bayou, have three children, Darrell Kenyatta, Reena Denise, and James Van Dyke, in Mound Bayou, Myrlie worked as a secretary at the Magnolia Mutual Life Insurance Company. When Medgar Evers became the Mississippi field secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1954, Myrlie became his secretary and together they organized voter registration drives and civil rights demonstrations. As prominent civil rights leaders in Mississippi, the Everses became high-profile targets for pro-segregationist violence, in 1962, their home in Jackson, Mississippi, was firebombed in reaction to an organized boycott of downtown Jackson’s white merchants. The family had threatened, and Evers targeted by the Ku Klux Klan. After Byron De La Beckwiths second trial in 1967, she moved with her children to Claremont, California and she earned her Bachelor of Arts in sociology from Pomona College. She spoke on behalf of the NAACP and in 1967 co-wrote For Us, the Living and she also made two unsuccessful bids for U. S. Congress. From 1968 to 1970, Evers was the director of planning at the center for Educational Opportunity for the Claremont Colleges, from 1973 to 1975, Evers was the vice-president for advertising and publicity at the New York-based advertising firm, Seligman and Lapz. In 1975, she moved to Los Angeles to become the director for community affairs for the Atlantic Richfield Company. At ARCO she was responsible for developing and managing all the corporate programs and this included overseeing funding for community projects, outreach programs, public and private partnership programs and staff development. She helped secure money for organizations such as the National Woman’s Educational Fund
Myrlie Evers
–
Evers-Williams delivering remarks during the christening ceremony for
US Navy ship Medgar Evers, 2011.
Myrlie Evers
–
Myrlie Evers-Williams at the
Missouri Theatre in January 2015
Myrlie Evers
–
Evers-Williams delivering the invocation at the 2013 Presidential Inauguration
32.
House Un-American Activities Committee
–
The House Un-American Activities Committee was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives. The HUAC was created in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of citizens, public employees. In 1969, the House changed the name to House Committee on Internal Security. When the House abolished the committee in 1975, its functions were transferred to the House Judiciary Committee, the committees anti-communist investigations are often associated with those of Joseph McCarthy who, as a U. S. Senator, had no direct involvement with this House committee. McCarthy was the chairman of the Government Operations Committee and its Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U. S. Senate, not the House. The Overman Committee was a subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary chaired by North Carolina Democratic Senator Lee Slater Overman that operated from September 1918 to June 1919, the subcommittee investigated German as well as Bolshevik elements in the United States. This committee was concerned with investigating pro-German sentiments in the American liquor industry. Among the committees targets were the American Civil Liberties Union and communist presidential candidate William Z. Foster, the committee was widely known as the McCormack-Dickstein committee. Its records are held by the National Archives and Records Administration as records related to HUAC, the committee investigated allegations of a fascist plot to seize the White House, known as the business plot. Although the plot was reported as a hoax, the committee confirmed some details of the accusations. It is unclear whether he passed on any information. It was chaired by Martin Dies, Jr. and therefore known as the Dies Committee, in 1938, Hallie Flanagan, the head of the Federal Theatre Project, was subpoenaed to appear before the committee to answer the charge the project was overrun with communists. Flanagan was called to testify for only a part of one day, in 1939, the committee investigated leaders of the American Youth Congress, a Communist International affiliate organization. The committee also put together an argument for the internment of Japanese Americans known as the Yellow Report, a number of anti-WRA arguments were presented in subsequent hearings, but Director Dillon Myer debunked the more inflammatory claims. Twenty years later, in 1965–1966, however, the committee did conduct an investigation into Klan activities under chairman Edwin Willis, the House Committee on Un-American Activities became a standing committee in 1945. Democratic Representative Edward J. Hart of New Jersey became the committees first chairman, under this mandate, the committee focused its investigations on real and suspected communists in positions of actual or supposed influence in the United States society. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948 and this investigation ultimately resulted in Hisss trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion. In 1947, the committee held nine days of hearings into alleged communist propaganda, after conviction on contempt of Congress charges for refusal to answer some questions posed by committee members, The Hollywood Ten were blacklisted by the industry
House Un-American Activities Committee
–
While newsmen take notes, Chairman Dies of House Committee Investigating Un-American Activities reads and proofs his letter replying to Pres. Roosevelt's attack on the Committee, Oct. 26, 1938
House Un-American Activities Committee
–
Lee Slater Overman headed the first Congressional investigation of American Communism in 1919.
House Un-American Activities Committee
–
Conservative Texas Democrat Martin Dies served as chair of the Special Committee on Un-American Activities, predecessor to the permanent committee, for its entire 7-year duration.
House Un-American Activities Committee
–
Democrat
Francis E. Walter of Pennsylvania was chair of HUAC from 1955 until his death in 1963.
33.
