1.
Software developer
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A software developer is a person concerned with facets of the software development process, including the research, design, programming, and testing of computer software. Other job titles which are used with similar meanings are programmer, software analyst. According to developer Eric Sink, the differences between system design, software development, and programming are more apparent, even more so that developers become systems architects, those who design the multi-leveled architecture or component interactions of a large software system. In a large company, there may be employees whose sole responsibility consists of one of the phases above. In smaller development environments, a few people or even an individual might handle the complete process. The word software was coined as a prank as early as 1953, before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to provide products and services was Computer Usage Company in 1955. The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities, universities, government, and business customers created a demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers, some were distributed freely between users of a particular machine for no charge. Others were done on a basis, and other firms such as Computer Sciences Corporation started to grow. The computer/hardware makers started bundling operating systems, systems software and programming environments with their machines, new software was built for microcomputers, so other manufacturers including IBM, followed DECs example quickly, resulting in the IBM AS/400 amongst others. The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the computer in the mid-1970s. In the following years, it created a growing market for games, applications. DOS, Microsofts first operating system product, was the dominant operating system at the time, by 2014 the role of cloud developer had been defined, in this context, one definition of a developer in general was published, Developers make software for the world to use. The job of a developer is to crank out code -- fresh code for new products, code fixes for maintenance, code for business logic, bus factor Software Developer description from the US Department of Labor
2.
CERN
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The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of atomic nuclei, therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, which better describes the research being performed there. Several important achievements in physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate the sharing of information between researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
3.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
4.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
5.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
6.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
7.
Unix-like
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A Unix-like operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system, while not necessarily conforming to or being certified to any version of the Single UNIX Specification. A Unix-like application is one that behaves like the corresponding Unix command or shell, there is no standard for defining the term, and some difference of opinion is possible as to the degree to which a given operating system or application is Unix-like. The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark and administers the Single UNIX Specification and they do not approve of the construction Unix-like, and consider it a misuse of their trademark. Other parties frequently treat Unix as a genericized trademark, in 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership. Unix-like systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s, many proprietary versions, such as Idris, UNOS, Coherent, and UniFlex, aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX. These largely displaced the proprietary clones, growing incompatibility among these systems led to the creation of interoperability standards, including POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. Various free, low-cost, and unrestricted substitutes for UNIX emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, including 4. 4BSD, Linux, some of these have in turn been the basis for commercial Unix-like systems, such as BSD/OS and OS X. The various BSD variants are notable in that they are in fact descendants of UNIX, however, the BSD code base has evolved since then, replacing all of the AT&T code. Since the BSD variants are not certified as compliant with the Single UNIX Specification, dennis Ritchie, one of the original creators of Unix, expressed his opinion that Unix-like systems such as Linux are de facto Unix systems. Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley have suggested there are three kinds of Unix-like systems, Genetic UNIX Those systems with a historical connection to the AT&T codebase. Most commercial UNIX systems fall into this category, so do the BSD systems, which are descendants of work done at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these systems have no original AT&T code but can trace their ancestry to AT&T designs. Trademark or branded UNIX These systems—largely commercial in nature—have been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name, many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition. Around 2001, Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the price of one dollar. Some non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with degrees of Unix-like functionality. IBM z/OSs UNIX System Services is sufficiently complete to be certified as trademark UNIX, cygwin and MSYS both provide a GNU environment on top of the Microsoft Windows user API, sufficient for most common open source software to be compiled and run. Subsystem for Unix-based Applications provides Unix-like functionality as a Windows NT subsystem, Windows Subsystem for Linux provides a Linux-compatible kernel interface developed by Microsoft and containing no Linux code, with Ubuntu user-mode binaries running on top of it
8.
C programming language
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C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989, C is an imperative procedural language. Therefore, C was useful for applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming, a standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a wide range of platforms. In C, all code is contained within subroutines, which are called functions. Function parameters are passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values, C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the characteristics, There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives, for, if/else, while, switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil, There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc. More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement, function return values can be ignored when not needed. Typing is static, but weakly enforced, all data has a type, C has no define keyword, instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no function keyword, instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list, user-defined and compound types are possible. Heterogeneous aggregate data types allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit, array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects, they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators, There is no array keyword, in use or definition, instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month. Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword and they are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers. Strings are not a data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters. Low-level access to memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
9.
Web server
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A web server is a computer system that processes requests via HTTP, the basic network protocol used to distribute information on the World Wide Web. The term can refer to the system, or specifically to the software that accepts. The primary function of a web server is to store, process, the communication between client and server takes place using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Pages delivered are most frequently HTML documents, which may include images, the resource is typically a real file on the servers secondary storage, but this is not necessarily the case and depends on how the web server is implemented. While the primary function is to serve content, an implementation of HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files, many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using Active Server Pages, PHP, or other scripting languages. This means that the behaviour of the web server can be scripted in separate files, usually, this function is used to generate HTML documents dynamically as opposed to returning static documents. The former is used for retrieving or modifying information from databases. The latter is much faster and more easily cached but cannot deliver dynamic content. Web servers are not only used for serving the World Wide Web and they can also be found embedded in devices such as printers, routers, webcams and serving only a local network. The web server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring or administering the device in question and this usually means that no additional software has to be installed on the client computer, since only a web browser is required. In 1989 Tim Berners-Lee proposed a new project to his employer CERN, the project resulted in Berners-Lee writing two programs in 1990, A browser called WorldWideWeb. In 1994 Berners-Lee decided to constitute the World Wide Web Consortium to regulate the development of the many technologies involved through a standardization process. On an Apache server, this is commonly /home/www, the result is the local file system resource, /home/www/path/file. html The web server then reads the file, if it exists, and sends a response to the clients web browser. The response will describe the content of the file and contain the file itself or a message will return saying that the file does not exist or is unavailable. A web server can be incorporated into the OS kernel. Web servers that run in user-mode have to ask the system for permission to use more memory or more CPU resources, executing in user mode can also mean useless buffer copies which are another handicap for user-mode web servers. When a web server is near to or over its limit, it becomes unresponsive, at any time web servers can be overloaded due to, Excess legitimate web traffic
10.
