1.
Surface-to-air missile
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A surface-to-air missile, or ground-to-air missile, is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. It is one type of system, in modern armed forces, missiles have replaced most other forms of dedicated antiaircraft weapons. The first serious attempts at SAM development took place during World War II, further development in the 1940s and 1950s led to the first operational systems being introduced by most major forces during the second half of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for work, evolved through the 1960s and 1970s. The American Nike Ajax was the first operational guided missile SAM system, widely used modern examples include the Patriot and S-300 wide-area systems, SM-6 naval missiles, and short-range man-portable systems like the Stinger and Strela-3. The first known idea for a guided missile was in 1925. A selenium cell was mounted on the tip of each of the rockets four tail fins, when one selenium cell was no longer in the light beam, it would be steered in the opposite direction back into the beam. During World War II, efforts were started to develop surface-to-air missiles as it was considered that flak was of little use against bombers of ever-increasing performance. The lethal radius of a shell is fairly small. Against the Boeing B-17, which operated just within the range of the numerous German eighty-eights flak guns, bombers flying at higher altitudes require larger guns and shells to reach them. This greatly increases the cost of the system, and slows the rate of fire, faster aircraft fly out of range more quickly, reducing the number of rounds fired against them. Against late-war designs like the Boeing B-29 Superfortress or jet-powered designs like the Arado Ar 234, the first serious consideration of a SAM development project was a series of conversations that took place in Germany during 1941. Von Braun became convinced a better solution was a manned rocket interceptor, the directors of the Luftwaffe flak arm were not interested in manned aircraft, and the resulting disagreements between the teams delayed serious consideration of a SAM for two years. None of these saw any real development until 1943, when the first large-scale raids by the Allied air forces started. As the urgency of the problem grew, new designs were added, including Enzian and Rheintochter, in general, these designs could be split into two groups. One set of designs would be boosted to altitude in front of the bombers and these designs included the Feuerlilie, Schmetterling and Enzian. The second group were high-speed missiles, typically supersonic, that flew directly towards their targets from below, both types used radio control for guidance, either by eye, or by comparing the returns of the missile and target on a single radar screen. Development of all systems was carried out at the same time
2.
Boeing Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft
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Boeings Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft was a short-range anti-aircraft missile developed in the late 1940s by the US Army Air Force, and then the US Air Force after 1948. It was given the reference number SAM-A-1, the first Surface-to-Air Missile in the 1947 tri-service designation system, the GAPA work was later re-used by the Boeing and Project Wizard team at the Michigan Aeronautical Research Center to develop a much longer-ranged missile, the CIM-10 Bomarc. Bomarc would end up competing with the Armys Hercules missile, and was deployed only in small numbers, the inherent inaccuracy of anti-aircraft artillery means that when shells reach their targets they are randomly distributed in space. This distribution is larger than the lethal radius of the shells. Successful anti-aircraft gunnery therefore requires as many rounds to be fired as possible, German gunners estimated that an average of 2,800 shells were required to down a single Boeing B-17. Flying faster means that the passes through the range of a gun more rapidly. Flying at higher altitudes has an effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes. Aircraft using jet engines basically double the speed and altitude of conventional designs, as early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns. Of the many programs that resulted, the fell into two categories. One used a missile that flew directly up at the target. With enough speed the missile did not have to lead the target by a great amount, a second class used aircraft-like designs that were first boosted to altitude in front of the bombers, then flew at them on intercept courses at much lower speeds. These were essentially radio-guided drone versions of the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-propelled interceptor aircraft carrying very large warheads, the western allies maintained air superiority for much of the war and development of new anti-aircraft systems was not as urgent. Nevertheless, by the period the US Army had reached the same conclusion as their German counterparts. Accordingly, in February 1944 the Army Ground Forces sent the Army Service Forces a request for information on the possibility of building a major caliber anti-aircraft rocket torpedo. The ASF concluded that it was too early to tell if this was possible. Eventually two such programs were selected, Bell Labs, a leader in radar, radio control. Boeing led development of a longer range system, GAPA. Although GAPA was based on similar principles as earlier German designs, it evolved into a different concept, GAPA designs were long and thin and looked like missiles
3.
Ramjet
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A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd, is a form of airbreathing jet engine that uses the engines forward motion to compress incoming air without an axial compressor. Because ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed, they move an aircraft from a standstill. A ramjet-powered vehicle, therefore, requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust, ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3. This type of engine can operate up to speeds of Mach 6, ramjets can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple mechanism for high-speed use, such as missiles. Weapon designers are looking to use technology in artillery shells to give added range. They have also used successfully, though not efficiently, as tip jets on the end of helicopter rotors. Ramjets differ from pulsejets, which use an intermittent combustion, ramjets employ a continuous combustion process, as speed increases, the efficiency of a ramjet starts to drop as the air temperature in the inlet increases due to compression. As the inlet temperature gets closer to the exhaust temperature, less energy can be extracted in the form of thrust, to produce a usable amount of thrust at yet higher speeds, the ramjet must be modified so that the incoming air is not compressed nearly as much. This means that the air flowing through the chamber is still moving very fast, in fact it will be supersonic—hence the name Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. LAutre Monde, ou les États et Empires de la Lune was the first of three novels written by Cyrano de Bergerac, that are considered among the first science fiction stories. Arthur C Clarke credited this book with inventing the ramjet, the ramjet was conceived in 1913 by French inventor René Lorin, who was granted a patent for his device. Attempts to build a prototype failed due to inadequate materials, fonó submitted his invention to the Austro-Hungarian Army, but the proposal was rejected. In an additional patent application, he adapted the engine for subsonic speed, the patent was finally granted in 1932 after four years of examination. In the Soviet Union, a theory of supersonic ramjet engines was presented in 1928 by Boris Stechkin, yuri Pobedonostsev, chief of GIRDs 3rd Brigade, carried out a great deal of research into ramjet engines. The first engine, the GIRD-04, was designed by I. A, Merkulov and tested in April 1933. To simulate supersonic flight, it was fed by air compressed to 20,000 kilopascals, the GIRD-08 phosphorus-fueled ramjet was tested by firing it from an artillery cannon. These shells may have been the first jet-powered projectiles to break the speed of sound, in 1939, Merkulov did further ramjet tests using a two-stage rocket, the R-3. In August of that year, he developed the first ramjet engine for use as a motor of an aircraft
4.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
5.
Royal Canadian Air Force
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The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer
6.
Canadian Armed Forces
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This unified institution consists of sea, land, and air elements referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces are an entity separate and distinct from the Department of National Defence, the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the reigning Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General of Canada. The Canadian Armed Forces is led by the Chief of the Defence Staff, during the Cold War, a principal focus of Canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of Europe in the face of the Soviet military threat. Toward that end, Canadian ground and air forces were based in Europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s, Canadian defence policy today is based on the Canada First Defence Strategy, introduced in 2008. Based on that strategy, the Canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within Canada, in North America and globally. Prior to Confederation in 1867, residents of the colonies in what is now Canada served as members of French and British forces. Thereafter, the Royal Canadian Navy was formed, and, with the advent of military aviation and these forces were organised under the Department of Militia and Defence, and split into the Permanent and Non-Permanent Active Militias—frequently shortened to simply The Militia. By 1923, the department was merged into the Department of National Defence, the first overseas deployment of Canadian military forces occurred during the Second Boer War, when several units were raised to serve under British command. Similarly, when the United Kingdom entered into conflict with Germany in the First World War, the Canadian Crown-in-Council then decided to send its forces into the Second World War, as well as the Korean War. Since 1947, Canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide, Canada maintained an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the Cold War, which never saw combat but participated in patrols during the Cuban Missile Crisis. At the end of the Second World War, Canada possessed the fourth-largest air force and fifth-largest naval surface fleet in the world, conscription for overseas service was introduced only near the end of the war, and only 2,400 conscripts actually made it into battle. Originally, Canada was thought to have had the third-largest navy in the world and its roots, however, lie in colonial militia groups that served alongside garrisons of the French and British armies and navies, a structure that remained in place until the early 20th century. After the 1980s, the use of the Canadian Armed Forces name gave way to Canadian Forces, land Forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within United Nations sanctioned conflicts. The nature of the Canadian Forces has continued to evolve and they have been deployed in Afghanistan until 2011, under the NATO-led United Nations International Security Assistance Force, at the request of the Government of Afghanistan. The Armed Forces are today funded by approximately $20, the number of primary reserve personnel is expected to go up to 30,000 by 2020, and the number of active to at least 70,000. In addition,5000 rangers and 19,000 supplementary personnel will be serving, if this happens the total strength would be around 124,000. These individuals serve on numerous CF bases located in all regions of the country, and are governed by the Queens Regulations and Orders, the 2006 renewal and re-equipment effort has resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment to support the mission in Afghanistan. It has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called core capabilities, in addition, new systems have also been acquired for the Armed Forces
7.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
8.
Active radar homing
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Active radar homing is a missile guidance method in which a missile contains a radar transceiver and the electronics necessary for it to find and track its target autonomously. NATO brevity code for an active radar homing missile launch is Fox Three. Active radar homing missiles have some of the best kill probabilities and this is often referred to as fire-and-forget capability and is a great advantage that modern air-to-air missiles have over their predecessors. This makes such missiles practically immune to noise jamming, active radar homing is rarely employed as the only guidance method of a missile. It is possible for an other than the launching platform to provide guidance to the missile before it switches its radar on, This may be other. Most anti-ship missiles use active radar homing for terminal guidance, many ARH missiles with targets on land or sea use millimeter wave guidance. S. Navys Bat radar-guided glide bomb of World War II, worlds earliest munition design known to use an active homing system
9.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
10.