Samuel Bowers
–
Samuel Holloway Bowers was a convicted murderer and leading white supremacist activist in Mississippi during the Civil Rights Movement. In response to movement, he co-founded a reactionary organization. He also was accused of bombings of Jewish targets in the cities of Jackson and he died in prison at the age of 82. Bowers was born on August 25,1924, in New Orleans, Louisiana, to Sam Bowers Sr. a salesman, on both sides of his family he was deeply rooted in the southern Mississippi—New Orleans area. His mothers father had a plantation, while his fathers father, representative Bowers was an explicitly virulent opponent of equality for African Americans. The restriction of suffrage was the wisest statesmanship ever exhibited in that proud Commonwealth and we have disfranchised not only the ignorant and vicious black, but the ignorant and vicious white as well. Sam Bowers Jr. attended high school in Jackson, Mississippi, while a high school student, Bowers worked part-time at the newly established Mississippi School Book Depository in Jackson. He was among the first group of staff members hired after the legislature approved of. During World War II, he served in the United States Navy, eventually, he settled in Laurel, Mississippi and started his own small business, Sambo Amusement Company, variously reported to be a pinball machine business and a vending machine business. Bowers, along many other southern whites, was outraged by the civil rights movement, believing it to be an antagonistic movement led by the far left. Bowers perceived the original Ku Klux Klan as being too passive. On February 15,1964, at a meeting in Brookhaven, Mississippi, he convinced about 200 members of the original Knights to defect and join his Klan and he became the groups fraternal imperial wizard. Bowers adopted a code of secrecy with the purpose of preserving law and his Klan, as Bowers wrote in one of his internal memoranda, was a nocturnal organization that works best at night. We must remember that the Communists who are directing the agitators want us to engage in pitched battles in the streets so they can declare martial law and this offensive will consist of two basic salients One. Massive street demonstrations by blacks used by communists designed to provoke whites into counterdemonstrations and open, pitched battles to provide an excuse for. Weaving religion into the mix, he further declared As Christians we are disposed to kindness, generosity, affection, as militants we are disposed to use physical force against our enemies. How can we reconcile these two apparently contradictory philosophies, the answer of course, is to purge malice, bitterness, and vengeance from our hearts. In 1964, community activists from Congress of Racial Equality and Students for a Democratic Society launched Freedom Summer, some Klan members were revealed to have acted on their own with regards to targeting and murdering these activists
Samuel Bowers
–
Bowers was incarcerated and died at the
Mississippi State Penitentiary
34.
Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution
–
The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights and protects a person from being compelled to be a witness against themselves in a criminal case. A defendant cannot be compelled to become a witness at his own trial, if, however, they choose to testify, they are not entitled to their right, and inferences can be drawn from a refusal to answer a question during cross-examination. The Amendment requires that felonies be tried only upon indictment by a grand jury, federal grand juries can force people to take the witness stand, but defendants in those proceedings have Fifth Amendment privileges until they choose to answer any question. To claim the privilege for failure to answer when being interviewed by police, the Amendments Double Jeopardy Clause provides the right to be tried only once in federal court for the same offense. The Amendment also has a Due Process Clause as well as an equal protection requirement. Finally, the Amendment requires that the power of eminent domain be coupled with just compensation for those whose property is taken and this draft was edited by Congress, all the material before the first ellipsis was placed at the end, and some of the wording was modified. After approval by Congress, the amendment was ratified by the states, the grand jury is a pre-constitutional common law institution, and a constitutional fixture in its own right exclusively embracing common law. The process applies to the states to the extent that the states have incorporated grand juries and/or common law, most states have an alternative civil process. Many constitutional restrictions that apply in court or in other situations do not apply during grand jury proceedings, also, an individual does not have the right to have an attorney present in the grand jury room during hearings. Currently, federal law permits the trial of misdemeanors without indictments, additionally, in trials of non-capital felonies, the prosecution may proceed without indictments if the defendants waive their Fifth Amendment right. Grand jury indictments may be amended by the only in limited circumstances. In Ex Parte Bain,121 U. S.1, United States v. Miller,471 U. S.130 partly reversed Ex parte Bain, now, an indictments scope may be narrowed by the prosecution. Thus, lesser included charges may be dropped, but new charges may not be added, the Grand Jury Clause of the Fifth Amendment does not protect those serving in the armed forces, whether during wartime or peacetime. Members of the militia called up to serve with federal forces are not protected under the clause either. In OCallahan v. Parker,395 U. S.258 and that decision was overturned in 1987, when the Court held that members of the militia in actual service may be tried for any offense without indictments. The grand jury indictment clause of the Fifth Amendment has not been incorporated under the Fourteenth Amendment and this means that the grand jury requirement applies only to felony charges in the federal court system. While many states do employ grand juries, no defendant has a Fifth Amendment right to a jury for criminal charges in state court. States are free to abolish grand juries, and many have replaced them with preliminary hearing, the historical origin of infamous crime comes from the infamia, a punishment under Roman law by which a citizen was deprived his citizenship
Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution
–
The Bill of Rights in the
National Archives.
35.