Proxy server
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In computer networks, a proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers. Proxies were invented to add structure and encapsulation to distributed systems, today, most proxies are web proxies, facilitating access to content on the World Wide Web, providing anonymity and may be used to bypass IP address blocking. A proxy server may reside on the local computer, or at various points between the users computer and destination servers on the Internet. A proxy server that passes requests and responses unmodified is usually called a gateway or sometimes a tunneling proxy, a forward proxy is an Internet-facing proxy used to retrieve from a wide range of sources. A reverse proxy is usually an internal-facing proxy used as a front-end to control, a reverse proxy commonly also performs tasks such as load-balancing, authentication, decryption or caching. An open proxy is a proxy server that is accessible by any Internet user. Gordon Lyon estimates there are hundreds of thousands of open proxies on the Internet, an anonymous open proxy allows users to conceal their IP address while browsing the Web or using other Internet services. There are varying degrees of anonymity however, as well as a number of methods of tricking the client into revealing itself regardless of the proxy being used, a reverse proxy is a proxy server that appears to clients to be an ordinary server. Requests are forwarded to one or more proxy servers which handle the request, the response from the proxy server is returned as if it came directly from the original server, leaving the client no knowledge of the origin servers. Reverse proxies are installed in the neighborhood of one or more web servers, all traffic coming from the Internet and with a destination of one of the neighborhoods web servers goes through the proxy server. The use of reverse originates in its counterpart forward proxy since the reverse proxy sits closer to the web server and this problem can partly be overcome by using the SubjectAltName feature of X.509 certificates. Load balancing, the proxy can distribute the load to several web servers. In such a case, the proxy may need to rewrite the URLs in each web page. Serve/cache static content, A reverse proxy can offload the web servers by caching static content like pictures, compression, the proxy server can optimize and compress the content to speed up the load time. Spoon feeding, reduces resource usage caused by slow clients on the web servers by caching the content the web server sent and this especially benefits dynamically generated pages. Security, the server is an additional layer of defence and can protect against some OS. However, it does not provide any protection from attacks against the web application or service itself, a content-filtering web proxy server provides administrative control over the content that may be relayed in one or both directions through the proxy. It is commonly used in commercial and non-commercial organizations to ensure that Internet usage conforms to acceptable use policy
11.
Software license
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A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software. Under United States copyright law all software is copyright protected, in code as also object code form. The only exception is software in the public domain, most distributed software can be categorized according to its license type. Two common categories for software under copyright law, and therefore with licenses which grant the licensee specific rights, are proprietary software and free, unlicensed software outside the copyright protection is either public domain software or software which is non-distributed, non-licensed and handled as internal business trade secret. Contrary to popular belief, distributed unlicensed software is copyright protected. Examples for this are unauthorized software leaks or software projects which are placed on public software repositories like GitHub without specified license. As voluntarily handing software into the domain is problematic in some international law domains, there are also licenses granting PD-like rights. Therefore, the owner of a copy of software is legally entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the owner of the respective copy, as many proprietary licenses only enumerate the rights that the user already has under 17 U. S. C. §117, and yet proclaim to take away from the user. Proprietary software licenses often proclaim to give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. The form of the relationship if it is a lease or a purchase, for example UMG v. Augusto or Vernor v. Autodesk. The ownership of goods, like software applications and video games, is challenged by licensed. The Swiss based company UsedSoft innovated the resale of business software and this feature of proprietary software licenses means that certain rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Therefore, it is typical of EULAs to include terms which define the uses of the software, the most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user may not use the software at all, one example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft Windows. The most common licensing models are per single user or per user in the appropriate volume discount level, Licensing per concurrent/floating user also occurs, where all users in a network have access to the program, but only a specific number at the same time. Another license model is licensing per dongle which allows the owner of the dongle to use the program on any computer, Licensing per server, CPU or points, regardless the number of users, is common practice as well as site or company licenses
12.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
13.
Daemon (computing)
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In multitasking computer operating systems, a daemon is a computer program that runs as a background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user. Traditionally, the names of a daemon end with the letter d, for clarification that the process is, in fact, a daemon. For example, syslogd is the daemon that implements the system logging facility, in a Unix environment, the parent process of a daemon is often, but not always, the init process. In addition, a daemon launched by forking and exiting typically must perform other operations, such procedures are often implemented in various convenience routines such as daemon in Unix. Systems often start daemons at boot time which will respond to requests, hardware activity. Daemons such as cron may also perform defined tasks at scheduled times, the term was coined by the programmers of MITs Project MAC. They took the name from Maxwells demon, an imaginary being from an experiment that constantly works in the background. Maxwells Demon is consistent with Greek mythologys interpretation of a daemon as a supernatural being working in the background, however, BSD and some of its derivatives have adopted a Christian demon as their mascot rather than a Greek daemon. The word daemon is a spelling of demon, and is pronounced /ˈdiːmən/ DEE-mən. In the context of software, the original pronunciation /ˈdiːmən/ has drifted to /ˈdeɪmən/ DAY-mən for some speakers. Alternate terms for daemon are service, started task, and ghost job, after the term was adopted for computer use, it was rationalized as a backronym for Disk And Execution MONitor. Daemons which connect to a network are examples of network services. However, more commonly, a daemon may be any background process, executing as a background task by forking and exiting. This is required sometimes for the process to become a session leader and it also allows the parent process to continue its normal execution. Setting the root directory as the current working directory so that the process does not keep any directory in use that may be on a file system. Required files will be opened later, in the Microsoft DOS environment, daemon-like programs were implemented as terminate and stay resident software. On Microsoft Windows NT systems, programs called Windows services perform the functions of daemons and they run as processes, usually do not interact with the monitor, keyboard, and mouse, and may be launched by the operating system at boot time. However, any Windows application can perform the role of a daemon, not just a service, on the classic Mac OS, optional features and services were provided by files loaded at startup time that patched the operating system, these were known as system extensions and control panels
14.
