1.
Camisard
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Camisards were Huguenots of the rugged and isolated Cévennes region, and the Vaunage in southern France. They raised an insurrection against the persecutions which followed the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the Camisards operated throughout the mainly protestant Cévennes region which in the eighteenth century also included the Vaunage and the parts of the Camargue around Aigues Mortes. The revolt by the Camisards broke out in 1702, with the worst of the fighting continuing until 1704, then scattered fighting until 1710, the Edict of Tolerance was not finally signed until 1787. The name camisard in the Occitan language can be attributed to a type of linen smock or shirt known as a camisa that peasants wear in lieu of any sort of uniform, alternatively, it can derive from the Occitan word camus, meaning paths. Camisada, in the sense of attack, is derived from a feature of their tactics. In April 1598, Henry IV had signed the Edict of Nantes, Protestants had been given limited civic rights and the liberty to worship according to their convictions. This fundamental and irrevocable law was maintained by Henrys son, Louis XIII, in October 1685, Henrys grandson, Louis XIV, revoked the Edict of Nantes, issuing his own Edict of Fontainebleau. Louis was determined to impose a religion on France, that of Rome. As early as 1681 he instituted the dragonnades which were enforced by dragoons. They were billeted in the homes of Protestants to help them decide to convert back to the church or alternatively to emigrate. The Cévennes was a centre of resistance, and the policy did not work, the Edict of Fontainebleau removed all rights and protections from the Huguenots. There followed about twenty years of persecutions, reformed worship and private Bible readings were outlawed. The pastors and worshippers were captured and later exiled, sent to the galleys, seventy-five missionary priests under the command of Abbot François Langlade were sent to the Cévennes. Soldiers carrying crosses on their muskets forced the peasants to sign papers to say they were converting, the peasants continued to attend illicit meeting. Huguenots with a trade, fled to neighbouring countries, the King responded by closing the borders. The Protestant peasants of the Vaunage and the Cévennes, led by a number of known as prophets, notably Franćois Vivent and Claude Brousson. Vivent encouraged his followers to arm themselves in case they were set upon by Royalist soldiers, several leading prophets were tortured and executed, Franćois Vivent in 1692 and Claude Brousson in 1698. Many more were exiled, leaving the abandoned congregations to the leadership of less educated and more mystically-oriented preachers, the Catholic church was likened to the Beast of the Apocalypse and the clandestine prophets claimed to have seen it in the prophetic dreams
2.
Occitan language
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Occitan, also known as lenga dòc by its native speakers, is a Romance language. It is spoken in southern France, Italys Occitan Valleys, Monaco, and Spains Val dAran, collectively, Occitan is also spoken in the linguistic enclave of Guardia Piemontese. However, there is controversy about the unity of the language, others include Catalan in this family, as the distance between this language and some Occitan dialects is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. In fact, Catalan was considered an Occitan dialect until the end of the 19th century, today, Occitan is an official language in Catalonia, where a subdialect of Gascon known as Aranese is spoken in the Val dAran. Since September 2010, the Parliament of Catalonia has considered Aranese Occitan to be the preferred language for use in the Val dAran. Unlike other Romance languages such as French or Spanish, there is no written standard language called Occitan. Instead, there are competing norms for writing Occitan, some of which attempt to be pan-dialectal, There are also significant lexical differences, where some dialects have words cognate with French, and others have Catalan and Spanish cognates. Nonetheless, there is a significant amount of mutual intelligibility, the long-term survival of Occitan is in grave doubt. According to the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages, four of the six dialects of Occitan are considered severely endangered. The name Occitan comes from lenga dòc, òc being the Occitan word for yes and this was not, of course, the only defining characteristic of each group. The word òc came from Vulgar Latin hoc, while oïl originated from Latin hoc illud, Old Catalan, and now the Catalan of Northern Catalonia also have hoc. Other Romance languages derive their word for yes from the Latin sic, thus, etc. such as Spanish sí, Eastern Lombard sé, Sicilian and Italian sì, or Portuguese sim. French uses si to answer yes in response to questions that are asked in the negative sense, the name Occitan is sometimes considered a neologism, however, it was attested around 1300 as occitanus, a crossing of oc and aquitanus. For many centuries, the Occitan dialects were referred to as Limousin or Provençal, after Frédéric Mistrals Félibrige movement in the 19th century, Provençal achieved the greatest literary recognition and so became the most popular term for Occitan. The term first came into fashion in Italy, currently, linguists use the terms Provençal and Limousin strictly to refer to specific varieties within Occitania, keeping the name Occitan for the language as a whole. Many non-specialists, however, continue to refer to the language as Provençal, NO·L LI TOLRÀ NO·L LI DEVEDARÀ NI NO LEN DECEBRÀ. Nec societatem non AURÀ, si per castellum recuperare NON O FA, et si recuperare potuerit in potestate Froterio et Raimundo LO TORNARÀ, carolingian litanies, both written and sung in Latin, were answered to in Old Occitan by the audience. Occitan was the vehicle for the poetry of the medieval troubadours and trobairises, At that time
3.