Jews
–
The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
Jews
–
Baruch Spinoza
Jews
–
Map of
Canaan
Jews
–
David Ben-Gurion
Jews
–
George Gershwin
36.
U.S. Democratic Party
–
The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
U.S. Democratic Party
–
Andrew Jackson was the first Democratic
President of the United States
U.S. Democratic Party
–
Democratic Party
U.S. Democratic Party
–
The three leaders of the Democratic party during the first half of the 20th century: President
Woodrow Wilson (nominated in 1912 and '16) Sec. of State
William J. Bryan (nominated in 1896, 1900 and 1908),
Josephus Daniels,
Breckinridge Long,
William Phillips, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt (nominated for VP in 1920 and for president in 1932, 36,'40 and 44)
U.S. Democratic Party
–
John F. Kennedy,
35th President of the United States (1961–1963)
37.
Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi
–
The Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi is the second-highest ranking executive officer in Mississippi, right below the Governor of Mississippi. The office of lieutenant governor was established when Mississippi became a state, abolished for a few decades in the first half of the 19th century, the Lieutenant Governor is President of the Senate and presides over that body, only voting to break a tie. Compared to the lieutenant governors in states, Mississippis has a great deal of power concerning the state Senate. The Lieutenant Governor has the ability to appoint members, vice-chairmen. For example, former Lt. Gov. Amy Tuck, a Republican, appointed other Republicans to the chairmanships of some committees, given that power, it is argued that the office is more powerful than the governorship. In the event of the death, resignation, or removal of the Governor, also, if the Governor is out of state, then the Lieutenant Governor can act in the Governors place. There is a limit, with each term being four years long. The majority of Mississippi Lieutenant Governors have been Democrats, since the end of Reconstruction, there have been only four Republicans – Eddie Briggs, who served from 1992 to 1996, Amy Tuck, who served from 2000 to 2008. Tuck was originally elected as a Democrat before switching to the Republican Party in December 2002. She was re-elected as a Republican in 2003, Phil Bryant, who took office in January 2008, list of lieutenant governors of Mississippi Official State of Mississippi Lt. Gov. Website
Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi
–
Territorial
(1798–1817)
38.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
J. Edgar Hoover, Director from 1924 to 1972.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
Seal of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
FBI
SWAT agents in a training exercise
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
An FBI Agent tags the
cockpit voice recorder from
EgyptAir Flight 990 on the deck of the
USS Grapple (ARS 53) at the crash site on November 13, 1999.
39.
New Orleans
–
New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
New Orleans
–
From top left: A typical New Orleans mansion off
St. Charles Avenue, a streetcar passing by
Loyola University and
Tulane University, the skyline of the
Central Business District,
Jackson Square, and a view of Royal Street in the
French Quarter
New Orleans
–
The
Battle of New Orleans (1815)
New Orleans
–
Mississippi River
steamboats at New Orleans, 1853.
New Orleans
–
The starving people of New Orleans under Union occupation during the Civil War, 1862
40.
New Orleans Police Department
–
The New Orleans Police Department has primary responsibility for law enforcement in New Orleans, Louisiana. The departments jurisdiction covers all of Orleans Parish, while the city is divided into eight police districts, Michael S. Harrison is the Superintendent of Police and chief commander of the NOPD. Operations Bureau - Commander Management Services Bureau - Commander Derek Frick Criminal Investigations Division - Commander Douglas B, walter Powers Public Affairs Division - Director Tyler A. Walls 4th District - Commander Caesar Ruffin 5th District - Commander Frank M, in 2001, Superintendent Serpas retired from the New Orleans Police Department after 21 years of service. Before retiring, Superintendent Serpas attained the civil rank of major. Chief Serpas was preceded by Warren J. Riley, who retired with the change of the administration on May 2,2010. Riley had been preceded by Eddie Compass and Richard Pennington, during a press conference on Friday, June 25,2010, Superintendent Serpas announced several reforms to the New Orleans Police Department. Superintendent Serpas reduced the number of deputy superintendents from six to four, Serpas announced that Marlon Defillo, current Assistant Superintendent of the Bureau of Investigations, would take on a new role as the Deputy Chief of the Operations Bureau. Current Deputy Chief Kirk Bouyelas would also take on a new role as Deputy Chief of the Investigative Services Bureau, Serpas also reduced the rank of eleven appointed Majors to their proper civil service rank of Captain. Also in the slew of changes, Serpas reassigned 25 of the current 37 Captains within the department, as a courtesy, many personnel continue to address district commanders with the honorific Major. As of July 2010, only two officers - Treadaway and Burkart - retain the rank of major, both of whom were appointed to the position by civil service. On Tuesday, March 1,2011, the New Orleans Civil Service Commission unanimously approved Superintendent Serpas proposal to create a new pay plan for 16 new Police Commanders, Serpas originally asked the Commission to approve 16 Colonels positions. The new Commanders will be third in the structure of the New Orleans Police Department, only ranked lower than the Superintendent. In June 2011,1 additional commander position was created for the Reserve Division, all other personnel, including the two Majors will be subordinate to these individuals. The Police Commanders are responsible for the 17 Core Components of the NOPD, on Monday, August 18,2014, at a press conference at City Hall, Superintendent Ronal W. Serpas announced his retirement from the New Orleans Police Department, effective immediately. Mayor Mitch Landrieu then announced the appointment of 7th District Commander Michael S. Harrison and it was announced later in the day that former Superintendent Serpas would be taking on a faculty teaching position at Loyola University of New Orleans. It was also announced that 6th District Commander Robert Bardy had been promoted to Deputy Superintendent of Operations, also promoted were Lieutenants Ronnie Stevens and Lawrence Dupree, now Commanders of the 6th & 7th Districts respectively. On Friday, October 17,2014, Superintendent Harrison announced the realignment of some of the top brass
New Orleans Police Department
–
Patch of the New Orleans Police Department
New Orleans Police Department
–
African American New Orleans Police officer, 1871, sketched by
Alfred Waud.