Booster (rocketry)
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Boosters are traditionally necessary to launch spacecraft into low Earth orbit, and are certainly necessary for a space vehicle to go beyond Earth orbit. The booster is dropped to fall back to Earth once its fuel is expended, the rest of the launch vehicle continues flight with its core or upper-stage engines. The booster may be recovered and reused, as in the case of the Space Shuttle, the latter are frequently designated zero stages. Boosters are traditionally necessary to launch spacecraft into low Earth orbit absent a single-stage-to-orbit design, when the booster´s fuel is empty it is dropped to fall back to Earth, a point known as booster engine cut-off. The rest of the vehicle continues to fly with its core or upper-stage engines. The booster may be recovered and reused, as in the case of the Space Shuttle, the SM-65 Atlas rocket used three engines, one of which was fixed to the fuel tank, and two of which were mounted on a skirt which dropped away at BECO. This was used as an Intercontinental ballistic missile, to launch the manned Project Mercury capsule into orbit, and as the first stage of the Atlas-Agena and Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles. The Titan III, used by the United States Air Force as an unmanned vehicle, was developed from the Titan II launch vehicle by adding a pair of strap-on solid rocket boosters. It was also planned to be used for the Manned Orbital Laboratory program, strap-on boosters are sometimes used to augment the payload or range capability of military jet aircraft. NASAs Space Shuttle was the first manned vehicle to use solid-fueled boosters as strap-ons, the solid boosters consisted of stacked segments, and were recovered and reused multiple times. The booster casings for the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster were recovered and refurbished for reuse from 1981–2011 as part of the Space Shuttle program. In a new development program initiated in 2011, SpaceX developed technologies to facilitate the return, vertical landing, the program was intended to reduce launch prices significantly, opening new markets for the use of space. Rocket boosters used on aircraft are known as Jet-Assisted TakeOff rockets, various missiles also use solid rocket boosters. Examples are, 2K11 which uses SRBs as a first stage, s-200 which uses SRBs as the first stage, followed by a liquid fuel rocket. Surface-launched versions of the turbojet powered Boeing Harpoon use an SRB, another use of the term booster in spaceflight is the Booster Systems Engineer, whose call sign is Booster. This is a position at NASAs Mission Control Center
11.
Proximity fuze
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A proximity fuze is a fuze that detonates an explosive device automatically when the distance to the target becomes smaller than a predetermined value. Proximity fuzes are designed for such as planes, missiles, ships at sea. They provide a sophisticated trigger mechanism than the common contact fuze or timed fuze, it is estimated that it increases the lethality by 5 to 10 times. British military researchers Sir Samuel Curran and W. A. S. Butement invented a proximity fuze in the stages of World War II under the name VT. The system was a small, short range, Doppler radar, however, Britain lacked the capacity to develop the fuze, so the design was shown to the United States during the Tizard Mission in late 1940. The fuze needed to be miniaturized, survive the acceleration of cannon launch. Development was completed under the direction of physicist Merle A. Tuve at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, over 2000 American companies were mobilized to build some 20 million shell fuzes. The proximity fuze was one of the most important technological innovations of the war and it was so important that it was a secret guarded to a similar level as the atom bomb project or D-Day invasion. Adm. Lewis L. Strauss wrote that, One of the most original and effective military developments in World War II was the proximity, or VT and it was of incalculable value to both the Army and Navy, and it helped save London from obliteration. While no one won the war, the proximity fuze must be listed among the very small group of developments, such as radar. The fuze was later found to be able to detonate artillery shells in air bursts, the Germans were supposedly also working on proximity fuzes in the 1930s, based on capacitive effects rather than radar. Research and prototype work at Rheinmetall were halted in 1940 to devote resources to projects deemed more necessary. In the post-World War II era, a number of new proximity fuze systems were developed, including radio, optical, a common form used in modern air-to-air weapons uses a laser as an optical source and time-of-flight for ranging. Before the proximity fuzes invention, detonation was induced by direct contact, all of these earlier methods have disadvantages. The probability of a hit on a small moving target is low. A time- or height-triggered fuze requires an accurate prediction, if the setting is wrong, with a proximity fuze, the shell or missile need only pass close by the target at some time during its trajectory. The proximity fuze makes the problem simpler than the previous methods, Proximity fuzes are also useful for producing air bursts against ground targets. A contact fuze would explode when it hit the ground, it would not be effective at scattering shrapnel
12.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
13.
Intercontinental ballistic missile
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An intercontinental ballistic missile is a guided ballistic missile with a minimum range of 5,500 kilometres primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery. Similarly, conventional, chemical, and biological weapons can also be delivered with varying effectiveness, most modern designs support multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, allowing a single missile to carry several warheads, each of which can strike a different target. Early ICBMs had limited precision that allowed them to be used only against the largest targets such as cities and they were seen as a safe basing option, one that would keep the deterrent force close to home where it would be difficult to attack. Attacks against military targets, if desired, still demanded the use of a more precise manned bomber, the result is that the power of a nuclear explosion to rupture hardened structures is greatly decreased by the distance from the impact point of the nuclear weapon. So a near-direct hit is generally necessary, as only diminishing returns are gained by increasing bomb yield, second- and third-generation designs dramatically improved accuracy to the point where even the smallest point targets can be successfully attacked. Short and medium-range ballistic missiles are known collectively as theatre ballistic missiles, the ICBM A9/A10 rocket initially was intended to be guided by radio, but was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster. The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945, the progenitor of the A9/A10 was the German V-2 rocket, also designed by von Braun and widely used at the end of World War II to bomb British and Belgian cities. All of these rockets used liquid propellants, in the immediate post-war era, the US and USSR both started rocket research programs based on the German wartime designs, especially the V-2. In the US, each branch of the military started its own programs, in the USSR, rocket research was centrally organized, although several teams worked on different designs. Early designs from both countries were short-range missiles, like the V-2, but improvements quickly followed, in the USSR early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. This changed in 1953 when Sergei Korolyov was directed to development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the R-7 developed with some speed, the first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash 400 km from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957, the R-7 flew over 6,000 km, the first strategic-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at Plesetsk in north-west Russia. It was the same R-7 launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, the first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of R-7, Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. The U. S. initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the RTV-A-2 Hiroc project and this was a three-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut after only three successful launches in 1948 of the second stage design, used to test variations on the V-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly forming US Air Force did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of their first thermonuclear weapon, the Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957, the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket blew up
14.
MIM-14 Nike Hercules
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The Nike Hercules was a surface-to-air missile used by U. S. and NATO armed forces for medium- and high-altitude long-range air defense. It was normally armed with the W31 nuclear warhead, but could also be fitted with a warhead for export use. Its warhead also allowed it to be used in a secondary role. It evolved into a larger missile with two solid fuel stages that provided three times the range of the Ajax. Deployment began in 1958, initially at new bases, but it took over many Ajax bases as well. At its peak it was deployed at over 130 bases in the US alone, Hercules was officially referred to as transportable, but moving a battery was a significant operation and required considerable construction at the firing sites. Over its lifetime, significant effort was put into development of solid state replacements for the vacuum tube-based electronics inherited from the early-1950s Ajax, none of these were adopted, in favor of much more mobile systems like the MIM-23 Hawk. Another potential development was a version of the Hercules for the anti-ballistic missile role. Hercules would prove to be the last operational missile from Bells Nike team, Zeus was never deployed, Hercules remained the US primary heavy SAM until it began to be replaced by the higher performance and considerably more mobile MIM-104 Patriot in the 1980s. Patriots much higher accuracy allowed it to dispense with the nuclear warhead, the last Hercules missiles were deactivated in Europe in 1988, without ever being fired in anger. Like the Germans and British before them, they concluded the only successful defence would be to use guided weapons, as early as 1944 the US Army started exploring anti-aircraft missiles, examining a variety of concepts. That is, whether the missile operated more like an aircraft or a rocket, GAPA moved to the US Air Force when that branch was formed in 1948. In 1946 the USAAF also started two early research projects into anti-missile systems in Project Thumper and Project Wizard, in 1953, Project Nike delivered the worlds first operational anti-aircraft missile system, known simply as Nike. Nike tracked both the target and the missile using separate radars, compared the locations in a computer, to increase range, the missile was normally boosted above the target into thinner air, and then descended on it in a gliding dive. Similar systems quickly emerged from other nations, including the S-75 Dvina from the USSR, even as the Nike was undergoing testing, planners grew concerned about the missiles ability to attack formations of aircraft. Given the low resolution of the tracking radars available at the time, launched against such a formation, the Nike would fly towards the center of the composite return. Given the Nike warheads relatively small radius, if the missile flew into the middle of the formation and exploded. Improving performance against such targets would require much higher resolution radars
15.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
16.