Gorges du Tarn
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The Gorges du Tarn is a canyon formed by the Tarn River between the Causse Méjean and the Causse de Sauveterre, in southern France. The canyon, mainly located in the Lozère département, and partially in the Aveyron département, is about 53 kilometres -long and 400 m to 600 m deep, the architecture of the gorges involves Mesozoic limestone plateaux downstream presenting sub-vertical cliffs. Faults like the Hauterive Fault explain the important water sources in the region of Sainte-Enimie, the climate is Mediterranean, with relatively mild winters and very warm summers. Tourism in Tarn Office de Tourisme des Cévennes - Gorges du Tarn Gorges du Tarn on About-France. com
4.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Massif Central
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The Massif Central is an elevated region in the middle of southern France, consisting of mountains and plateaus. It covers approximately 15 percent of the country, the region was a barrier to transport within France until the opening of the A75 motorway, which not only made north-south travel easier, but also opened up the Massif Central itself. The Massif Central is an old massif, formed during the Variscan orogeny and it was powerfully raised and made to look geologically younger in the eastern section by the uplift of the Alps during the Paleogene period and in the southern section by the uplift of the Pyrenees. These tectonic movements created faults and are maybe at the origin of the volcanism in the Massif Central, in fact, above the crystalline foundation, we can observe many volcanoes of many different types and ages, volcanic plateaus, stratovolcanoes, and small, very recent monogenic volcanoes. The entire region contains a concentration of approximately 450 extinct volcanoes. The strip of Chaîne des Puys, running north to south and less than 60 square miles long, the Auvergne Volcanoes National Park is in the massif. In the south, one region, made up of features called causses in French. The most famous of these is the canyon of Tarn, the following régions are part of the Massif Central, Auvergne, Limousin. Part of the following régions are in the Massif Central, Languedoc-Roussillon, the largest cities are Clermont-Ferrand and Saint-Étienne
7.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
8.
Departments of France
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In the administrative divisions of France, the department is one of the three levels of government below the national level, between the administrative regions and the commune. There are 96 departments in metropolitan France and 5 overseas departments, each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council. From 1800 to April 2015, they were called general councils, the departments were created in 1791 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity, the title department is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after geographical features rather than after historical or cultural territories which could have their own loyalties. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1764 in the writings of dArgenson and they have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. Most French departments are assigned a number, the Official Geographical Code. Some overseas departments have a three-digit number, the number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. For example, inhabitants of Loiret might refer to their department as the 45 and this reform project has since been abandoned. The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René dArgenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées infrastructure administration, before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces, during the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. Their boundaries served two purposes, Boundaries were chosen to break up Frances historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences, Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a days ride of the capital of the department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the national territory under close control. This measure was directly inspired by the Great Terror, during which the government had lost control of rural areas far from any centre of government. The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments, most were named after an areas principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine, the number of departments, initially 83, was increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeats in 1814-1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size, in 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice, the 89 departments were given numbers based on their alphabetical order. The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following Frances defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
9.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
10.