New Orleans Police Department
–
White Leaguers attacking the integrated police force, 1874
New Orleans Police Department
–
1889 editorial cartoon in the New Orleans "Mascot" satirizing the contrast between public perceptions of the police and "
whitewashing " official investigations.
41.
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
–
The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, sometimes only the Causeway, is a causeway composed of two parallel bridges crossing Lake Pontchartrain in southern Louisiana, United States. The longer of the two bridges is 23.83 miles long, the southern terminus of the Causeway is in Metairie, Louisiana, a suburb of New Orleans. The northern terminus is at Mandeville, Louisiana, Lake Pontchartrain Causeway then became the longest bridge over water while Jiaozhou Bay Bridge the longest bridge over water. The bridges are supported by 9,500 concrete pilings, the two bridges feature a bascule, which spans the navigation channel 8 miles south of the north shore. The idea of a bridge spanning Lake Pontchartrain dates back to the early 19th century and Bernard de Marigny and he started a ferry service that continued to operate into the mid-1930s. In the 1920s, a called for the creation of artificial islands that would then be linked by a series of bridges. The financing for this plan would come from selling home sites on the islands, the modern Causeway started to take form in 1948 when Ernest M. Loeb Jr. envisioned the project. Due to his lobbying and vision, the Louisiana Legislature created what is now the Causeway Commission, the Louisiana Bridge Company was formed to construct the bridge, which in turn appointed James E. Walters Sr. to direct the project. The original Causeway was a span, measuring 23.86 miles in length. It opened in 1956 at a cost of $30.7 million, a parallel two-lane span, 1/100th of a mile longer than the original, opened on May 10,1969, at a cost of $26 million. Since its construction, the Causeway has operated as a toll bridge, until 1999, tolls were collected from traffic going in each direction. To alleviate congestion on the shore, toll collections were eliminated on the northbound span. The standard tolls for cars changed from $1.50 in each direction, after Hurricane Katrina on August 29,2005, videos collected showed damage to the bridge. The storm surge was not as high under the Causeway as it was near the I-10 Twin Span Bridge, a total of 17 spans were lost. The causeways have never sustained major damage of any sort from hurricanes or other natural occurrences, the existing fiber optic cable plant was blown out of its tray but remained intact per optical time domain reflectometer analysis. With the I-10 Twin Span Bridge severely damaged, the Causeway was used as a route for recovery teams staying in lands to the north to get into New Orleans. The Causeway reopened first to emergency traffic and then to the general public – with tolls suspended – on September 19,2005, tolls were reinstated by mid-October of that year. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway is one of seven spans in Louisiana with a total length of 5 miles or more. S
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
–
The southern end of the causeway at Metairie, Louisiana in 1998
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
–
Satellite view
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
–
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway Southbound
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
–
Types
42.
Dynamite
–
Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht and it rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safer alternative to gun powder and nitroglycerin. Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder, Nobel obtained patents for his invention in England on 7 May 1867, in Sweden on 19 October 1867. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as an alternative to black powder. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were shut down. However, a few American businessmen got around the patent by using a different formula. Nobel originally sold dynamite as Nobels Blasting Powder but decided to change the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word δύναμις dýnamis, an industrialist, engineer, and inventor, Alfred Nobels father, Immanuel Nobel, built bridges and buildings in Stockholm. His construction work inspired him to new methods of blasting rock. Immanuels work with later on inspired Alfred to make explosives safer. Today dynamite is used in the mining, quarrying, construction. Dynamite is still the product of choice for trenching applications, Dynamite is occasionally used as an initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive charges. Nitroglycerin by itself is a strong explosive, but is extremely shock-sensitive, and degrades over time to even more unstable forms. Dynamite combines nitroglycerin with absorbents and stabilizers, rendering it safe to use, the original composition of dynamite consisted of three parts Explosive Oil, one part diatomaceous earth as the absorbent, and a small admixture of sodium carbonate antacid as the stabilizer. Diatomaceous earth is not usually used today as an absorbent medium and it has replaced by cheaper media like sawdust, wood pulp, flour. Other stabilizers like calcium carbonate or zinc oxide can be used in the place of sodium carbonate, sodium nitrate is added to the medium as an oxidizer that improves the dynamites brisance. Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about 20 cm long and about 3.2 cm in diameter, a stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ of energy. Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion or by weight, Dynamite is usually rated by weight strength, usually from 20% to 60%. For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% dope, the maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions
Dynamite
–
Preparation of dynamite during the construction of the
Douglas Dam, 1942.