Mach number
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In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound. M = u c, where, M is the Mach number, u is the flow velocity with respect to the boundaries. By definition, Mach 1 is equal to the speed of sound, Mach 0.65 is 65% of the speed of sound, and Mach 1.35 is 35% faster than the speed of sound. The local speed of sound, and thereby the Mach number, depends on the condition of the surrounding medium, the Mach number is primarily used to determine the approximation with which a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. The medium can be a gas or a liquid, the boundary can be the boundary of an object immersed in the medium, or of a channel such as a nozzle, diffusers or wind tunnels channeling the medium. As the Mach number is defined as the ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number, if M <0. 2–0.3 and the flow is quasi-steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and simplified incompressible flow equations can be used. The Mach number is named after Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, as the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit, the second Mach number is Mach 2 instead of 2 Mach. This is somewhat reminiscent of the modern ocean sounding unit mark, which was also unit-first. In the decade preceding faster-than-sound human flight, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Machs number, never Mach 1, Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar manner at a given Mach number, regardless of other variables. As modeled in the International Standard Atmosphere, dry air at sea level, standard temperature of 15 °C. For example, the atmosphere model lapses temperature to −56.5 °C at 11,000 meters altitude. In the following table, the regimes or ranges of Mach values are referred to, generally, NASA defines high hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Aircraft operating in this include the Space Shuttle and various space planes in development. Flight can be classified in six categories, For comparison. At transonic speeds, the field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M >1 flow appear around the object, in case of an airfoil, this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to only in a normal shock. As the speed increases, the zone of M >1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges
17.
TNT equivalent
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TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The ton of TNT is a unit of energy defined by convention to be 4.184 gigajoules. The convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosives, the kiloton is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules. The megaton is a unit of equal to 4.184 petajoules. The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally used to describe the energy output. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact. A gram of TNT releases 2673–6702 J upon explosion, the energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J, which is exactly one kilocalorie. The measured, pure heat output of a gram of TNT is only 2724 J, alternative TNT equivalency can be calculated as a function of when in the detonation the value is measured and which property is being compared. A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT8.46 metres on a side, the RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent, the greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive. This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubanes RE factor of 2.38, using PETN, engineers would need 1. 0/1.66 kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1. 0/0.74 kg or 1. 0/0.42 kg, *, TBX or EBX, in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions, guide for the Use of the International System of Units. National Institute of Standards and Technology, nuclear Weapons FAQ Part 1.3 Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb, cooper, Paul W. Explosives Engineering, New York, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 0-471-18636-8 HQ Department of the Army, Field Manual 5-25, Explosives and Demolitions, Washington, D. C. Pentagon Publishing, pp. 83–84, ISBN 0-9759009-5-1 Explosives - Compositions, Alexandria, VA, thermobaric Explosives, Advanced Energetic Materials,2004. THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS, nap. edu, retrieved September 2004
18.
Liquid-propellant rocket
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A liquid-propellant rocket or liquid rocket is a rocket engine that uses liquid propellants. This permits the use of low-mass propellant tanks, resulting in a mass ratio for the rocket. An inert gas stored in a tank at a pressure is sometimes used instead of pumps in simpler small engines to force the propellants into the combustion chamber. These engines may have a mass ratio, but are usually more reliable. And are therefore used widely in satellites for orbit maintenance, some designs are throttleable for variable thrust operation and some may be restarted after a previous in-space shutdown. Liquid propellants are used in hybrid rockets, in which a liquid oxidizer is generally combined with a solid fuel. This seminal treatise on astronautics was published in 1903, but was not distributed outside Russia until years later, german V-2 inventor Wernher von Braun considered Paulet one of the fathers of aeronautics. The National Air & Space Museum in Washington, D. C. has a plaque honoring the memory of Paulet. He was the only known developer of liquid-propellant rocket engine experiments in the 19th century, however, he did not publish his work. In 1927 he wrote a letter to a newspaper in Lima, historians of early rocketry experiments, among them Max Valier, Willy Ley, and John D. Clark, have given differing amounts of credence to Paulets report. Paulet described laboratory tests of, but did not claim to have launched a liquid rocket. Wernher von Braun, in his book World History of Aeronautics states, Pedro Paulet was in Paris in those years, experimenting with his tiny two-and-a-half kilogram motor, by this act, Paulet should be considered the pioneer of the liquid fuel propulsion motor. Further, in his History of Rocketry and Space Travel, von Braun recognizes that by his efforts, Paulet helped man reach the Moon. The rocket, which was dubbed Nell, rose just 41 feet during a 2. 5-second flight that ended in a cabbage field, goddard proposed liquid propellants about fifteen years earlier and began to seriously experiment with them in 1921. In Germany, engineers and scientists became enthralled with liquid-fuel rockets and this amateur rocket group, the VfR, included Wernher von Braun, who became the head of the army research station that secretly built the V-2 rocket weapon for the Nazis. The German-Romanian Hermann Oberth published a book in 1922 suggesting the use of liquid propellants, after World War II the American government and military finally seriously considered liquid-propellant rockets as weapons and began to fund work on them. The Soviet Union did likewise, and thus began the Space Race, bipropellant liquid rockets generally use a liquid fuel, such as liquid hydrogen or a hydrocarbon fuel such as RP-1, and a liquid oxidizer, such as liquid oxygen. The engine may be a rocket engine, where the fuel and oxidizer
19.
Lockheed X-7
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The Lockheed X-7 was an American unmanned test bed of the 1950s for ramjet engines and missile guidance technology. It was the basis for the later Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher, a used to test American air defenses against nuclear missile attack. The aircraft is one of the lesser known designs by Kelly Johnson, the X-7 was carried aloft by a B-29 or B-50 Superfortress carrier aircraft. A booster ignited after launch and propelled the vehicle to a speed of 1,000 mph, the booster was then jettisoned, and the underslung ramjet took over from that point. The X-7 eventually returned to Earth, its descent slowed by multistage parachute and it descended in a vertical nose-down attitude. The nose was a spike which penetrated the ground upon impact preventing damage to the rest of the airframe. A maximum speed of 2,881 miles per hour, or Mach 4.31, was attained, a total of 130 X-7 flights were conducted from April 1951 to July 1960. The X-7 was unique in that it was constructed of steel, as opposed to the used on later ramjets such as the more well known SR-71, and its predecessors. The X-2 test aircraft preceded the X-7 by having Stainless steel wings, steel was not widely used in aircraft until the later Mig-25 Foxbat. The X-7 was also used to test HEF-2 and Hi Cal-3 zip fuel, compared to hydrocarbon fuel with 18,400 Btu/lb.31 Service ceiling,106,000 ft The A-3 variant was longer and narrower. Related development Q-5 Kingfisher Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era Bomarc Q-5/AQM-60 Ramjet test missile takes off on supersonic flight
20.
Lockheed D-21
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The Lockheed D-21 was an American reconnaissance drone with maximum speed in excess of Mach 3.3. The D-21 was initially designed to be launched from the back of a M-21 carrier aircraft, originally known by the Lockheed designation Q-12, the drone was intended for reconnaissance deep in enemy airspace. Following a fatal accident when launched from an M-21, the D-21 was modified to be launched from a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, several test flights were made, followed by four unsuccessful operational D-21 flights over the Peoples Republic of China, and the program was canceled in 1971. In the 1960s Lockheeds secret Skunk Works developed the Mach 3 A-12 reconnaissance aircraft for the Central Intelligence Agency, after the shooting down of the U-2 piloted by Gary Powers in 1960, a number of different concepts were proposed as alternatives. Kelly Johnson, the leader of Skunk Works, developed the concept of a drone that used much of the A-12s technology. In October 1962 the CIA and the US Air Force instructed Lockheed to study a high-speed, Johnson specified speeds of Mach 3. 3–3.5, an operational altitude of 87, 000–95,000 feet, and a range of 3,000 nautical miles. It was intended to make a trip, eject its camera payload at the end of the mission for recovery. It had a wing similar to the A-12s wing design. The Q-12 was to be air-launched from the back of an A-12, Johnson wanted to power the Q-12 with a ramjet engine built by Marquardt for the Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc long-range surface-to-air missile. Marquardt and Lockheed had already collaborated on several programs and had a working relationship. The modified engine was designated as the RJ43-MA20S-4, a full-scale mockup of the Q-12 was ready by 7 December 1962, and had already undergone preliminary tests to measure its radar cross-section. Marquardt had also tested the modified RJ-43 in its wind tunnel in the meantime. However, the CIA was not enthusiastic about the Q-12, mostly because the agency was overextended at the time with U-2 missions, getting the A-12 up to speed, and covert operations in Southeast Asia. The Air Force, however, was interested in the Q-12 as both a platform and a cruise missile, and the CIA finally decided to work with the USAF to develop the new drone. Lockheed was awarded a contract in March 1963 for full-scale development of the Q-12, the camera and its film magazines with an inertial navigation system were carried in a cramped Q-bay below the drones air intake. These components were built into a module that fit into the bay and was known as a hatch, if the C-130 missed, the hatch was equipped with flotation devices so it could be recovered by ship if released over water. In late 1963 the project was named Tagboard, the Q-12 was re-designated D-21 while the A-12 version launcher became M-21, two of the original 18 A-12 aircraft were designated as M-21s with serial numbers 60-6940 and 60-6941. The M-21 was a version of the A-12, with a pylon on the fuselage centerline between the vertical stabilizers to carry the drone in a nose-up attitude
21.