Gard
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Gard is a department in southern France in the Occitanie region. The department is named after the River Gardon, and the Occitan name of the river has been replacing the French name of the department in recent decades, see also, History of Gard The Gard area was settled by the Romans in classical times. It was crossed by the Via Domitia, which was constructed in 118 BC, Gard is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on March 4,1790. It was created from the ancient province of Languedoc, in return, Gard received from Hérault the fishing port of Aigues Mortes which gave the department its own outlet to the Gulf of Lion. Gard is part of the region of Occitanie and is surrounded by the departments of Hérault, Lozère, Aveyron, Bouches-du-Rhône, Vaucluse, the highest point in the department is the Mont Aigoual. Serious flooding has occurred in the department in recent years, the President of the General Council is Denis Bouad of the Socialist Party. The incumbent President Nicolas Sarkozy of the Union for a Popular Movement party received 24. 86% of the vote, the inhabitants of Gard are called Gardois. There are important Roman architectural remains in Nîmes, as well as the famous Roman aqueduct, Gard is also home to the source of Perrier, a carbonated mineral water sold both in France and internationally on a large scale. The spring and facility are located just south-east of the commune of Vergèze, prefecture website General Council website Welcome to the Gard Welcome to the Gard The Regordane Way or St Gilles Trail Map of the department Guide Gard
11.
Gaulish language
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Gaulish is an ancient Celtic language that was spoken in parts of Europe as late as the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language spoken by the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul. In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe, parts of the Balkans, and Asia Minor, the more divergent Lepontic of Northern Italy has also sometimes been subsumed under Gaulish. Together with Lepontic and the Celtiberian language spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, the precise linguistic relationships among them, as well as between them and the modern Insular Celtic languages, are uncertain and a matter of ongoing debate because of their sparse attestation. Gaulish texts were first written in the Greek alphabet in southern France, after the Roman conquest of those regions, writing shifted to the use of the Latin alphabet. Gaulish was supplanted by Vulgar Latin and various Germanic languages from around the 5th century AD onwards and it is estimated that during the Bronze Age, Proto-Celtic started fragmenting into distinct languages, including Celtiberian and Gaulish. Their precise linguistic relationships are uncertain because of the nature of the evidence. Among those regions where substantial inscriptional evidence exists, three varieties are usually distinguished.600 BC and it has been described either as an early dialect of an outlying form of Gaulish, or else as a separate Continental Celtic language. Attestations of Gaulish proper in present-day France are known as Transalpine Gaulish and its written record begins in the 3rd century BC with inscriptions in the Greek alphabet, found mainly in the Rhône area of southern France. After the Roman conquest of Gaul, the writing of Gaulish shifted to the Latin alphabet, as they were written after the time of the Gaulish conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, they are usually identified as Cisalpine Gaulish. The relationship between Gaulish and the other Celtic languages is subject to debate. Most scholars today agree that Celtiberian was the first to branch off from the remaining Celtic languages, other scholars place more emphasis on shared innovations between Brittonic and Goidelic, and group these together as an Insular Celtic branch. Sims-Williams discusses a composite model, in which the Continental and Insular varieties are seen as part of a continuum, with genealogical splits. At least 13 references to Gaulish speech and Gaulish writing can be found in Greek, the word Gaulish as a language term is first explicitly used in the Appendix Vergiliana in a poem referring to Gaulish letters of the alphabet. Caesar relates that census accounts written in the Greek alphabet were found among the Helvetii, according to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, nearly three quarters of Gaulish inscriptions are in the Greek alphabet. Later inscriptions dating to Roman Gaul are mostly in the Latin alphabet and have been principally in central France. Latin was quickly adopted by the Gaulish aristocracy after the Roman conquest to maintain their power and influence. Early references to Gaulish in Gaul tend to be made in the context of problems with Greek or Latin fluency until around 400,450, Gaulish begins to be mentioned in contexts where Latin has replaced Gaulish or Celtic
12.
Julius Caesar
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Gaius Julius Caesar, known as Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician, general, and notable author of Latin prose. He played a role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed an alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate. Caesars victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Romes territory to the English Channel, Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, with the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with the 13th Legion, leaving his province, Civil war resulted, and Caesars victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reforms and he centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed dictator in perpetuity, giving him additional authority. But the underlying political conflicts had not been resolved, and on the Ides of March 44 BC, a new series of civil wars broke out, and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesars adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began, much of Caesars life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and from other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources, Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. Caesar was born into a family, the gens Julia. The cognomen Caesar originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section. The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations, that the first Caesar had a head of hair, that he had bright grey eyes. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name, despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC. Caesars father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia and his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesars childhood, in 85 BC, Caesars father died suddenly, so Caesar was the head of the family at 16
13.