Dynamite
–
Sawdust (or any other type of absorbent material) soaked in
nitroglycerin.
Dynamite
–
"Nobel's ExtraDynamite" manufactured by Nobel's old company, Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget.
Dynamite
–
Advertisement for the Aetna Explosives Company of New York.
43.
Louisiana State Penitentiary
–
The Louisiana State Penitentiary is a maximum-security prison farm in Louisiana operated by the Louisiana Department of Public Safety & Corrections. It is named Angola after the country from which many of the slaves came who worked on this former plantation. It is the largest maximum-security prison in the United States with 6,300 prisoners and 1,800 staff, including officers, janitors, maintenance. The prison is located at the end of Louisiana Highway 66, Angola is bordered on three sides by the Mississippi River. Burl Cain served as the warden from 1995 to March 7,2016, Death row for men and the state execution chamber for both sexes are located at the Angola facility. Before 1835, state inmates were held in a jail in New Orleans, the first Louisiana State Penitentiary, located at the intersection of 6th and Laurel streets in Baton Rouge, was modeled on a prison in Wethersfield, Connecticut. In 1844 the state leased the prison and its prisoners to McHatton Pratt and Company, union soldiers occupied the prison in Baton Rouge during the Civil War. In 1869 during the Reconstruction era, Samuel Lawrence James, a former Confederate major, the land that has been developed as Angola Penitentiary was purchased as four contiguous plantations by Isaac Franklin from Francis Routh during the 1830s. He used profits from his trading firm, Franklin and Armfield, of Alexandria, Virginia and Natchez. These plantations Panola, Belle View, Killarney and Angola, were joined in 1880 during their sale by Franklins widow, Adelicia Cheatham, the plantation was named for the country in Africa where the former slaves came from. It contained a building called the Old Slave Quarters, major Samuel James ran the plantation using convicts leased from the state as his workers. He was responsible for their room and board, and virtually total authority over them, Men who owed minor fees and fines were forced into labor, which resulted in considerable abuse of the prisoners and violence against them. The state exercised little oversight of conditions, Prisoners were often worked to death under harsh conditions. The Louisiana Department of Public Safety & Corrections says that the facility opened as a prison in 1901. Charles Wolfe and Kip Lornell, authors of The Life and Legend of Leadbelly, hardened criminals broke down upon being notified that they were being sent to Angola. White-black racial tensions in the society were expressed at the prison, adding to the violence, Wolfe and Lornell said that the staff, consisting of 90 people, ran the prison like it was a private fiefdom. The two authors said that prisoners were viewed as niggers of the lowest order, the state did not appropriate many funds for the operation of Angola, as it saved money by trying to decrease costs. Much of the remaining money ended up in the operations of other projects, Wolfe
Louisiana State Penitentiary
–
The entrance to the Louisiana State Penitentiary has a guard house that controls entry into the compound - The placard says "Louisiana State Penitentiary" and "
Burl Cain, Warden"
Louisiana State Penitentiary
–
Picking cotton, c. 1900
Louisiana State Penitentiary
–
Quarters A, 1901
Louisiana State Penitentiary
–
River Boat America with Convicts and Supplies on the Mississippi River headed for Angola. circa late 1800s.
44.