BOMARC Missile Accident Site
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The Cold War nuclear accident occurred at Launcher Shelter 204, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, Burlington County, New Jersey, United States, approximately 16.1 miles south-southeast of Trenton. Launcher Shelter 204 stored the CIM-10 Bomarc missile, on 7 June 1960, an explosion in a helium tank [between the missiles fuel tanks took place in Shelter 204 causing a fire in a liquid-fueled, nuclear-tipped BOMARC missile. The fire burned uninhibited for about 30 minutes, firefighting activities, using water as a suppressant, were conducted for 15 hours. As a result, materials from the shelter flowed under the front shelter doors, down the asphalt apron, contamination was restricted to an area immediately beneath the weapon and an adjacent elongated area approximately 100 feet long. A nuclear response team from Griffiss Air Force Base found no trace of dispersed radiation during spot checks outside the boundaries for 66 mi. Approximately 300 g of WGP was not recovered, A significant fraction of the material contained in the weapon shipped…to Medina Base, San Antonio TX. According to the Trenton Times, “In June 1987, traces of a substance used in nuclear warheads were found about one-half mile from the site. They found five anomalous areas which could represent the buried launcher, from 1999-2000 the USGS sampled and tested the Kirkwood-Cohansey aquifer with shallow ground water and sediment for radionuclides. No manmade radionuclide was present in the sediments, or unfiltered or filtered water samples. From April 2002 through May 27,2004,21,998 cu yd of contaminated debris and soils were packaged, shipped, and disposed at Clive, Utah, in 2005, the contaminated area was estimated as 7 acres and ~60 cu yd were additionally remediated by 2007. The 1972 RW-01 perimeter fence with height 6 ft topped with barbed wire was extended by 2007 to include an area on the south. A2013 study compared the characteristics of the accidents particle release with the nuclear warhead dispersals of the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash and 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash. BOMARC Base No.1 was the New Jersey missile launch complex of 218 acres within the Range, the military installation was 1 of 2 Cold War BOMARC bases of the New York Air Defense Sector. By 1955 the base was planned for January 1960 operations as the 1st BOMARC site, in December 1959, Col. Robert E. Stuart was the base commander, the 46th Air Defense Missile Squadron commander was Lt. Col. Ernest B. Sheppard, and the Boeing support office was in New Egypt
22.
Semi-Automatic Ground Environment
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SAGE directed and controlled the NORAD response to a Soviet air attack, operating in this role from the late 1950s into the 1980s. Its enormous computers and huge displays remain a part of cold war lore, the processing power behind SAGE was supplied by the largest computer ever built, the AN/FSQ-7. Each SAGE Direction Center housed an FSQ-7 which occupied an entire floor, Information was fed to the DCs from a network of radar stations as well as readiness information from various defence sites. The computers, based on the raw data, developed tracks for the reported targets. Operators used light guns to select targets onscreen for further information, select one of the available defences and these commands would then be automatically sent to the defence site via teleprinter. Connecting the various sites was a network of telephones, modems. Each DC also forwarded data to a Combat Center for supervision of the several sectors within the division, SAGE became operational in the late 1950s and early 1960s at a combined cost of billions of dollars. It was noted that the deployment cost more than the Manhattan Project, throughout its development there were continual questions about its real ability to deal with large attacks, and several tests by Strategic Air Command bombers suggested the system was leaky. Nevertheless, SAGE was the backbone of NORADs air defence system into the 1980s, by time the tube-based FSQ-7s were increasingly costly to maintain. Today the same command and control task is carried out by microcomputers, just prior to World War II, Royal Air Force tests with the new Chain Home radars had demonstrated that relaying information to the fighter aircraft directly from the radar sites was not feasible. The radars determined the map coordinates of the enemy, but could not see the fighters at the same time. This meant the radar operators could not tell the pilots where to go for an interception, the pilots had to do this, the sectors used additional systems to track their own aircraft, plotting both on a single large map. Operators viewing the map could then see what direction their fighters would have to fly to approach their targets. This Dowding system was the first ground controlled intercept system of large scale and it proved enormously successful during the Battle of Britain, and is credited as being a key part in the RAFs success. However, the system was slow, often providing information that was up to five minutes out of date. The system was extremely expensive in manpower terms, requiring hundreds of telephone operators, plotters, trackers. This was a drain on manpower reserves, making it difficult to expand the network. The idea of using a computer to handle the task of taking reports, by 1944, analog computers had been installed at the CH stations to automatically convert radar readings into map locations, eliminating two people
23.
North American Aerospace Defense Command
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Headquarters for NORAD and the NORAD/United States Northern Command center are located at Peterson Air Force Base in El Paso County, near Colorado Springs, Colorado. The nearby Cheyenne Mountain Complex has the Alternate Command Center, the NORAD commander and deputy commander are, respectively, a United States four-star general or equivalent and a Canadian three-star general or equivalent. CINCNORAD maintains the NORAD headquarters at Peterson Air Force Base near Colorado Springs, with an accurate picture of any aerospace or maritime threat. S. Both the CONR and CANR regions are divided into eastern and western sectors, ANR is supported by both active duty and reserve units. Active duty forces are provided by 11 AF and the Canadian Armed Forces, both 11 AF and the CAF provide active duty personnel to the ROCC to maintain continuous surveillance of Alaskan airspace. Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters is at CFB Winnipeg, Manitoba and it was established on 22 April 1983. It is responsible for providing surveillance and control of Canadian airspace, the Royal Canadian Air Force provides alert assets to NORAD. CANR is divided into two sectors, which are designated as the Canada East Sector and Canada West Sector, both Sector Operations Control Centers are co-located at CFB North Bay Ontario. The routine operation of the SOCCs includes reporting track data, sensor status, in 1996 CANR was renamed 1 Canadian Air Division and moved to CFB Winnipeg. Canadian air defense forces assigned to NORAD include 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Cold Lake, Alberta and 425 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Bagotville, All squadrons fly the McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft. Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan may be directed to land and be inspected by RCMP, the Continental NORAD Region is the component of NORAD that provides airspace surveillance and control and directs air sovereignty activities for the Contiguous United States. CONR is the NORAD designation of the United States Air Force First Air Force/AFNORTH and its headquarters is located at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. The First Air Force became responsible for the USAF air defense mission on 30 September 1990, AFNORTH is the United States Air Force component of United States Northern Command. 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH comprises State Air National Guard Fighter Wings assigned an air mission to 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH. The primary weapons systems are the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft and it plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and ensures air sovereignty and provides for the unilateral defense of the United States. In its role as the CONUS NORAD Region,1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH also performs counter-drug surveillance operations, NORAD was recommended by the Joint Canadian-U. S. The 1958 international agreement designated the NORAD commander always be a United States officer, agreed the commands primary purpose would be…early warning and defense for SACs retaliatory forces. The RCAFs 1950 ground observer system, the Long Range Air Raid Warning System, was discontinued and on 31 January 1959, the United States Ground Observer Corps was deactivated
24.
Bomber
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A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry, firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. In 1912, during the First Balkan War, Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop bombs on Turkish positions, captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber, the first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T. B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T. B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914. The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century, early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and these were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships, the Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a biplane with three 67 kW Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, the improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915. Bombing raids and interdiction operations were carried out by French. Sustained attacks with a view to interrupting the enemys railway communications, in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C. III, the Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the stages of the war. With engine power as a limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors. By the start of the war included, dive bomber — specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy. Light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber — subjective definitions based on size, torpedo bomber — specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes. Ground attack aircraft — aircraft used against targets on a such as troop or tank concentrations
25.
Hypergolic propellant
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A hypergolic propellant combination used in a rocket engine is one whose components spontaneously ignite when they come into contact with each other. The two propellant components usually consist of a fuel and an oxidizer, Soviet rocket engine researcher Valentin Glushko experimented with hypergolic fuel as early as 1931. It was initially used for ignition of engines, starting kerosene/nitric acid engines with an initial charge of phosphorus dissolved in carbon disulfide. Starting in 1935, Prof. O. Lutz of the German Aeronautical Institute experimented with over 1000 self-igniting propellants and he assisted the Walter Company with the development of C-Stoff which ignited with concentrated hydrogen peroxide. BMW developed engines burning a hypergolic mix of nitric acid with various combinations of amines, xylidines and anilines, hypergolic propellants were discovered independently, for the third time, in the U. S. by GALCIT and Navy Annapolis researchers in 1940. They developed engines powered by aniline and nitric acid, robert Goddard, Reaction Motors and Curtiss-Wright worked on aniline/nitric acid engines in the early 1940s, for small missiles and jet assisted take-off. In Germany from the mid-1930s through World War II, rocket propellants were broadly classed as monergols, hypergols, non-hypergols and lithergols, the ending ergol is a combination of Greek ergon or work, and Latin oleum or oil, later influenced by the chemical suffix -ol from alcohol. Monergols were monopropellants, while non-hypergols were bipropellants which required external ignition, hypergolic propellants were far less prone to hard starts than electric or pyrotechnic ignition. The hypergole terminology was coined by Dr. Wolfgang Nöggerath, at the Technical University of Brunswick, the only rocket-powered fighter ever deployed was the Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet. The Komet had a HWK 109-509A rocket motor which consumed methanol/hydrazine as fuel, the hypergolic rocket motor had the advantage of fast climb and quick-hitting tactics at the cost of being very volatile and capable of exploding with any degree of inattention. The earliest ballistic missiles, such as the Soviet R-7 that launched Sputnik 1, Titan II and in most Soviet ICBMs such as the R-36. S. and Soviet ICBMs. The trend among western space launch agencies is away from large hypergolic rocket engines, Ariane 1 through 4, with their hypergolic first and second stages have been retired and replaced with the Ariane 5, which uses a first stage fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Titan II, III and IV, with their hypergolic first, hypergolic rockets are still widely used in upper stages when multiple burn-coast periods are required. Hypergolic rockets are usually simple and reliable because they need no ignition system, although larger hypergolic engines in some launch vehicles use turbopumps, most hypergolic engines are pressure fed. A gas, usually helium, is fed to the propellant tanks under pressure through a series of check, the most common hypergolic fuels, hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine, and oxidizer, nitrogen tetroxide, are all liquid at ordinary temperatures and pressures. They are therefore sometimes called storable liquid propellants and they are suitable for use in spacecraft missions lasting many years. The cryogenity of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen limits their use to space launch vehicles where they need to be stored only briefly. Restartable non-hypergolic rocket engines nevertheless exist, notably the cryogenic RL-10 on the Centaur, the RP-1 and liquid oxygen Merlin Vacuum on the Falcon 9 upper stage can also be restarted
26.