Tim Berners-Lee
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Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee OM KBE FRS FREng FRSA FBCS, also known as TimBL, is an English computer scientist, best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the development of the Web. He is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation and is a researcher and holder of the founders chair at the MIT Computer Science. He is a director of the Web Science Research Initiative, in 2011, he was named as a member of the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation. In 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, in April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Named in Time magazines list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and he tweeted This is for everyone, which instantly was spelled out in LCD lights attached to the chairs of the 80,000 people in the audience. Berners-Lee was born in London, England, United Kingdom, one of four born to Mary Lee Woods. His parents worked on the first commercially built computer, the Ferranti Mark 1, a keen trainspotter as a child, he learnt about electronics from tinkering with a model railway. He studied at The Queens College, Oxford, from 1973 to 1976, after graduation, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at the telecommunications company Plessey in Poole, Dorset. In 1978, he joined D. G. Nash in Ferndown, Dorset, Berners-Lee worked as an independent contractor at CERN from June to December 1980. While in Geneva, he proposed a project based on the concept of hypertext, to demonstrate it, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE. After leaving CERN in late 1980, he went to work at John Pooles Image Computer Systems, Ltd, in Bournemouth and he ran the companys technical side for three years. The project he worked on was a remote procedure call which gave him experience in computer networking. In 1984, he returned to CERN as a fellow and it then was accepted by his manager, Mike Sendall. He used similar ideas to those underlying the ENQUIRE system to create the World Wide Web, for which he designed and his software also functioned as an editor, and the first Web server, CERN HTTPd. The first web site was built at CERN, despite this being an international organisation hosted by Switzerland, the office that Berners-Lee used was just across the border in France. It was put online on 6 August 1991 for the first time, It provided an explanation of what the World Wide Web was and we can connect with each other instantly, all over the world. In 1994, Berners-Lee founded the W3C at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web
15.
NeXT Computer
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The NeXT Computer is a workstation computer developed, marketed, and sold by NeXT Inc. It runs the Mach- and BSD-derived, Unix-based NeXTSTEP operating system, the motherboard is square and fits into one of four identical slots in the enclosure. The NeXT Computer enclosure consists of a 1-foot die-cast magnesium cube-shaped, black case and it was launched in 1988 at US$6,500. The NeXT Computer was succeeded by the NeXTcube, an upgraded model and this event gave developers interested in developing NeXT software an insight into the software architecture, object-oriented programming, and developing for the NeXT Computer. The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs, citing as truly innovative the optical drive, DSP, and object-oriented programming environment, the magazine concluded that the NeXT Computer is worth every penny of its $6500 market price. It was, however, not a significant commercial success, failing to reach the level of volume sales like the Apple II, Commodore 64. The workstations were sold to universities, financial institutions, and government agencies, issue #3 was first demonstrated to Steve Jobs at NeXTWorld Expo 1993. com — NeXTcube Photos of black hardware A fun fact and one of Steve Jobs quirks. All the components in the including the PCB and connectors had to be black in color. PCBs were typically green from the mask that was applied. A process of pad capping was developed to allow the black oxide from the layers to be seen. Even the euro card connector had to be molded in black which where typically grey. The mounting hardware had to be black oxide. etc
16.
NeXTSTEP
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NeXTSTEP is a discontinued object-oriented, multitasking operating system based on UNIX. Although relatively unsuccessful at the time, it attracted interest from computer scientists and it was also the platform on which Tim Berners-Lee created the first web browser. After the purchase of NeXT by Apple, it became the source of the operating systems macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS. Many bundled macOS applications, such as TextEdit, Mail and Chess, are descendants of NeXTSTEP applications, the toolkits offer considerable power, and are the canonical development system for all of the software on the machine. NeXTSTEPs user interface is considered to be refined and consistent and it introduced the idea of the Dock and the Shelf. Additional kits were added to the line to make the system more attractive. These include Portable Distributed Objects, which allow easy remote invocation, and Enterprise Objects Framework, the kits made the system particularly interesting to custom application programmers, and NeXTSTEP had a long history in the financial programming community. A preview release of NeXTSTEP was shown with the launch of the NeXT Computer on October 12,1988, the first full release, NeXTSTEP1.0, shipped on September 18,1989. NeXTSTEP was later modified to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries, the result was the OpenStep API, which ran on multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXTs own OPENSTEP, Windows NT and SUN Solaris. NeXTSTEPs legacy stands today in the form of its direct descendents, from day one, the operating system of NeXTSTEP was built upon Mach/BSD. It was built on 4. 3BSD Tahoe and it changed to 4. 3BSD Reno after the release of NeXTSTEP3.0. It changed to 4. 4BSD during the development of Rhapsody, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, and the first ever app store were all invented on the NeXTSTEP platform. Some features and keyboard shortcuts now commonly found in web browsers can be traced back to NeXTSTEP conventions, the basic layout options of HTML1.0 and 2.0 are attributable to those features available in NeXTs Text class. Other games based on the Doom engine such as Heretic and its sequel Hexen by Raven Software as well as Strife by Rogue Entertainment were also developed on NeXT hardware using ids tools. Altsys made a NeXTSTEP application called Virtuoso, version 2 of which was ported to Mac OS, the modern Notebook interface for Mathematica, and the advanced spreadsheet Lotus Improv, were developed using NeXTSTEP. The software that controlled MCIs Friends and Family calling plan program was developed using NeXTSTEP, about the time of the release of NeXTSTEP3.2, NeXT partnered with Sun Microsystems to develop OpenStep. It is the product of an effort to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries to create a cross-platform object-oriented API standard derived from NeXTSTEP, the OpenStep API targets multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXTs own OPENSTEP. Implementations of that standard were released for Suns Solaris, Windows NT, NeXTs implementation is called OPENSTEP for Mach and its first release superseded NeXTSTEP3.3 on NeXT, Sun and Intel IA-32 systems
17.