Ordained
–
Ordination is the process by which individuals are consecrated, that is, set apart as clergy to perform various religious rites and ceremonies. The process and ceremonies of ordination vary by religion and denomination, one who is in preparation for, or who is undergoing the process of ordination is sometimes called an ordinand. The liturgy used at an ordination is sometimes referred to as an ordination, the tradition of the ordained monastic community began with the Buddha, who established orders of monks and later of nuns. The procedure of ordination in Buddhism is laid down in the Vinaya, permission was granted in 822 CE, seven days after Saicho died. The platform was finished in 827 CE at Enryaku-ji temple on Mount Hiei, pabbajja is an ordination procedure for novice Buddhist monks in the Theravada tradition. The legitimacy of fully ordained nuns has become a significant topic of discussion in recent years, however th 14th Dalai Lama has endeavored for many years to improve this situation. In Medieval Sōtō Zen, a tradition of ordination was developed to give the laity access to Zen funeral rites. Chinese Ch’an monastic codes, from which Japanese Sōtō practices were derived, contain only monastic funeral rites, to solve this problem, the Sōtō school developed the practice of ordaining laypeople after death, thus allowing monastic funeral rites to be used for them as well. The Buddhist ordination tradition of the New Kadampa Tradition-International Kadampa Buddhist Union is not the traditional Buddhist ordination and he is said to view them as a “practical condensation” of the 253 Vinaya vows of fully ordained monks. There are also no instructions and guidelines for the behaviour of monks. Because the behaviour of monks and nuns is not clearly defined “each Resident Teacher developed his or her own way of ‘disciplining’ monks, there are three degrees of ordination, deacon, presbyter, and bishop. Both bishops and presbyters are priests and have authority to celebrate the Eucharist, Ordination of a bishop is performed by several bishops, ordination of a priest or deacon is performed by a single bishop. The ordination of a new bishop is called a consecration. Many ancient sources specify that at least three bishops are necessary to consecrate another, e. g, only a person ordained to the priesthood may administer certain sacraments. The Catholic Church teaches that one bishop is sufficient to consecrate a new bishop validly, in most Christian denominations that retain the practice of ordination, only an already ordained bishop or the equivalent may ordain bishops, priests, and deacons. However, Canon Law requires that bishops always be consecrated with the mandate of the Roman Pontiff, moreover, at least three bishops are to perform the consecration, although the Apostolic See may dispense from this requirement in extraordinary circumstances. Those married deacons who become widowers have the possibility of seeking ordination to the priesthood in exceptional cases, the Roman Catholic Church has never recognized Anglican orders as valid. Anglicanism recognizes Roman Catholic and Orthodox ordinations, hence, clergy converting to Anglicanism are not re-ordained, some Eastern Orthodox churches recognize Roman Catholic ordinations while others re-ordain Roman Catholic clergy who convert
Ordained
–
Novitiate
Buddhist ordination
Ordained
–
Ordination of a
Catholic priest (pre-1968 form of the
Roman Rite).
Ordained
–
Ordination of an
Orthodox priest. The deacon being ordained is kneeling with the bishop's
omophorion over his head and is being blessed by the bishop straightway before the
Cheirotonia.
Ordained
–
Eastern Orthodox
subdeacon being ordained to the
diaconate. The
bishop has placed his
omophorion and right hand on the head of the candidate and is reading the Prayer of
Cheirotonia.
45.
Knoxville, Tennessee
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Knoxville is a city in the U. S. state of Tennessee, and the county seat of Knox County. The city had an population of 185,291 in 2015. Knoxville is the city of the Knoxville Metropolitan Statistical Area. The KMSA is, in turn, the component of the Knoxville-Sevierville-La Follette Combined Statistical Area. First settled in 1786, Knoxville was the first capital of Tennessee, the city struggled with geographic isolation throughout the early 19th century. The arrival of the railroad in 1855 led to an economic boom, during the Civil War, the city was bitterly divided over the secession issue, and was occupied alternately by both Confederate and Union armies. Following the war, Knoxville grew rapidly as a wholesaling and manufacturing center. The citys economy stagnated after the 1920s as the manufacturing sector collapsed, Knoxville is the home of the flagship campus of the University of Tennessee, whose sports teams, called the Volunteers or Vols, are extremely popular in the surrounding area. The first people to form settlements in what is now Knoxville arrived during the Woodland period. One of the oldest artificial structures in Knoxville is a burial mound constructed during the early Mississippian culture period, the earthwork mound is now surrounded by the University of Tennessee campus. By the 18th century, the Cherokee had become the dominant tribe in the East Tennessee region, although they were consistently at war with the Creek, the Cherokee people called the Knoxville area kuwandatalunyi, which means Mulberry Place. Most Cherokee habitation in the area was concentrated in the Overhill settlements along the Little Tennessee River, the first Euro-American traders and explorers were recorded as arriving in the Tennessee Valley in the late 17th century. There is significant evidence that Hernando de Soto visited Bussell Island in 1540, the end of the French and Indian War and confusion brought about by the American Revolution led to a drastic increase in Euro-American settlement west of the Appalachians. By the 1780s, Euro-American settlers were established in the Holston. The U. S. Congress ordered all illegal settlers out of the valley in 1785, as settlers continued to trickle into Cherokee lands, tensions between the settlers and the Cherokee rose steadily. In 1786, James White, a Revolutionary War officer, and his friend James Connor built Whites Fort near the mouth of First Creek, on land White had purchased three years earlier. In 1790, Whites son-in-law, Charles McClung—who had arrived from Pennsylvania the previous year—surveyed Whites holdings between First Creek and Second Creek for the establishment of a town, mcClung drew up 640. 5-acre lots. The waterfront was set aside for a town common, two lots were set aside for a church and graveyard
Knoxville, Tennessee
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The City of Knoxville, Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
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The home of James White in Downtown Knoxville
Knoxville, Tennessee
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Statue representing the signing of the Treaty of the Holston in Downtown Knoxville
Knoxville, Tennessee
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The Craighead-Jackson House in Knoxville, built in 1818
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Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
Tennessee
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Monument near the ancient site of Tanasi in Monroe County
Tennessee
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Flag
Tennessee
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View from atop
Mount Le Conte in the
Great Smoky Mountains National Park, April 2007
Tennessee
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Autumn in Tennessee. Roadway to Lindsey Lake in
David Crockett State Park, located a half mile west of
Lawrenceburg
47.