Geographica
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The Geographica, or Geography, is an encyclopedia of geographical knowledge, consisting of 17 books, written in Greek by Strabo, an educated citizen of the Roman Empire of Greek descent. Work can have begun on it no earlier than 20 BC, a first edition was published in 7 BC followed by a gap, resumption of work and a final edition no later than 23 AD in the last year of Strabos life. Strabo probably worked on his Geography and now missing History concurrently, except for parts of Book 7, the complete work is known. From this description it is clear that by geography Strabo means ancient physical geography and by chorography, the two are combined in this work, which makes a circuit of the earth detailing the physical and political features. Strabo often uses the adjective geōgraphika with reference to the works of others and to geography in general, in the Middle Ages it became the standard name used of his work. The date of Geographica is a topic, perhaps because Strabo worked on it along with his History for most of his adult life. He traveled extensively, undoubtedly gathering notes, and made extended visits to Rome and Alexandria, Strabo visited Rome in 44 BC at age 19 or 20 apparently for purposes of education. He studied under various persons, including Tyrannion, a captive educated Greek and private tutor, cicero says, The geographical work I had planned is a big undertaking. if I take Tyrannions views too. If one presumes that Strabo acquired the motivation for writing geography during his education and he may have been gathering notes but the earliest indication that he must have been preparing them is his extended visit to Alexandria 25–20 BC. In 20 he was 44 years old and his numerous excerpts from the works of his predecessors are most likely to have been noted at the library there. Whether these hypothetical notes first found their way into his history, most of the events of the life of Augustus mentioned by Strabo occurred 31–7 BC with a gap 6 BC –14 AD, which can be interpreted as an interval after first publication in 7 BC. Then in 19 AD a specific reference dates a passage, he said that the Carni, by Drusus 33 years ago, which was 15 BC, dating the passage 19 AD. The latest event mentioned is the death of Juba at no later than 23 AD and these events can be interpreted as a second edition unless he saved all his notes and wrote the book entirely after the age of 80. Strabo is his own best expounder of his principles of composition, In short, useful alike to the statesman and to the public at large – as was my work on History. And so, after I had written my Historical Sketches, I determined to write the present treatise also, for this work is based on the same plan, and is addressed to the same class of readers, and particularly to men of exalted stations in life. For it, too, is a work, in that it deals with the facts about large things only. An outline of the encyclopedia follows, with links to the appropriate Wikipedia article, pages C1 through C67, Loeb Volume I pages 3–249. Some thirty manuscripts of Geographica or parts of it have survived, almost all of medieval copies of copies
14.
Vincent d'Indy
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Vincent dIndy was a French composer and teacher. Paul Marie Théodore Vincent dIndy was born in Paris into a family of royalist. He had piano lessons from an age from his paternal grandmother. From the age of 14 he studied harmony with Albert Lavignac, at age 19, during the Franco-Prussian War, he enlisted in the National Guard, but returned to musical life as soon as the hostilities were over. On the advice of Henri Duparc, he became a student of César Franck at the Conservatoire de Paris. As a follower of Franck, dIndy came to admire what he considered the standards of German symphonism, in the summer of 1873 he visited Germany, where he met Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms. On 25 January 1874 his overture Les Piccolomini was performed at a Pasdeloup concert, around this time he married Isabelle de Pampelonne, one of his cousins. In 1875 his symphony dedicated to János Hunyadi was performed and that same year he played a minor role – the prompter – at the premiere of Bizets opera Carmen. In 1876 he was present at the first production of Richard Wagners Ring Cycle at Bayreuth and this made a great impression on him and he became a fervent Wagnerite. In 1878 dIndys symphonic ballad La Forêt enchantée was performed, in 1882 he heard Wagners Parsifal. In 1883 his choral work Le Chant de la cloche appeared, in 1884 his symphonic poem Saugefleurie was premiered. His piano suite called Poème des montagnes came from around this time, in 1887 appeared his Suite in D for trumpet,2 flutes and string quartet. That same year he was involved in Lamoureuxs production of Wagners Lohengrin as choirmaster and his music drama Fervaal occupied him between 1889 and 1895. DIndy taught there and later at the Paris Conservatoire until his death, xian was one of the earliest Chinese composers of western classical music See, List of music students by teacher, A to B#Vincent dIndy. While A. A. Saygun became one of the pioneers of music in Turkey. Few of dIndys works are performed regularly today and his music drama Le Légende de Saint Christophe, based on themes from Gregorian chant, was performed for the first, and possibly last, time, on 6 June 1920. His comédie musicale had its premiere in paris on 10 June 1927 and his Lied for cello and orchestra, Op.19, was recorded by Julian Lloyd Webber and the English Chamber Orchestra conducted by Yan Pascal Tortelier in 1991. As well as Franck, dIndys works show the influence of Berlioz, DIndy helped revive a number of then largely forgotten early works, for example, making his own edition of Claudio Monteverdis opera Lincoronazione di Poppea
15.