OpenVMS
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OpenVMS is a computer operating system for use in general-purpose computing. It is the successor to the VMS Operating System, that was produced by Digital Equipment Corporation, in the 1990s, it was used for the successor series of DEC Alpha systems. OpenVMS also runs on the HP Itanium-based families of computers, as of 2015, a port to the X86-64 architecture is underway. The name VMS is derived from virtual memory system, according to one of its architectural features. OpenVMS is a operating system, but source code listings are available for purchase. OpenVMS is a multi-user, multiprocessing virtual memory-based operating system designed for use in time sharing, batch processing, when process priorities are suitably adjusted, it may approach real-time operating system characteristics. The system offers high availability through clustering and the ability to distribute the system over multiple physical machines and this allows the system to be tolerant against disasters that may disable individual data-processing facilities. OpenVMS contains a user interface, a feature that was not available on the original VAX-11/VMS system. Versions of VMS running on DEC Alpha workstations in the 1990s supported OpenGL, customers using OpenVMS include banks and financial services, hospitals and healthcare, network information services, and large-scale industrial manufacturers of various products. As of mid-2014, Hewlett Packard licensed the development of OpenVMS exclusively to VMS Software Inc, VMS Software will be responsible for developing OpenVMS, supporting existing hardware and providing roadmap to clients. The company has a team of developers that originally developed the software during DECs ownership. In April 1975, Digital Equipment Corporation embarked on a project, code named Star. A companion software project, code named Starlet, was started in June 1975 to develop a new operating system, based on RSX-11M. These two projects were integrated from the beginning. Gordon Bell was the VP lead on the VAX hardware and its architecture, the Star and Starlet projects culminated in the VAX 11/780 computer and the VAX-11/VMS operating system. The Starlet name survived in VMS as a name of several of the system libraries, including STARLET. OLB. Over the years the name of the product has changed, in 1980 it was renamed, with version 2.0 release, to VAX/VMS. g. The smallest MicroVAX2000 had a 40MB RD32 hard disk and a maximum of 6MB of RAM, microVMS kits were released for VAX/VMS4.4 to 4.7 on TK50 tapes and RX50 floppy disks, but discontinued with VAX/VMS5.0
18.
Source code
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In computing, source code is any collection of computer instructions, possibly with comments, written using a human-readable programming language, usually as ordinary text. The source code of a program is designed to facilitate the work of computer programmers. The source code is often transformed by an assembler or compiler into binary machine code understood by the computer, the machine code might then be stored for execution at a later time. Alternatively, source code may be interpreted and thus immediately executed, most application software is distributed in a form that includes only executable files. If the source code were included it would be useful to a user, programmer or a system administrator, the Linux Information Project defines source code as, Source code is the version of software as it is originally written by a human in plain text. The notion of source code may also be more broadly, to include machine code and notations in graphical languages. It is therefore so construed as to include code, very high level languages. Often there are several steps of program translation or minification between the source code typed by a human and an executable program. The earliest programs for stored-program computers were entered in binary through the front panel switches of the computer and this first-generation programming language had no distinction between source code and machine code. When IBM first offered software to work with its machine, the code was provided at no additional charge. At that time, the cost of developing and supporting software was included in the price of the hardware, for decades, IBM distributed source code with its software product licenses, until 1983. Most early computer magazines published source code as type-in programs, Source code can also be stored in a database or elsewhere. The source code for a piece of software may be contained in a single file or many files. Though the practice is uncommon, a source code can be written in different programming languages. For example, a program written primarily in the C programming language, in some languages, such as Java, this can be done at run time. The code base of a programming project is the larger collection of all the source code of all the computer programs which make up the project. It has become practice to maintain code bases in version control systems. Moderately complex software customarily requires the compilation or assembly of several, sometimes dozens or even hundreds, in these cases, instructions for compilations, such as a Makefile, are included with the source code
19.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
20.