Solid-propellant rocket
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A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants. The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder, they were used in warfare by the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians, all rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for periods, and then reliably launch on short notice. Solids are, however, frequently used as boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as launch vehicles for low Earth orbit payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain, the grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only be throttled but also be extinguished, also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command are available. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass, grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously, the results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries, The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure. The chamber pressure is determined by the orifice diameter and grain burn rate. Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design, the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness. The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing, case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding. All of these produce an increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure. Another failure mode is casing seal failure, seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and this was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
27.
Thiokol
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Thiokol was an American corporation concerned initially with rubber and related chemicals, and later with rocket and missile propulsion systems. Its name is a portmanteau of the Greek words for sulfur and glue, the Thiokol Chemical Company was founded in 1929. Its initial business was a range of rubber and polymer sealants. Huntsville produced the XM33 Pollux, TX-18 Falcon, and TX-135 Nike-Zeus systems, Thiokol continues to have major operations in the state, at Magna and Promontory, and its current headquarters at Brigham City. As of 2005 the company employed over 15,000 people worldwide,1926, Two chemists, Joseph C. Patrick and Nathan Mnookin, were trying to invent an inexpensive antifreeze. In the course of an experiment involving ethylene dichloride and sodium polysulfide, the substance clogged a sink in the laboratory, and none of the solvents used to remove it were successful. Then the frustrated chemists realized that the resistance of the material to any kind of solvent was a useful property and they had invented a synthetic rubber, which they christened Thiokol. 1945, Charles Bartley, working for the nascent Jet Propulsion Laboratory,1948, Elkton, Maryland plant opened, producing solid rocket motors. 1949, Thiokol produce the TX-18 Falcon missile, the worlds first solid-fueled missile system,1957, In anticipation of the forthcoming Minuteman contract, the company builds its plant at Brigham City, Utah. 1957, Thiokol Huntsville builds XM33 Pollux missile 1958, Merger with Reaction Motors Inc. makers of liquid propellant rocket motor systems,1958, Thiokol awarded contract to build the TU-122 rocket motor for the first stage of the LGM-30 Minuteman ICBM system. 1959, Thiokol Huntsville produces CASTOR strap-on booster rocket, used on the Atlas rocket,1964, Woodbine, Georgia plant is constructed to build solid propellant motors for NASA, but the agency changes course and uses liquid fuel. 1969, Thiokol awarded U. S. Army contract to manufacture 750,000 Tripflares for use in the Vietnam War,1971, Explosion in magnesium flare assembly facility at Woodbine plant kills 29 and injures 50. 1980, Acquires Carlisle Chemical Company of Cincinnati, Ohio,1982, Thiokol merges with Morton-Norwich products. The merged company is called Morton Thiokol Incorporated,1986, An O-ring fault in an MTI SRB destroys Space Shuttle Challenger in flight. The company is found at fault for the destruction of Challenger,1989, Morton Thiokol splits, with most of the chemical concern going with Morton. The propulsion systems division becomes Thiokol Inc,1998, Thiokol changes name to Cordant Technologies. 1998, Thiokol branded polymer products purchased by PolySpec L. P. a Houston-based manufacturer of coatings, marine decking. 2000, Thiokol merges with two divisions of Alcoa and with Howmet Castings and Huck Fasteners to become AIC Group,2001, Alliant Techsystems Inc. spends $2.9 billion buying Thiokol and related businesses from AIC/Alcoa
28.
Pulse-Doppler radar
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It combines the features of pulse radars and continuous-wave radars, which were formerly separate due to the complexity of the electronics. Pulse-Doppler systems were first widely used on fighter aircraft starting in the 1960s, earlier radars had used pulse-timing in order to determine range and the angle of the antenna to determine the bearing. However, this worked when the radar antenna was not pointed down. As the ground moves at the speed but opposite direction of the aircraft, Doppler techniques allow the ground return to be filtered out, revealing aircraft. This gives pulse-Doppler radars look-down/shoot-down capability, a secondary advantage in military radar is to reduce the transmitted power while achieving acceptable performance for improved safety of stealthy radar. Pulse-Doppler techniques also find use in meteorological radars, allowing the radar to determine wind speed from the velocity of any precipitation in the air. Pulse-Doppler radar is also the basis of synthetic aperture radar used in radar astronomy, in air traffic control, they are used for discriminating aircraft from clutter. The earliest radar systems failed to operate as expected, the reason was traced to Doppler effects that degrade performance of systems not designed to account for moving objects. Fast-moving objects cause a phase-shift on the pulse that can produce signal cancellation. Doppler has maximum effect on moving target indicator systems, which must use reverse phase shift for Doppler compensation in the detector. Doppler weather effects were found to degrade conventional radar and moving target indicator radar. This phenomenon was adapted for use with weather radar in the 1950s after declassification of some World War II systems, Pulse-Doppler radar was developed during World War II to overcome limitations by increasing pulse repetition frequency. This required the development of klystron, the traveling wave tube, Pulse-Doppler is incompatible with other high power microwave amplification devices that are not coherent. Early examples of systems include the AN/SPG-51B developed during the 1950s specifically for the purpose of operating in hurricane conditions with no performance degradation. The USs first pulse-Doppler radar, the system had look-down/shoot-down capability, weather, chaff, terrain, flying techniques, and stealth are common tactics used to hide aircraft from radar. It became possible to use radar on aircraft after digital computers were incorporated in the design. Pulse-Doppler provided look-down/shoot-down capability to support air-to-air missile systems in most modern military aircraft by the mid 1970s, Pulse-Doppler systems measure the range to objects by measuring the elapsed time between sending a pulse of radio energy and receiving a reflection of the object. Radio waves travel at the speed of light, so the distance to the object is the elapsed time multiplied by the speed of light, Pulse-Doppler radar is based on the Doppler effect, where movement in range produces frequency shift on the signal reflected from the target
29.
Santa Rosa Island (Florida)
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Santa Rosa Island is a 40-mile barrier island located in the U. S. state of Florida, thirty miles east of the Alabama state border. The communities of Pensacola Beach, Navarre Beach, and Okaloosa Island are located on the island, on the northern lee side, of the island, are Pensacola Bay on the west and Choctawhatchee Bay on the east, joined through Santa Rosa Sound. Parts of the island are protected from development within the Gulf Islands National Seashore, Santa Rosa Island was the site of a settlement in August 1559 led by Tristan de Luna from New Spain, considered the earliest European settlement in what is now the mainland United States. Santa Rosa Island was explored by Spanish Conquistadors circa 1519, years later, an expedition led by Tristan de Luna arrived from Vera Cruz in August 1559 to found a settlement. Spanish settlements in the area were abandoned in 1561, following damage from storms, lack of supplies resulting in famine, the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine, Florida on the Atlantic coast, established on August 28,1565, has been continuously inhabited since then. During the American Civil War, the Battle of Santa Rosa Island took place here on October 9,1861, confederate Richard Anderson crossed from the Florida mainland onto Santa Rosa Island with 1200 men, in two small steamers, in a failed attempt to capture Fort Pickens. The Union held the fort throughout the war, considering Fort Pickens to be outdated, the U. S. War Department sold Santa Rosa Island in 1929 to Escambia County, Florida, ten years later, the county returned the island to the federal government in the expectation that it would be developed as a U. S. National Monument preserving the remnants of Fort Pickens. The fort and other areas are now preserved within the Gulf Islands National Seashore, on July 8,1950 the federal government conveyed an 875-acre parcel of Santa Rosa Island with 3 miles of Gulf frontage to Okaloosa County. The county paid the federal government $4,000 to complete the transaction, the portion of Santa Rosa Island transferred is now known as Okaloosa Island. The twelve-mile long beach road onto U. S, various military missile launch and test facilities exist on Santa Rosa Island south and southwest of Hurlburt Field. The island has been hit by tropical cyclones, in 1995 it was the landfall point of hurricanes Erin. Hurricane Dennis hit the island in July 2005, and with 120 mph winds, was the strongest storm to do so, tropical Storm Claudette hit in 2009. In 2008-2009, a sunken Spanish ship was located and excavated offshore and these findings confirmed reports of the 1559 expedition by Tristan de Luna, which had established a settlement at Pensacola. One of the missions in the Florida Phase of the US Armys Ranger School is conducted on Santa Rosa Island. com,2008, web
30.