Loire (department)
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Loire is a department in the east-central part of France occupying the River Loires upper reaches. Loire was created in 1793 when after just 3½ years the young Rhône-et-Loire department was split into two and this was a response to counter-Revolutionary activities in Lyon which, by population, was the countrys second largest city. By splitting Rhône-et-Loire the government sought to protect the French Revolution from the potential power, the River Loire traverses the department from south to north. The inhabitants of the department are called Ligériens, the industrial city of Saint-Étienne with its suburbs contains some 290,000 of the areas 728,542 inhabitants
16.
Le Vigan (Gard)
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Le Vigan is a commune in the Gard department in southern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department, le Vigan is located at the south of the Massif Central and near the Mont Aigoual, in the Arre valley. As with many towns in the Cévennes, there were many textile industries there in the past, several quarries south of town above Montdardier were formerly important sources of lithographic limestone. Stone from these quarries earned a mention in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Le Vigan is a tourist destination during summer time
17.
Ganges
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The Ganges, also Ganga is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh. It is the third largest river in the world by discharge, the Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus. It is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and it is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism. It has also important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals located on its banks. The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007, pollution threatens not only humans, but also more than 140 fish species,90 amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. The levels of fecal coliform from human waste in the waters of the river near Varanasi are more than 100 times the Indian governments official limit. The main stem of the Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi, the Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and, therefore, hydrologically the source stream. The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul, although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini, the five confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all along the Alaknanda. After flowing 250 km through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, the Ganges follows an 800 km arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad, and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes an annual flow of about 500 m3/s. The Ganges joins the Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, at their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges, contributing about 2,950 m3/s, or about 58. 5% of the combined flow. Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River, which flows north from the Kaimur Range, after the Tamsa the Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an annual flow of about 234 m3/s. Then the Ghaghara River, also flowing south from the Himalayas of Nepal, the Ghaghara, with its average annual flow of about 2,990 m3/s, is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the Ghaghara confluence the Ganges is joined from the south by the Son River, the Gandaki River, then the Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about 1,654 m3/s and 2,166 m3/s, respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges, after the Ghaghara and Yamuna. Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna, Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Saidpur
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Sauve
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Sauve is a commune in the Gard department in southern France. In the early-1990s American underground comic artist Robert Crumb traded six of his sketchbooks for a townhouse in Sauve and he presently lives there with his family. The drummer of the Rolling Stones, Charlie Watts, also has an apartment in the town, Sauve is twinned with, Broughton in Hampshire, England Communes of the Gard department INSEE Official site
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Saint-Jean-du-Gard
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Saint-Jean-du-Gard is a commune in the Gard department in southern France. This city of the Cévennes, first mentioned in a 12th-century papal bull, was much influenced by Protestantism in the 16th century. Thanks to the industry, the village experienced a period of prosperity that lasted from the 19th century to the 20th century. This city now owes much of its economy to tourism, a heritage railway runs from Saint-Jean-du-Gard to Anduze with a stop at the Bambouseraie de Prafrance, which attracts 150,000 tourists a year. Communes of the Gard department List of works by Auguste Carli INSEE Official site
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Anduze