FTP
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The File Transfer Protocol is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client using the Client–server model on a computer network. FTP is built on a model architecture and uses separate control. FTP users may authenticate themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, for secure transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS. SSH File Transfer Protocol is sometimes used instead, but is technologically different. The original specification for the File Transfer Protocol was written by Abhay Bhushan, until 1980, FTP ran on NCP, the predecessor of TCP/IP. The protocol was replaced by a TCP/IP version, RFC765 and RFC959. FTP may run in active or passive mode, which determines how the connection is established. In both cases, the client creates a TCP control connection from a random, usually an unprivileged, in active mode, the client starts listening for incoming data connections from the server on port M. It sends the FTP command PORT M to inform the server on which port it is listening, the server then initiates a data channel to the client from its port 20, the FTP server data port. In situations where the client is behind a firewall and unable to accept incoming TCP connections, both modes were updated in September 1998 to support IPv6. Further changes were introduced to the mode at that time. The server responds over the connection with three-digit status codes in ASCII with an optional text message. For example,200 means that the last command was successful, the numbers represent the code for the response and the optional text represents a human-readable explanation or request. An ongoing transfer of data over the data connection can be aborted using an interrupt message sent over the control connection. While transferring data over the network, four data representations can be used, ASCII mode, Data is converted, if needed, from the sending hosts character representation to 8-bit ASCII before transmission, and to the receiving hosts character representation. As a consequence, this mode is inappropriate for files that contain other than plain text. Image mode, The sending machine sends each file byte by byte, EBCDIC mode, Used for plain text between hosts using the EBCDIC character set. Local mode, Allows two computers with identical setups to send data in a format without the need to convert it to ASCII
21.
Volkswagen
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Volkswagen, shortened to VW, is a German automaker founded on May 28,1937 by the German Labour Front and headquartered in Wolfsburg. It is the flagship marque of the Volkswagen Group and is the largest automaker worldwide, Volkswagen is German for peoples car, and the companys current international advertising slogan is just Volkswagen. American English pronunciation is approximately volks wagon, for vehicle timeline tables, see, Volkswagen. Volkswagen was originally established in 1937 by the German Labour Front, in the early 1930s, the German auto industry was still largely composed of luxury models, and the average German could rarely afford anything more than a motorcycle. As a result, only one German out of 50 owned a car, seeking a potential new market, some car makers began independent peoples car projects – the Mercedes 170H, Adler AutoBahn, Steyr 55, and Hanomag 1. 3L, among others. The trend was not new, as Béla Barényi is credited with having conceived the design in the mid-1920s. Josef Ganz developed the Standard Superior, in Germany, the company Hanomag mass-produced the 2/10 PS Komissbrot, a small, cheap rear engined car, from 1925 to 1928. Also, in Czechoslovakia, the Hans Ledwinkas penned Tatra T77, Ferdinand Porsche, a well-known designer for high-end vehicles and race cars, had been trying for years to get a manufacturer interested in a small car suitable for a family. He felt the cars at the time were just stripped down big cars. He wanted his German citizens to have the access to a car as the Americans. The Peoples Car would be available to citizens of the Third Reich through a plan at 990 Reichsmark —about the price of a small motorcycle. Despite heavy lobbying in favor of one of the existing projects, thus, Hitler chose to sponsor an all-new, state-owned factory using Ferdinand Porsches design. The intention was that ordinary Germans would buy the car by means of a savings scheme, however, the entire project was financially unsound, and only the corruption and lack of accountability of the Nazi regime made it possible. Prototypes of the car called the KdF-Wagen, appeared from 1938 onwards, the car already had its distinctive round shape and air-cooled, flat-four, rear-mounted engine. The VW car was just one of many KdF programs, which included such as tours. The prefix Volks— was not just applied to cars, but also to products in Germany. On May 28,1937, Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH, more than a year later, on September 16,1938, it was renamed to Volkswagenwerk GmbH. Erwin Komenda, the longstanding Auto Union chief designer, part of Ferdinand Porsches hand-picked team, developed the car body of the prototype and it was one of the first cars designed with the aid of a wind tunnel—a method used for German aircraft design since the early 1920s
22.
Library (computing)
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In computer science, a library is a collection of non-volatile resources used by computer programs, often to develop software. These may include data, documentation, help data, message templates, pre-written code. In IBMs OS/360 and its successors they are referred to as partitioned data sets, a library is also a collection of implementations of behavior, written in terms of a language, that has a well-defined interface by which the behavior is invoked. For instance, people who want to write a higher level program can use a library to make system calls instead of implementing those system calls over and over again, in addition, the behavior is provided for reuse by multiple independent programs. A program invokes the library-provided behavior via a mechanism of the language, for example, in a simple imperative language such as C, the behavior in a library is invoked by using Cs normal function-call. What distinguishes the call as being to a library, versus being to function in the same program, is the way that the code is organized in the system. This distinction can gain a hierarchical notion when a program grows large, in that case, there may be internal libraries that are reused by independent sub-portions of the large program. The value of a lies in the reuse of the behavior. When a program invokes a library, it gains the behavior implemented inside that library without having to implement that behavior itself, libraries encourage the sharing of code in a modular fashion, and ease the distribution of the code. The behavior implemented by a library can be connected to the program at different program lifecycle phases. If the code of the library is accessed during the build of the invoking program, an alternative is to build the executable of the invoking program and distribute that, independently of the library implementation. The library behavior is connected after the executable has been invoked to be executed, either as part of the process of starting the execution, in this case the library is called a dynamic library. A dynamic library can be loaded and linked when preparing a program for execution, alternatively, in the middle of execution, an application may explicitly request that a module be loaded. Most compiled languages have a library although programmers can also create their own custom libraries. Most modern software systems provide libraries that implement the majority of the system services, such libraries have commoditized the services which a modern application requires. As such, most code used by modern applications is provided in these system libraries, the earliest programming concepts analogous to libraries were intended to separate data definitions from the program implementation. JOVIAL brought the COMPOOL concept to popular attention in 1959, although it adopted the idea from the large-system SAGE software, COBOL also included primitive capabilities for a library system in 1959, but Jean Sammet described them as inadequate library facilities in retrospect. Another major contributor to the library concept came in the form of the subprogram innovation of FORTRAN
23.