Hurlburt Field
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Hurlburt Field is a United States Air Force installation located in Okaloosa County, Florida, immediately west of the Town of Mary Esther. It was named for First Lieutenant Donald Wilson Hurlburt, who died in a crash at Eglin, the installation is nearly 6,700 acres, and employs nearly 8,000 military personnel. This facility is assigned a location identifier of HRT by the Federal Aviation Administration. Hurlburt began as a training field for the much larger Eglin Field. It was initially designated Eglin Auxiliary Field No, however, once separated, the facility retained its history and kept all building numbers the same, i. e. all start with a 9. The facility had previously named the Eglin-Hurlburt Airdrome until 1943, Hurlburt Field, March 1944. 9, October 1944, with the current name official on January 13,1948, the base commander of Eglin Main was also responsible for Hurlburt, 1942–1946, but when the base reactivated on February 1,1955, it gained a separate commander. He died on either October 1,1943, or October 2,1943 when his Lockheed AT-18 Hudson gunnery trainer, 42-55591, crashed during take-off at Eglin. Auxiliary Field No.10 was later named Eglin Dillon Airdrome, now known primarily as Outlying Field Choctaw, hurlburts nephew was Captain Craig D. Button, USAF, noted for his mysterious flight and crash of an A-10 Thunderbolt on April 2,1997. Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle and his Raiders could not have practiced take offs with their B-25 Mitchell bombers at Auxiliary Field No,9, as it, and the requisite hard-surfaced runway, did not exist in March 1942. A former Hurlburt Field base commander in the 1950s may have started this story, nonetheless, the short cross-field former runway, near the southern end of Hurlburt Fields main runway, is now named the Doolittle Taxiway. Other Eglin fields, including Wagner Field/Eglin Auxiliary Field No,1, and Duke Field/Eglin Auxiliary Field No. 3, were used during this training, Navy personnel from NAS Pensacola, as flight deck shirt crew, represented that services contribution to the Tokyo mission. The atomic missions put paid to this operation and this launch site is now on the National Register of Historic Places. The 4751st Air Defense Wing was organized at Hurlburt on October 1,1957 and it was redesignated the 4751st Air Defense Missile Wing on January 15,1958 and discontinued on July 1,1962 when Tactical Air Command took over the field. Its subordinate 4751st Air Defense Missile Squadron continued operations as a tenant until November 30,1979 and it operated IM-99/CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missiles from this site. The 6555th Guided Missile Wing operated CGM-13/TGM-13 Mace cruise missiles from the island, the final Mace launches from Hurlburt Site A-15 took place in June 1974. Hurlburt Field fell into disrepair following World War II, but was reactivated in 1955, the 17th Bombardment Wing was reactivated on April 1,1955 and assigned to the Ninth Air Force, with the 34th, 37th
31.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
32.
Aerospace Defense Command
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Aerospace Defense Command was a major command of the United States Air Forces, responsible for continental air defence. It was activated in 1968 and disbanded in 1980 and its predecessor, Air Defense Command, was established in 1946, briefly inactivated in 1950, reactivated in 1951, and then redesignated Aerospace rather than Air in 1968. Its mission was to air defense of the Continental United States. It directly controlled all active measures, and was tasked to coordinate all passive means of air defense, the air districts established on 16 January 1941 before the Pearl Harbor attack. The four air districts also handled USAAF combat training with the Army Ground Forces and organization and training of bomber, fighter and other units, the USAAFs Aircraft Warning Corps provided air defense warning with information centers that networked an areas Army Radar Stations which communicated radar tracks by telephone. The AWC information centers also integrated visual reports processed by Ground Observer Corps filter centers, AWC information centers notified air defense command posts of the 4 continental air forces for deploying interceptor aircraft which used command guidance for ground-controlled interception. The USAAF inactivated the aircraft warning network in April 1944, Continental Air Forces was activated on 12 December 1944 with the four Air Forces as components to consolidate the CONUS air defense mission under one command. The Continental Air Forces reorganization began in 1945, when ground radar, the Distant Early Warning Line was first conceived—and rejected—in 1946. By 1948 there were only 5 AC&W stations, including the Twin Lights station in NJ that opened in June and Montauk NY Air Warning Station #3 --cf. SAC radar stations, e. g. at Dallas & Denver Bomb Plots. By the time ADC was inactivated on 1 July 1950, ADC had deployed the Lashup Radar Network with existing radars at 43 sites, in addition,36 Air National Guard fighter units were called to active duty for the mission. ADC was reinstated as a command on 1 January 1951 at Mitchel Air Force Base. The headquarters was moved to Ent Air Force Base in Colorado Springs on 8 January 1951 and it received 21 former ConAC active-duty fighter squadrons. ADC was also assigned the 25th, 26th 27th and 28th Air Divisions ADC completed the Priority Permanent System network for Aircraft Warning, gaps were filled by additional Federal Aviation Administration radar stations and the Ground Observation Corps. During the mid-1950s, planners devised the idea of extending the wall of powerful land-based radar seaward with Airborne early warning, the RC-121s, EC-121s and Texas Towers, it was believed, would contribute to extending contiguous east-coast radar coverage some 300 to 500 miles seaward. In terms of the air threat of the 1950s, this meant a gain of at least 30 extra minutes warning time of a bomber attack. ADCs Operation Tail Wind on 11–12 July tested its augmentation plan that required Air Training Command interceptors participate in an air defense emergency, a total of seven ATC bases actively participated in the exercise, deploying aircraft and aircrews and supporting the ADC radar net. As the USAF prepared to deploy the Tactical Air Command E-3 Sentry in the later 1970s, all remaining EC-121s were transferred to the Air Force Reserve, which formed the 79th AEWCS at Homestead Air Force Base, Florida in early 1976. Besides monitoring Cuban waters, these last Warning Stars also operated from NAS Keflavik, final EC-121 operations ended in September 1978
33.
46th Air Defense Missile Squadron
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The 46th Tactical Missile Squadron is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was last assigned to the 35th Air Division of Air Defense Command at McGuire Air Force Base and it was last active in 1972. The squadron was first activated under the 317th Transport Group, an element of Air Transport Command in May 1942 as the group expanded from three to four squadrons. The group and squadron equipped with Douglas C-47 Skytrains and trained at airfields in Texas, the midwest. It also performed airlift missions as part of its training. The squadron deployed to Australia, arriving in January 1943 as an element of Fifth Air Force and it performed paratroop drops at Nadzab and Noemfoor in New Guinea, Tagaytay, Luzon, and Corregidor and Aparri in the Philippines. This included supplying guerillas in Mindanao, Cebu, and Panay, in April 1945, it bombed Carabao Island with drums of napalm. The squadron deployed to Okinawa in August 1945 after the Japanese capitulation and it replaced its C-47s with longer range Curtiss C-46 Commando aircraft and moved to Japan and the Korean peninsula during late 1945. Its initial post-war missions included the evacuation of former Allied prisoners of war, later primarily cargo transport missions in the areas of Japan. The squadron inactivated in 1949 in Japan due to constraints, its aircraft being assigned to other units as part of the consolidation. The squadron was inactivated on 31 October 1972, one of the last two BOMARC missile squadrons inactivated, the BOMARC missile site was located 4 miles east-southeast of McGuire Air Force Base at 40°02′06″N 074°26′29″W. Although geographically separated from the base, it was an off base facility of McGuire, the 46th Troop Carrier Squadron and the 46th Air Defense Missile Squadron were consolidated on 19 September 1985 as the 46th Tactical Missile Squadron while remaining inactive. afhra. af. mil/. Cornett, Lloyd H, Johnson, Mildred W, a Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization, 1946–1980. Peterson AFB, CO, Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History, Air Force Bases, Vol. I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History, winkler, David F. Webster, Julie L. Searching the skies, The legacy of the United States Cold War Defense Radar Program, champaign, IL, US Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories
34.
Eastern Air Defense Sector
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The Eastern Air Defense Sector is a United States Air Force Air Combat Command unit permanently assigned to the North American Aerospace Defense Command. A joint, bi-national military organization, EADS is composed of U. S. and Canadian military forces, federal civilians, located at the Griffiss Business and Technology Park in Rome, New York. EADS is a command of the Continental U. S. NORAD Region-1st Air Force. The Air National Guard provides the majority of the forces for the NORAD mission, at EADS, this responsibility belongs to the New York Air National Guard’s 224th Air Defense Group. The 224th ADG consists of the 224th Air Defense Squadron, the 224th Support Squadron, in total, EADS has more than 400 full- and part-time military and civilian personnel. This includes a 15-member Canadian Forces detachment and Army, Navy, Coast Guard and these personnel work side-by-side with the 224th ADG and are fully integrated into every aspect of the unit. EADS Detachment 1 serves at the Joint Air Defense Operations Center at Joint Base Anacostia-Bolling in Washington, commanded by U. S. Army National Guard air defense units that serve year-long rotations, the JADOC is responsible for the National Capital Region’s Integrated Air Defense System. Detachment 1, composed of 39 New York ANG members, is the permanent Air Force component at the JADOC, Detachment 2 serves at the National Capital Region Coordination Center in Herndon, Virginia. The seven New York ANG members at Detachment 2 are responsible for correlating, coordinating, the Eastern Air Defense Sector is one of two Sectors responsible for the air defense of the continental United States. The other sector is the Western Air Defense Sector and we will detect and defeat the next air attack on America. Counter all air threats to EADS assigned Area of Operations through vigilant detection, rapid warning and precise control of NORAD. Ensure the Sector can effectively surge to meet contingency and wartime requirements, provide focused, standardized and realistic mission training. Recruit and retain the highest quality Airmen and make EADS the best place to work in the Mohawk Valley, continuously strive to find efficiencies and improve Sector effectiveness. In December 1994, the New York Air National Guard assumed primary responsibility for manning the Northeast Air Defense Sector, as it was then known. Since then, the Sector has been staffed predominately by New York Guardsmen, along with a Canadian Forces detachment, U. S. Army, Navy, Coast Guard liaison officers and civilian personnel. EADS defends more than 180 million Americans, every hour of every day, during WWII, the British developed an air defense reporting system that combined newly-developed radar technology with intelligence and ground observation. This “air picture” enabled Air Defense Sectors to direct aircraft to intercept enemy aircraft. This system proved successful during the 1940 Battle of Britain, enabling the outnumbered British fighter pilots to defeat the Luftwaffe
35.