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Anduze is a commune in the Gard department in southern France. The village is at the foot of the Cevennes range, in the plateau of the Languedoc scrublands. The lordship of Anduze which was established in the early 10th century was one of the oldest and most powerful of Languedoc, coining money, the family Anduze reigned as the supreme house of the Cevennes. It counted among its branches of the houses of Sauve, Roquefeuil, Sommieres, Anduze was the cradle of French sericulture from late 13th century. The city then became the center of trading in silk. It had up to 7,000 people at its peak, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Anduze was an important center of Protestantism. The walled city, which had 6000 inhabitants in 1570, became the headquarters of the Protestant forces of the South. In 1573, the city saw the birth of what Janine Garrison called the United Provinces of the South, including an attempted independent Huguenot State, based on local autonomy. Anduze was the basis of the resistance of the Duc de Rohan in 1622, in the nineteenth century, with the industrial revolution, knew new economic development in silk mills, hosiery and headgear took place, before being hit by recession. Anduze was also site of the Cevennes Coal Mines, prime contractors of French coal industry, the city is known for its zinc smelting, pottery, castle dating from the sixteenth century. Currently, tourism plays an important role in the economy of the area. Bambouseraie de Prafrance The Clock Tower dates from 1320, it has three levels and is reminiscent of the architecture of the tower of Constance Aigues-Mortes and it Became the town clock in 1569, it was spared during the destruction of the ramparts in 1629. The bell at the top of the turret in its campanile, the total building height is 22 meters. The New Castle is a mansion of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, on the occasion of its construction, it was built into the walls. It consists of two towers in front, Tower Pézène, it is part of Castle Pézène old stately home and residence of the counts of Beaufort fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The tower dates from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Meridian, installed in the clock of the city in 1569, in 1629 it was spared during the destruction of the ramparts, the Meridian was restored in 1989. The Grain market hall built in 1457, called The Orgerie or grain market and it was the place of the market for chestnuts and today at the local produce market. The barracks, they were built in 1740 on the Brie plan to house the troops, now houses the tourist office
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Florac
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Florac is a former commune of the Lozère department in southern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Florac-Trois-Rivières, raymond of Anduze held the barony of Florac and is recorded as using the castle there in the 13th century. In 1363 local born Pope Urban V lent the town 300 florins for the construction of ramparts, such defences were not at all unusual and offered desirable security and protection for the townspeople. Florac was visited by a young Robert Louis Stevenson and features as a chapter in his droll Victorian bestseller Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes, today there are two fairly large churches on the respective sites of the older structures. The Protestant church has an information plaque bearing the date 1832. Situated at the end of the Esplanade, beneath Place de Souvenir, the first Protestant church on this site was destroyed after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The present church was built by subscription over a number of years after 1825. In 2011 there was a restoration project under local architect Francois Coulomb. The stone is covered in the plain dun render common to other buildings on the esplanade, there is a small bell house on top. The overall shape is neatly echoed in a modest portico of two Roman Tuscan columns, an entablature bearing the name and an unadorned pediment. The dominant note of the interior is light, firstly, the walls and columns are panelled in whitewashed pine. This gives a slightly New England flavour, mostly though the effect of the determined simplicity is pre-Christian Roman. The only explicitly Christian decoration is the legend Dieu est amour painted at the West end, there is a sense of civic virtue and pride in the colonnaded balconies which are a deliberate invocation of public space in Roman architecture. The space is used today for services and classical music concerts. The deliberately imposing west facade has a high Roman Doric portico, contrast with modest wooden doors, stained a very dark brown. There is a plaque commemorating local-born Guillaume de Grimoard who rose to pope as Urban V, at the front of the drive is an iron cross dated 1841. Both north and south facades are extremely plain, the stained glass windows are protected by iron grills and reinforced glass which is frosting. There is a tower at the East end, dark interior means stained glass stands out
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Le Pont-de-Montvert