Traffic Server
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The Apache Traffic Server is a modular, high-performance reverse proxy and forward proxy server, generally comparable to Nginx and Squid. It was created by Inktomi, and distributed as a product called the Inktomi Traffic Server. Released the TS source to Apache as an Apache Incubator project in July 2009, uses TS in production to serve more than 30 billion objects per day on sites like the Yahoo. On April 21,2010, the Apache board accepted Traffic Server as a TLP, ATS latest stable version 7.0.0 was released on November 7th,2016. As of February 2016, ATS is in version 6.1.1, beginning with version 4.0, all releases are considered stable for production, and follow regular semantic versioning. No more developer preview releases will be made, instead, the Git master branch is considered preview quality at all times, long term support is provided for the last minor version within a major release, for one added year. ATS has, as of v6.0.0, good support for the next generation HTTP protocol, on the Is TLS Fast Yet site, it scores 100%. ATS is actively developed and supported by large companies, as well as many individual contributors. The OStatic post describes TS as shipping, with not only an HTTP web proxy and caching solution, but also. A server framework, with which you can build very fast servers for other protocols, Traffic Server has been benchmarked to handle 200,000 requests per second or more. At a talk at the 2009 Cloud Computing Expo, members of the Yahoo, TS team stated that TS is used in production at Yahoo. to handle 400TB of traffic per day using only 150 commodity machines. The OStatic post describes TS as the product of hundreds of developer-years. In the context of computing, TS would sit conceptually at the edge of the cloud. It is used for the services as shown in a graphic distributed at the 2009 Cloud Computing Expo depicting Yahoo. s private cloud architecture. Official website Apache Traffic Server, More Than Just a Proxy - talk by Leif Hedstrom at USENIX
24.
Reverse proxy
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In computer networks, a reverse proxy is a type of proxy server that retrieves resources on behalf of a client from one or more servers. These resources are then returned to the client like they originated from the server itself. Contrary to a proxy, which is an intermediary for its associated clients to contact any server. Quite often, popular web servers utilize reverse-proxying functionality, shielding application frameworks of weaker HTTP capabilities, reverse proxies can hide the existence and characteristics of an origin server or servers. Application firewall features can protect against common web-based attacks, like DoS or DDoS, without a reverse proxy, removing malware or initiating takedowns, for example, can become difficult. In the case of secure websites, a web server may not perform SSL encryption itself, a reverse proxy can distribute the load from incoming requests to several servers, with each server serving its own application area. A reverse proxy can reduce load on its origin servers by caching static content, as well as dynamic content - synonym, proxy caches of this sort can often satisfy a considerable number of website requests, greatly reducing the load on the origin server. A reverse proxy can optimize content by compressing it in order to speed up loading times. In a technique named spoon-feed a dynamically generated page can be produced all at once and served to the reverse-proxy, the program that generates the page need not remain open, thus releasing server resources during the possibly extended time the client requires to complete the transfer. Reverse proxies can operate wherever multiple web-servers must be accessible via a single public IP address, the web servers listen on different ports in the same machine, with the same local IP address or, possibly, on different machines and different local IP addresses altogether. The reverse proxy analyzes each incoming request and delivers it to the server within the local area network. Reverse proxies can perform A/B testing and multivariate testing without placing JavaScript tags or code into pages, commercial or enterprise level out-of-box solutions exist and can have an agent installed on user systems to ensure a constant connection to a cloud proxy / reverse proxy server also a SaaS solution. An example of this is McAfee Web Protection Gateway - SaaS solution, a reverse proxy can add basic HTTP access authentication to a web server that does not have any authentication
25.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
26.
Robert Cailliau
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Robert Cailliau is a Belgian informatics engineer and computer scientist who created the first web browser for the Mac. He also designed the logo of the WWW, and organized the first International World Wide Web Conference at CERN in 1994. Cailliau was born in Tongeren, Belgium, in 1958 he moved with his parents to Antwerp. After secondary school he graduated from Ghent University in 1969 as civil engineer in electrical and mechanical engineering and he also has an MSc from the University of Michigan in Computer, Information and Control Engineering,1971. During his military service in the Belgian Army he maintained Fortran programs to simulate troop movements, in December 1974 he started working at CERN as a Fellow in the Proton Synchrotron division, working on the control system of the accelerator. In April 1987 he left the PS division to become leader of Office Computing Systems in the Data Handling division. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee proposed a system for access to the many forms of documentation at. Berners-Lee created the system, calling it World Wide Web, between September and December 1990, during this time, Cailliau and he co-authored a proposal for funding for the project. Cailliau later became a key proponent of the project and developed with Nicola Pellow the first web browser for the Classic Mac OS operating system called MacWWW, in 1993, in collaboration with the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft Cailliau started the European Commissions first web-based project for information dissemination in Europe. As a result of his work with CERNs Legal Service, CERN released the web technology into the domain on 30 April 1993. In December 1993 Cailliau called for the first International WWW Conference which was held at CERN in May 1994, the oversubscribed conference brought together 380 web pioneers and was a milestone in the development of the web. The conference led to the forming of the International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee which has organized a conference since then. Cailliau was a member of the Committee from 1994 until 2002, in 1995 Cailliau started the Web for Schools project with the European Commission, introducing the web as a resource for education. After helping to transfer the web development from CERN to the World Wide Web Consortium and he went on early retirement from CERN in January 2007. Cailliau is now a member of Newropeans, a pan-European political movement for which he. 1995, ACM Software System Award 1999, Christophe Plantin Prize, Antwerp 1999, southern Cross University 2000, Dr. Hon
27.