McGuire Air Force Base
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McGuire is under the jurisdiction of the Air Mobility Command. It was consolidated with two adjoining US Army and Navy facilities to become part of Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst on 1 October 2009, the McGuire Air Force Base census-designated place is located in portions of both New Hanover Township and North Hanover Township. As of the 2010 United States Census, the McGuire Air Force Base CDP had a population of 3,710. The host unit at McGuire AFB is the 87th Air Base Wing, United States Air Force Expeditionary Center, the 87 ABW provides installation management to all of JB MDL. The wing also provides mission-ready, expeditionary Airmen to support Unified Combatant Commanders in ongoing military operations, the wing consists of more than 3,100 officers, enlisted, and civilian personnel from the Air Force, Army and Navy. The 87th Air Base Wing is commanded by Colonel James Hodges and its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Phillip K. Robinson. McGuire originated in 1941 as Fort Dix Army Air Force Base, closed briefly after World War II, it reopened in 1948 as McGuire Air Force Base. The base was named after Major Thomas B, McGuire, Jr. Medal of Honor recipient, and the second leading ace in American history. S. Air Force hosting three AMC-gained flying wings of the Regular Air Force, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard, Air Force and civilian AMC-contracted aircraft use McGuires two runways to facilitate this mission. Many hundreds of thousands of Air Force, Army, Navy, airplanes from McGuire have provided the flyovers for Philadelphia Eagles games and Major League Baseball All-Star and World Series games played in Philadelphia at the end of the National Anthem. These same planes were also responsible for the Super Bowl XLVIII flyover, McGuire Air Force Base was established as Fort Dix Airport in 1937 and first opened to military aircraft on 9 January 1941. On 13 January 1948 the United States Air Force renamed the facility McGuire Air Force Base in honor of Major Thomas Buchanan McGuire, flight operations to support Camp Dix at an adjacent airfield took place as early as 1926. Facilities and runways to support an air mission began in 1937 as a Civilian Conservation Corps project and this was on newly acquired land for the great Army Air Forces expansion approved by the Roosevelt Administration. This nascent airfield and wooden structures was named Rudd Field, to meet the requirements for a possible world war, Rudd Field was renamed Fort Dix Army Air Base in 1939, and underwent massive expansion from 1940–1941. Runways constructed consisted of three concrete surfaced, 7100x150, 7100x150, 5400x150, and one macadam surfaced, 8100x150, the base had its first permanent Army Air Force occupant in November 1941 when the 59th Observation Group took up station on 14 November. Initially during 1941–42 the Group operated a range of aircraft, including the BC-1A, L-59, O-46, O-47, O-49 Vigilant. After the United States entry into World War II, Fort Dix Army Air Base was used as a training, the service group also had its own mess section. The service group had approximately 30 officers and 300 to 400 enlisted men, in late 1942, Army Air Forces Antisubmarine Command took up tenant status at Fort Dix AAB
36.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
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President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic Energy Act on August 1,1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective from January 1,1947. This shift gave the first members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, during its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization, the AEC played a key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology. Specifically, it provided financial resources, allowing for ecological research to take place. Perhaps even more importantly, it enabled ecologists with a range of groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the AEC also approved funding for numerous projects in the Arctic and near-Arctic. These projects were designed to examine the effects of energy upon the environment and were a part of the Commission’s attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic energy. By 1974, the AECs regulatory programs had come under strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. On August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, at the same time, the McMahon Act which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. President Truman appointed David Lilienthal as the first Chairman of the AEC, Congress gave the new civilian Commission extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the Commission exceptional freedom in hiring scientists and professionals, the National Laboratory system was established from the facilities created under the Manhattan Project. Argonne National Laboratory was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a facility dedicated to fulfilling the new Commissions mission. The Commissions first order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of plants, the AEC was furthermore in charge of developing the United States nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime Manhattan Project. It also implemented the program to develop the hydrogen bomb. It began a program of nuclear testing both in the Pacific Proving Grounds and at the continental Nevada Test Site. While it also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its budget was devoted to atomic weapons development. Within the AEC, high-level scientific and technical advice was provided by the General Advisory Committee, in its early years, the GAC provided a number of controversial decisions, notably its decision against building the hydrogen bomb in 1949. As a result, Senator Brien McMahon influenced the decision not to reappoint J. Robert Oppenheimer to the GAC in 1952 after his six-year statutory term expired. David Lilienthal, then AEC Chair, agreed with Oppenheimer and opposed a program to build the hydrogen bomb ahead of any other nation
37.
Tactical Air Command
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Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force organization. It was a Major Command of the United States Air Force, established on 21 March 1946 and headquartered at Langley Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 1 June 1992 and its personnel and equipment absorbed by Air Combat Command. Tactical Air Command was established to provide a balance between strategic, air defense, and tactical forces of the post–World War II U. S. Army Air Forces followed by, in 1947, the U. S. Air Force. In 1948, the Continental Air Command assumed control over air defense, tactical air, after two years in a subordinate role, Tactical Air Command was established as a major command. World War II showed the effectiveness of air power in supporting army ground forces. However, the demobilization in late 1945 meant that the huge air armada that had brought Germany to her knees. Following the end of World War II, Headquarters United States Army Air Forces had little funding and most wartime personnel had been released from active duty and returned to civilian life. Many USAAF aircraft were being sent to storage or scrapyards, although the tension with the Soviet Union meant that combat military air forces were still needed. The big questions were how large and what kind of forces, a major realignment of the USAAF was undertaken in early 1946. As part of the realignment, three major divisions within the Continental United States were formed, Strategic Air Command, Tactical Air Command. Each was given a specific responsibility, using assets prescribed to accomplish the assigned mission, Tactical Air Command was formed to command, organize, equip, train and administer assigned or attached forces. It was to plan for and participate in tactics for fighter, light bombardment and these included tactical fighters, tactical bombers, tactical missiles, troop carrier aircraft, assault, reconnaissance, and support units. TAC also planned for and developed the capability to deploy tactical striking forces anywhere in the world, during its existence, Tactical Air Command deployed personnel, material and/or aircraft to Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe and Australia in support of its prescribed mission. TACs original authorization was 25,500 officers and enlisted men, aircraft assets available consisted of propeller-driven North American P-51 Mustangs, Republic P-47 Thunderbolts and a handful of the new jet-powered Lockheed P-80 Shooting Stars. TAC was also given control of the Third Air Force, Ninth Air Force, on 18 September 1947, the United States Air Force was established as a separate military force, with TAC as one of its major commands. At the time, there was only one U. S. Air Forces in Europe tactical air unit available in Europe, TAC was called upon to send additional units and aircraft to Europe to reinforce the 86 FG. The 36th Fighter Group, flying Lockheed F-80B Shooting Stars, was transferred from Howard AFB in the Panama Canal Zone to Furstenfeldbruck Air Base near Munich. In addition to fighter aircraft, TAC also deployed available C-47 Skytrain transports to Europe, transferring them to USAFE
38.
Vandenberg Air Force Base
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Vandenberg Air Force Base is a United States Air Force Base 9.2 miles northwest of Lompoc, California. It is under the jurisdiction of the 30th Space Wing, Air Force Space Command, Vandenberg AFB is a Department of Defense space and missile testing base, with a mission of placing satellites into polar orbit from the West Coast using expendable boosters. Wing personnel also support the Services LGM-30G Minuteman III Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Force Development Evaluation program, in addition to its military mission, the base also leases launch pad facilities to SpaceX, as well as 100 acres leased to the California Spaceport in 1995. Established in 1941, the base is named in honor of former Air Force Chief of Staff General Hoyt Vandenberg, the host unit at Vandenberg AFB is the 30th Space Wing. The 30th SW is home to the Western Range, manages Department of Defense space and missile testing, Wing personnel also support the Air Forces Minuteman III Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Force Development Test and Evaluation program. The Western Range begins at the boundaries of Vandenberg and extends westward from the California coast to the Western Pacific. Operations involve dozens of federal and commercial interests, the wing is organized into operations, launch, mission support and medical groups, along with several directly assigned staff agencies. 30th Launch Group The 30th Launch Group is responsible for booster and satellite technical oversight and launch processing activities to launch, integration. The group consists of a military, civilian and contractor team with more than 250 personnel directly supporting operations from the Western Range. 1st Air and Space Test Squadron 4th Space Launch Squadron 30th Operations Group The 30th Operations Group provides the capability for West Coast spacelift. Operations professionals are responsible for operating and maintaining the Western Range for spacelift, missile test launch, aeronautical, 30th Mission Support Group The 30th Mission Support Group supports the third largest Air Force Base in the United States. It is also responsible for quality-of-life needs, housing, personnel, services, civil engineering, contracting, 30th Medical Group The 30th Medical Group provides medical, dental, bio-environmental and public health services for people assigned to Vandenberg Air Force Base, their families and retirees. It is Vandenbergs only National Historic Landmark that is open for scheduled tours through the 30th Space Wings Public Affairs office. The current display area is made up of two exhibits, the Chronology of the Cold War and the Evolution of Technology, there are plans to evolve the center in stages from the current exhibit areas as restorations of additional facilities are completed. In 1941 the United States Army sought more and better training centers for the development of its armored. In March 1941, the Army acquired approximately 86,000 acres of open ranch lands along the Central Coast of California between Lompoc and Santa Maria, most of the land was purchased. Smaller parcels were obtained either by lease, license, or as easements, with its flat plateau, surrounding hills, numerous canyons, and relative remoteness from populated areas, the Army was convinced it had found the ideal training location. Construction of the Army camp began in September 1941, although its completion was still months away, the Army activated the camp on 5 October, and named it Camp Cooke in honor of Major General Phillip St. George Cooke
39.