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Le Pont-de-Montvert is a former commune in the Lozère département in southern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Pont-de-Montvert-Sud-Mont-Lozère and it is located in the heart of the Parc National des Cévennes. The inhabitants of Le Pont-de-Montvert are called Pontoises or Montvertipontains, the village was a fief of the Knights Hospitaller. Guillaume de Grimoard, future pope under the name of Urban V, was born in the Château de Grizac here in 1309. The picturesquely sited structure, no larger than a farm, reveals its defensive nature by its windows, perched high in its granite walls. Charles V exempted the seigneurie de Grizac from all taxes, a privilege its lords maintained until the Revolution, Langlade had chosen to use his house as prison, he had arrested and tortured a group of seven Protestants accused of attempting to flee France. A band of Camisards, led by Abraham Mazet peacefully asked for the release of the prisoners, the Huguenots elites of the neighbouring village of Fraissinet-de-Lozère chose nevertheless to fight against the rebels. The Protestant Temple de Vialas survives in the hamlet of Vialas nearby, the village is named for its hump-backed bridge that spans in a single arch the swift-flowing Tarn— here near its source. The bridge is guarded by a tower at the village end, now with a more amiable function. Medieval in aspect, bridge and tower date to the 17th century, today Stevenson fans retrace the route Stevenson on hiking paths some of which are transhumance routes taken annually by shepherds and their flocks. The open-air museum Ecomusée du Mont Lozère sited here presents the ecology of the region, a feature is the traditional Ferme de Troubat, with its threshing-floor and its flour mill. Patrice Higonnet, Pont-de-Montvert, Social Structure and Politics in a French Village, georgia Cosmos, The Call to Arms, Pont-de-Montvert, July 1702, in eadem, Huguenot Prophecy and Clandestine Worship in the Eighteenth Century, The Sacred Theatre of the Cévennes, 85-108. Ghislain Baury, La dynastie Rouvière de Fraissinet-de-Lozère, Les élites villageoises dans les Cévennes protestantes daprès un fonds darchives inédit, t. 2, Linventaire, Sète, Les Nouvelles Presses du Languedoc,2011, http, //sites. google. com/site/dynastierouviere/
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Les Vans
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Les Vans commune in the Ardèche department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of southern France. The village of Les Vans, the settlement of the canton of the same name in the south of the Ardèche. Dominant to the south is the Serre de Barre, the last western summit of the Cévennes du Bas-Vivarais range, in 2001, Les Vans became the gateway town of the Monts dArdèche Natural Regional Park. The village is a tourist haven in summer, a market is held every Saturday morning. A night-time craft market is held on summer Tuesdays at the Place de la Fontaine, many activities are available in the vicinity of Les Vans, walking, climbing, caving, horse riding, canyoning, swimming, fishing and kayaking in the Chassezac gorges. Les Vans was a dependency of the Abbey of Saint-Gilles, the town became Protestant in the 16th century, in 1629 it returned to Catholicism, and its fortifications were dismantled. On the death of Professor Ollier, who lived near the village church, one at Les Vans on Grande Place Ollier, the other at Place Ollier in Lyon. The Vanséens cunning preserved the first from the covetousness of the Germans during the Second World War, in 1972, the commune of Les Vans amalgamated with those of Brahic, Chassagnes and Naves. Naves had its moment of glory in the 19th century with the development of sericulture and this activity declined bit by bit and fell into disuse. The village, its church and its ancient alleys were the subject of important renovations in the mid-1980s, some years ago it was the subject of restoration which brought it back to life after more than two centuries of decay, returning it to something like its original purpose. Notable on this site are very fine reproduction Byzantine frescoes which have recently been produced, free of charge. The hamlet of Brahic nestles on the face of the Serre de Barre. Market in July Footpath festival on Pentecost Monday ArdAfrique festival in August, African culture, jazz, cultural displays, concerts, exhibitions, the college at Les Vans today bears his name. Long-distance footpath Sentier de grande randonnée GR4 Communes of the Ardèche department INSEE
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Causses
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The Causses are a group of limestone plateaus in the Massif Central. They are bordered to the north-west by the Limousin and the Périgord uplands, and to the east by the Aubrac, large river gorges cut through the plateau, such as the Tarn, Dourbie, Jonte, Lot and Aveyron. Causse is an Occitan word meaning limestone plateau, the Causses and the Cévennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral Cultural Landscape was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2011