Apache HTTP Server
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The Apache HTTP Server, colloquially called Apache, is the worlds most used web server software. Originally based on the NCSA HTTPd server, development of Apache began in early 1995 after work on the NCSA code stalled. Apache played a key role in the growth of the World Wide Web, quickly overtaking NCSA HTTPd as the dominant HTTP server. In 2009, it became the first web server software to more than 100 million websites. Apache is developed and maintained by a community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation. Most commonly used on a Unix-like system, the software is available for a variety of operating systems besides Unix, version 2.0 improved support for non-Unix, e. g. Windows and OS/2. Old versions of Apache were ported to run on e. g. OpenVMS, released under the Apache License, Apache is free and open-source software. As of July 2016, Apache was estimated to serve 46. 41% of all websites and 43. 18% of the top million websites. According to the FAQ in the Apache project website, the name Apache was chosen out of respect to the Native American tribe Apache and their skills in warfare. The name was believed to be a pun on A Patchy Server. I wish I could say that it was something fantastic, I put it on a page and then a few months later when this project started, I pointed people to this page and said, Hey, what do you think of that idea. Someone said they liked the name and that it was a good pun. He said, Well, were building a server out of a bunch of software patches, so its a patchy Web server. When I thought of the name, no and it just sort of connotated, Take no prisoners. Be kind of aggressive and kick some ass, when Apache is running, its process name is sometimes httpd, which is short for HTTP daemon. Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality and these can range from server-side programming language support to authentication schemes. Some common language interfaces support Perl, Python, Tcl, popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, mod_digest, and mod_auth_digest, the successor to mod_digest. A sample of other features include Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security support, a module, a URL rewriting module, custom log files
28.
Nginx
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Nginx, stylized as, is a web server, which can also be used as a reverse proxy, load balancer and HTTP cache. Created by Igor Sysoev in 2004, it runs on Unix, Linux, BSD variants, macOS, Solaris, AIX, HP-UX, Nginx is free and open source software, released under the terms of a BSD-like license. A company of the name was founded in 2011 to provide support. Nginx uses an asynchronous approach to handling requests. Nginxs modular event-driven architecture can provide more predictable performance under high loads, according to Netcrafts November 2016 Web Server Survey, Nginx was found to be the second most widely used web server across all active sites and for the top million busiest sites. According to W3Techs, it was used by 37. 7% of the top 1 million websites,49. 7% of the top 100,000 websites, and by 57. 0% of the top 10,000 websites. According to BuiltWith, it is used on 38. 2% of the top 10,000 websites, wikipedia uses Nginx as its SSL termination proxy. FastCGI, SCGI, uWSGI support with caching Name- and IP address-based virtual servers IPv6-compatible HTTP/2 protocol support WebSockets, the paid Plus product includes additional features such as advanced load balancing and access to an expanded suite of metrics for performance monitoring. Nginx was written with a goal of outperforming the Apache web server. Out of the box, serving files, Nginx uses dramatically less memory than Apache. This performance boost comes at a cost of decreased flexibility, such as the ability to override systemwide access settings on a per-file basis, formerly, adding third party modules to nginx required recompiling the application from source with the modules statically linked. This was partially overcome in version 1.9.11 with the addition of dynamic module loading, however, the modules still must be compiled at the same time as nginx, and not all modules are compatible with this system, those require the older static linking process. Igor Sysoev began development of Nginx in 2002, originally, Nginx was developed to solve the C10K Problem, and to fill the needs of websites including Rambler, for which it was serving 500 million requests per day by September 2008. A company of the name was founded in July 2011 by Sysoev to provide commercial products. The companys principal place of business is San Francisco, California, in October 2011, Nginx raised $3 million from BV Capital, Runa Capital and MSD Capital, Michael Dell‘s venture fund. The company announced commercial support options for companies using Nginx in production, Nginx offered commercial support in February 2012, and paid Nginx Plus subscription in August 2013. Support packages focus on installation, configuration, performance improvement, etc, support includes proactive notifications about major changes, security patches, updates and patches. WordPress developer Automattic and content delivery network provider MaxCDN became funding partners for an update to Googles SPDY version 3.1, Nginx also offers consulting services to assist customers in custom configuration or adding additional features
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Internet Information Services
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Internet Information Services is an extensible web server created by Microsoft for use with the Windows NT family. IIS supports HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, FTPS, SMTP and NNTP and it has been an integral part of the Windows NT family since Windows NT4.0, though it may be absent from some editions, and is not active by default. The first Microsoft web server was a project at the European Microsoft Windows NT Academic Centre, part of the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. However, since the EMWAC server was unable to handle the volume of traffic going to Microsoft. com, Microsoft was forced to develop its own web server, IIS. Almost every version of IIS was released either alongside or with a version of Microsoft Windows, IIS2.0 was included with Windows NT4.0. IIS3.0, which was included with Service Pack 2 of Windows NT4.0, IIS4.0 was released as part of the Option Pack for Windows NT4.0. It introduced the new MMC-based administration application, IIS5.0 shipped with Windows 2000 and introduced additional authentication methods, support for the WebDAV protocol, and enhancements to ASP. IIS5.0 also dropped support for the Gopher protocol IIS5.1 was shipped with Windows XP Professional, and was nearly identical to IIS5.0 on Windows 2000. IIS6.0, included with Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, added support for IPv6, IIS7.0 was a complete redesign and rewrite of IIS, and was shipped with Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008. IIS7.0 included a new design that allowed for a reduced attack surface. IIS7.0 on Vista does not limit the number of allowed connections as IIS on XP did, additional requests are queued, which hampers performance, but they are not rejected as with XP. IIS7.5 was included in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2, IIS7.5 improved WebDAV and FTP modules as well as command-line administration in PowerShell. It also introduced TLS1.1 and TLS1.2 support, IIS8.0 is only available in Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8. IIS8.0 includes SNI, Application Initialization, centralized SSL certificate support, IIS8.5 is included in Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows 8.1. This version includes Idle worker-Process page-out, Dynamic Site Activation, Enhanced Logging, ETW logging, IIS10 is included in Windows Server 2016 and Windows 10. This version includes support for HTTP/2, all versions of IIS prior to 7.0 running on client operating systems supported only 10 simultaneous connections and a single website. Microsoft was criticized by vendors of other web server software, including OReilly & Associates and it was inferred that this was intended to discourage consumers from running alternative web server packages on the cheaper edition. Netscape wrote an letter to the Antitrust Division of the U. S. Department of Justice regarding this distinction in product licensing
30.