The Clarion Ledger
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The Clarion-Ledger is an American Pulitzer Prize-winning daily newspaper in Jackson, Mississippi. It is the second oldest company in the state of Mississippi and is one of only a few newspapers in the nation continues to circulate statewide. It is a division of Gannett River States Publishing Corporation. The paper traces its roots to The Eastern Clarion, founded in Jasper County, Mississippi, later that year, it was sold and moved to Meridian, Mississippi. After the American Civil War, it was moved to Jackson and it soon became known as The Clarion. Four employees who were displaced by the merger founded their own newspaper, The Jackson Evening Post, in 1888, The Clarion merged with the State Ledger and became known as the Daily Clarion-Ledger. In 1907, Fred Sullens purchased an interest in the competing The Jackson Evening Post and it still remained an evening newspaper. Thomas and Robert Hederman bought the Daily Clarion-Ledger in 1920 and dropped Daily from its masthead, on August 24,1937, The Clarion-Ledger and Jackson Daily News incorporated under a charter issued to Mississippi Publishers Corporation for the purpose of selling joint advertising. The Hederman family now owned both papers and consolidated the two newspaper plants, in 1982, the Hedermans sold the Clarion-Ledger and Daily News to Gannett, ending 60 years of family ownership. Gannett merged the two papers into a morning paper under the Clarion-Ledger masthead, with the Clarion-Ledger incorporating the best features of the Daily News. The purchase of both papers by Gannett essentially created a newspaper monopoly in Central Mississippi, which still exists. Historically, both newspapers—The Clarion-Ledger and the Jackson Daily News—were openly and unashamedly racist, even by Deep South standards, if every negro in Mississippi was a class graduate of Harvard, and had been elected class orator. He would not be as well fitted to exercise the rights of suffrage as the Anglo-Saxon farm laborer, when 200,000 people marched on Washington in 1963 to urge jobs and freedom for black people and Martin Luther King, Jr. At the time, longstanding state policy forbade state collegiate athletic teams from playing in integrated events, the paper often referred to civil rights activists as communists and chimpanzees. The papers racism was so virulent that it prompted some in the African-American community to call it The Klan-Ledger, when violence, aided by such rabble rousing, took place in Mississippi, the paper sought to put the blame somewhere else. In the mid-1970s, Rea S. Hederman, the generation of his family to run the paper. Hederman expanded the staff and news budget, editors began to pursue promising young reporters, even from other states. To help rehabilitate the papers image among blacks, who became a majority of Jacksons population
The Clarion Ledger
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The Clarion-Ledger
48.
Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission
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The Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission was a state agency which operated from 1956 to 1977. It was directed by the governor of Mississippi, the stated objective of the commission was to protect the sovereignty of the state of Mississippi, and her sister states from encroachment thereon by the Federal Government. It coordinated activities to portray the state and racial segregation in a positive light. The sovereignty the state was trying to protect was against federal enforcement of civil laws, such as the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. The governor sat as the chairman and its initial budget was $250,000 a year. The Sovereignty Commissions first investigator was Leonard Hicks who began his position in 1956, in 1958 Zack Van Landingham became an investigator, followed by R. C. Bob Thomas, State Representative Hugh Boren, Andy Hopkins, other principal investigators for the Sovereignty Commission were Virgil Downing, Leland Cole, Fulton Tutor, Edgar C. The commission penetrated most of the civil rights organizations in Mississippi. It informed police about planned marches or boycotts and encouraged police harassment of African-Americans who cooperated with civil rights groups and its agents obstructed voter registration by blacks and harassed African-Americans seeking to attend white schools. The commissions activities included attempting to preserve the states segregation and Jim Crow laws, opposing school integration, among its first employees were a former FBI agent and a transfer from the state highway patrol. The agency outwardly extolled racial harmony, but it secretly paid investigators, staff of the commission worked closely with, and in some cases funded, the notorious White Citizens Councils. From 1960 to 1964, it funded the White Citizens Council. The commission also used its intelligence-gathering capabilities to assist in the defense of Byron De La Beckwith, Sov-Com investigator Andy Hopkins provided De La Beckwiths attorneys with information on the potential jurors, which the attorneys used during the selection process. The Sov-Com was also involved in the arrests and murders of James Chaney, Michael Schwerner, Commission agent, A. L. Hopkins, met with Neshoba County law enforcement and suggested the disappearance was a propaganda ploy. After the election of Paul B. Johnson Jr. Farmer, Jr. Johnston left the commission in 1968 and was from 1981 to 1985 the mayor of Forest in Scott County, the commission officially closed in 1977, four years after Governor Bill Waller vetoed further funding. After the agency was disbanded, state lawmakers ordered the files sealed until 2027, after a lawsuit, in 1989 a federal judge ordered the records opened, with some exceptions for still-living people. Legal challenges delayed the availability to the public until March 1998. Once unsealed, records revealed more than 87,000 names of people about whom the state had collected information, today, the records of the commission are available online for search
Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission
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Millsaps students protesting death of
JSU student and civil rights worker Benjamin Brown. Photo shot by the Commission with numbers identifying individual students.