Cherokee (web server)
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Cherokee is an open-source cross-platform web server that runs on Linux, BSD variants, Solaris, OS X, and Windows. It is a lightweight, high-performance web server/reverse proxy licensed under the GNU General Public License and its goal is to be fast and fully functional yet still light. Major features of Cherokee include an administration interface named cherokee-admin. Independent tests have shown Cherokee to be better performing than Apache when serving up both static and dynamic content, Cherokee is maintained and developed by an open source community. TLS and SSL Virtual servers URL rewriting and redirections supporting regular expressions Authentication via htdigest, htpasswd, LDAP, MySQL, PAM, plain, reverse HTTP proxy HTTP load balancing Traffic shaping Custom and Apache compatible log format. During the last few years Cherokee has been adopted by numerous electronic device makes, some examples include GoPro action cameras and drones, Xiaomi action cameras, Digi Internationals Internet of things kits, ATN Corporations high-end rifle scopes, Defenders security cameras, etc. Since Cherokee is Open Source Software and does not require manufacturers to license the code, there is no way to know how many companies are embedding Cherokee in their products
31.
Hiawatha (web server)
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Hiawatha is a web server available for multiple platforms. It has been developed by Hugo Leisink since 2002, Hiawatha started in January 2002 as a small web server, suitable for servers with old hardware. Leisink, a science student at the time, initially created the server to support Internet servers in student houses in Delft of South Holland. As the server was designed with improved security as its focus, the author has said I know for a long time that vulnerabilities. that bothers me, the runtime of a CGI. A CGI process can run forever, a single CGI script can DoS a webserver. A system administrator is needed to kill the script, and what about a client that keeps on guessing passwords for HTTP authentication. These kind of inspired me to create Hiawatha, with settings for maximum request sending time, maximum CGI run time, client banning. Features that, in my opinion, every daemon should have, the January 2009 edition of Linux Magazine included an article on the Hiawatha web server, describing it as a light web server with good performance and some innovative security functions. Hiawatha is frequently cited as an alternative to Apache, as it prioritizes easy installation. A basic but functional web server, use of multithreading instead of forking. A CGI-wrapper for improved security was included, FastCGI support for improved CGI speed. First-time integration to the FreeBSD Ports system at version 5.2 in December 2006, autoconf replaced with CMake, OpenSSL replaced with PolarSSL. Clients handled via thread pool instead of creating threads on the fly, streamlined handling of Directory sections in server configuration. The author worked on RFC3546 support, but the OpenSSL documentation is just extremely poor so progress was difficult, although, RFC3546 support has been included since v8.6 version which is developed with PolarSSLv1.2. Although security is the focus, Hiawatha users also speak highly of its speed. Hiawatha supports load-balanced FastCGI and had its own PHP-FastCGI utility, although the latter has been deprecated and replaced with the PHP projects FastCGI Process Manager and this makes it fast and scalable for handling dynamic content. Comparison of web server software Official website Lavigne, Dru
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Lighttpd
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Lighttpd is an open-source web server optimized for speed-critical environments while remaining standards-compliant, secure and flexible. It was originally written by Jan Kneschke as a proof-of-concept of the c10k problem – how to handle 10,000 connections in parallel on one server and its name is a portmanteau of light and httpd. The low memory footprint, small CPU load and speed optimizations make lighttpd suitable for servers that are suffering load problems, Lighttpd is free software/open source, and is distributed under the BSD license. It runs natively on Unix-like operating systems as well as Microsoft Windows, Lighttpd supports the FastCGI, SCGI and CGI interfaces to external programs, allowing web applications written in any programming language to be used with the server. As a particularly popular language, PHP performance has received special attention, lighttpds FastCGI can be configured to support PHP with opcode caches properly and efficiently. Additionally, it has received attention from its popularity within the Python, Perl, Ruby, Lighttpd also supports WebDNA, the resilient in-memory database system designed to build database-driven websites. It is a web server for the Catalyst and Ruby on Rails web frameworks. No processes or threads started per connection, versions below 1.4.40 do not officially support sending large files from CGI, FastCGI, or proxies unless X-Sendfile is used. This limitation has been removed in lighttpd 1.4.40, no SPDY or HTTP/2 support Lighttpd is used by a number of high-traffic websites, among them are Bloglines and xkcd. It was used in the past by Meebo and YouTube, openVMS Lighttpd project #lighttpd connect on freenode Complete guide to set up your server with Lighttpd, PHP5, MySQL, e-mail, firewall etc. Older Lighttpd for Windows builds Lighty2Go Portable LightTPD, MySQL & PHP Project yPortableWS Portable WLMP Project WLMP Project - lighttpd builds for Windows
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Mongrel2
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Mongrel2 is an open-source language agnostic web server written by Zed Shaw, and is the successor to Shaws Mongrel server. The server supports HTTP, Flash XMLSockets, WebSockets and long polling connections, mongrel2 is described as language agnostic, meaning it does not prefer any specific programming language over another. Shaw began working on the server in June 2010 and released version 1.0 of the software on September 1,2010, mongrel2 has nothing in common with the original Mongrel webserver, except for using the same HTTP parser