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Voir dire
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Voir dire is a legal phrase that refers to a variety of procedures connected with jury trials. It originally referred to an oath taken by jurors to tell the truth, i. e. to say what is true, what is objectively accurate or subjectively honest and it comes from the Anglo-Norman language. The word voir, in combination, comes from Old French and derives from Latin verum. It is related to the modern French word voire, indeed, but not to the common word voir, to see. However, the expression is now interpreted by false etymology to mean to see say. The term is used in modern Canadian legal French, in earlier centuries, a challenge to a particular juror would be tried by other members of the jury panel, and the challenged juror would take an oath of voir dire, meaning to tell the truth. This procedure fell into disuse when the function of trying challenges to jurors was transferred to the judge, in the United Kingdom, Cyprus, Hong Kong, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada it refers to a trial within a trial. It is a hearing to determine the admissibility of evidence, or the competency of a witness or juror. As the subject matter of the voir dire often relates to evidence, competence or other matters that may lead to bias on behalf of the jury, the term has thus been broadened in Australian jurisdictions to include any hearing during a trial where the jury is removed. Under Scots law, jury selection is random, and there are a few well-defined exclusions in criminal trials, in Canada, the case of Erven v. The Queen holds that testimony on a voir dire cannot influence the trial itself and this remains true even if the judge ruled against the accused in the voir dire. The judge is assumed to ignore what they heard during voir dire, the jury is never present during a voir dire. In the United States, it now refers to the process by which prospective jurors are questioned about their backgrounds. Voir Dire is the process by which attorneys select, or perhaps more appropriately reject and it also refers to the process by which expert witnesses are questioned about their backgrounds and qualifications before being allowed to present their opinion testimony in court. As noted above, in the United States, voir dire can also refer to examination of the background of a witness to assess their qualification or fitness to give testimony on a given subject, Voir dire is often taught to law students in trial advocacy courses. Law French Strike for cause Sample Voir Dire to Jury—United States Department of Justice Getting Jurors to Talk
Voir dire
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USA v. Mohammed Hashim -- Defense Voir Dire of
Military judge
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NAACP
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Du Bois, Mary White Ovington and Moorfield Storey. Its mission in the 21st century is to ensure the political, educational, social and their national initiatives included political lobbying, publicity efforts, and litigation strategies developed by their legal team. The group enlarged its mission in the late 20th century by considering issues such as police misconduct, the status of foreign refugees. Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the common term colored people. The NAACP bestows annual awards to people of color in two categories, Image Awards are for achievement in the arts and entertainment, and Spingarn Medals are for outstanding achievement of any kind and its headquarters is in Baltimore, Maryland. The NAACP is headquartered in Baltimore, with regional offices in New York, Michigan, Georgia, Maryland, Texas, Colorado. Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in that region, local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members. In the U. S. the NAACP is administered by a 64-member board, julian Bond, Civil Rights Movement activist and former Georgia State Senator, was chairman until replaced in February 2010 by health-care administrator Roslyn Brock. For decades in the first half of the 20th century, the organization was led by its executive secretary. James Weldon Johnson and Walter F. White, who served in that role successively from 1920 to 1958, were more widely known as NAACP leaders than were presidents during those years. Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action, local chapters are supported by the Branch and Field Services department and the Youth and College department. The Legal department focuses on cases of broad application to minorities, such as systematic discrimination in employment, government. The Washington, D. C. bureau is responsible for lobbying the U. S. government, the goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education. As of 2007, the NAACP had approximately 425,000 paying and non-paying members, the NAACPs non-current records are housed at the Library of Congress, which has served as the organizations official repository since 1964. The records held there comprise approximately five million items spanning the NAACPs history from the time of its founding until 2003, in 1905, a group of thirty-two prominent African-American leaders met to discuss the challenges facing people of color and possible strategies and solutions. They were particularly concerned by the Southern states disenfranchisement of blacks starting with Mississippis passage of a new constitution in 1890, through 1908, southern legislatures dominated by white Democrats ratified new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. In practice, this caused the exclusion of most blacks and many whites from the political system in southern states. Black voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result of such legislation, men who had been voting for thirty years in the South were told they did not qualify to register
NAACP
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Founders of the NAACP: Moorfield Storey, Mary White Ovington and W.E.B. Du Bois.
NAACP
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National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
NAACP
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An African American drinks out of a segregated water cooler designated for "colored" patrons in 1939 at a streetcar terminal in
Oklahoma City.
NAACP
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Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in
Durham, North Carolina, 1940