Air Force Armament Museum
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The Air Force Armament Museum, adjacent to Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, is the only facility in the U. S. dedicated to the display of Air Force armament. Founded in 1975, it was located in a converted gymnasium on the northeastern edge of the Eglin main base, adjacent to Valparaiso. Visitors can view a variety of historical Air Force planes, from a World War II B-17 bomber to an F-4 Phantom II jet. A wide variety of bombs, missiles, and rockets are exhibited, including the newest air-to-air missile, the AMRAAM, and the GBU-28 bunker-buster developed for use during Operation Desert Storm. Other missiles include the Paveway series, Falcons, the Tomahawk, Mace, Hound Dog, radar-controlled, laser-controlled, also on display is the GBU-43 MOAB, Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, or by its nickname, Mother of All Bombs, the worlds largest conventional explosive weapon. A predecessor, the T1238,600 lb. demolition bomb, is displayed outside, a gun vault displays a variety of weapons ranging from a 1903 Springfield rifle to the GAU-8, which is capable of shooting 6,000 rounds per minute. A former World War II-era gymnasium turned Enlisted Club near the old gate to Valparaiso was adapted in 1975–1976 for the initial collection. Exhibits included the CGM-13 Mace missile, the F-84F, the F-101B, the B-17 Flying Fortress, also popular was a Ryan Model 47 Firebee painted as a shark. The museum occupied these wooden quarters until the structure was condemned in 1981, the AFAM Foundation, incorporated in 1976 as an IRS501 philanthropic non-profit organization, began searching for a new site while raising funds for a new building. By mid-1985, $1.2 million in private and corporate donations had been raised, in November of the same year, the new museum was deeded to the United States Air Force and opened to the public. The museum recorded more than one million visits by June 1995, the foundation is currently trying to raise $1.5 million for a new educational annex. The Air Force Armament Museum Foundation is a body that runs the fund generating programs of the Armament Museum. The most constant of these programs is the shop, which offers moderately priced souvenirs. The Friends of the Museum is a program in which members dues help fund the museum. Members receive discounts in the shop and notice of special events. The Foundation sponsors the education program Engineers for America, which involves a school tour of the museum with basic engineering experiments led by teachers and volunteers. The goal of the program is to stimulate in young people a desire to pursue a career in engineering, returned to the USAF in 1970. North American/Cavalier F-51D Mustang, U. S. Army 68-15796, remanufactured P-51D-5-NA Mustang used as chase plane for AH-56 Cheyenne attack helicopter project, last operated at Fort Rucker, to Eglin AFB for the museum circa 1976, in Army brown and white scheme
40.
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
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The Progressive Conservative Party of Canada was a federal political party in Canada with a centre-right stance on economic issues and, after the 1970s, a centrist stance on social issues. The party changed its name to the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada in December 1942, in 2003, the party membership voted to dissolve the party and merge with the Canadian Alliance to form the modern-day Conservative Party of Canada. One member of the Senate of Canada, Elaine McCoy, sat as an Independent Progressive Conservative until 2016, the conservative parties in most Canadian provinces still use the Progressive Conservative name. Some PC Party members formed the Progressive Canadian Party, which has attracted only marginal support, Canadas first Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, belonged to the Liberal-Conservative Party. But in advance of confederation in 1867, the Conservative Party took in a number of defectors from the Liberals who supported the establishment of a Canadian Confederation. Thereafter, the Conservative Party became the Liberal-Conservative Party until the turn of the twentieth century, the federal Tories governed Canada for over forty of the countrys first 70 years of existence. However, the party spent the majority of its history in opposition as the nations number-two federal party, behind the Liberal Party of Canada. From 1896 to 1993 the Tories formed a government only five times—from 1911 to 1921, from 1930 to 1935, from 1957 to 1963, from 1979 to 1980 and from 1984 to 1993. It stands as the only Canadian party to have won more than 200 seats in a feat it accomplished twice. The last meeting of the Progressive Conservative federal caucus was held in early 2004, the Conservative Party of Canada took power in 2006 and was governed under the leadership of Stephen Harper until 2015, being defeated by the Liberal Party under Justin Trudeau. Between the partys founding in 1867, and its adoption of the Progressive Conservative name in 1942 and it was most commonly known as the Conservative Party. Several loosely associated provincial Progressive Conservative parties continue to exist in Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador. As well, a rump of Senators opposed the merger. The Yukon association of the party renamed itself as the Yukon Party in 1990, the British Columbia Progressive Conservative Party changed its name to the British Columbia Conservative Party in 1991. Many Canadians simply continued to refer to the party as the Conservatives, a major weakness of the party since 1885 was its inability to win support in Quebec, estranged significantly by that years execution of Louis Riel. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 exacerbated the issue, the party never fully recovered from the fragmentation of Mulroneys broad coalition in the late 1980s resulting from Anglophone Canadas failure to ratify the Meech Lake Accord. Immediately prior to its merger with the Canadian Alliance, it held only 15 of 301 seats in the Canadian House of Commons, the party did not hold more than 20 seats in Parliament between 1993 and 2003. The Progressive Conservative Party was generally on the centre-right on the political spectrum, from 1867 on, the party was identified with Protestant and, in Quebec, Roman Catholic social values, British imperialism, Canadian nationalism, and constitutional centralism
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Prime Minister of Canada
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Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable, a privilege maintained for life. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions, the prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch. There are no age or citizenship restrictions on the position of prime minister itself, while there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister, two former prime ministers—Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s while members of the Senate. Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A. Macdonald in 1891 and that convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario. Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election, Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat. The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majestys pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term, once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies. Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime ministers party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, if, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. This option was last entertained in 1925, however, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Caucuses may choose to follow rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote. Either the sovereign or his or her viceroy may therefore oppose the prime ministers will in extreme, for transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister, all of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime ministers annual salary of CAD$170,400. Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax. In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name, of the first eight premiers of Canada, the Canadian Heraldic Authority has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, the written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title, The Right Honourable, Prime Minister of Canada
42.
John Diefenbaker
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John George Diefenbaker, PC, CH, QC was the 13th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from June 21,1957 to April 22,1963. Diefenbaker was born in southwestern Ontario in 1895, in 1903, his family migrated west to the portion of the North-West Territories which would shortly thereafter become the province of Saskatchewan. He grew up in the province, and was interested in politics from a young age, after brief service in World War I, Diefenbaker became a noted criminal defence lawyer. He contested elections through the 1920s and 1930s with little success until he was elected to the House of Commons in 1940. Diefenbaker was repeatedly a candidate for the PC leadership and he gained that party position in 1956, on his third attempt. In 1957, he led the Tories to their first electoral victory in 27 years, Diefenbaker appointed the first female minister in Canadian history to his Cabinet, as well as the first aboriginal member of the Senate. During his six years as Prime Minister, his government obtained passage of the Canadian Bill of Rights and granted the vote to the First Nations, Diefenbaker is also remembered for his role in the 1959 cancellation of the Avro Arrow project. Diefenbaker stood for re-election as party leader at the last moment and he remained an MP until his death in 1979, two months after Joe Clark became the first Tory Prime Minister since Diefenbaker. Diefenbaker was born on September 18,1895, in Neustadt, Ontario, to William Thomas Diefenbaker and his father was the son of German immigrants from Adersbach in Baden, Mary Diefenbaker was of Scottish descent and Diefenbaker was Baptist. The family moved to locations in Ontario in Johns early years. William Diefenbaker was a teacher, and had interests in history and politics. He had remarkable success doing so, of the 28 students at his school near Toronto in 1903, four, including his son, John, the Diefenbaker family moved west in 1903, for William Diefenbaker to accept a position near Fort Carlton, then in the Northwest Territories. In 1906, William claimed a quarter-section,160 acres of undeveloped land near Borden, in February 1910, the Diefenbaker family moved to Saskatoon, the site of the University of Saskatchewan. William and Mary Diefenbaker felt that John and his brother Elmer would have greater opportunities in Saskatoon. John Diefenbaker had been interested in politics from an early age and she told him that it was an impossible ambition, especially for a boy living on the prairies. She would live to be proved wrong, Johns first contact with politics came in 1910, when he sold a newspaper to Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier, in Saskatoon to lay the cornerstone for the Universitys first building. I must get about my work, after graduating from high school in Saskatoon, in 1912, Diefenbaker entered the University of Saskatchewan. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1915, and his Master of Arts the following year, Diefenbaker was commissioned a lieutenant into the 196th Battalion, CEF in May 1916
43.
Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow
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The Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow, often known simply as the Avro Arrow, was a delta-winged interceptor aircraft designed and built by Avro Canada. The Arrow is considered to have been a technical and aerodynamic achievement for the Canadian aviation industry. The CF-105 held the promise of near-Mach 2 speeds at altitudes of 50,000 feet and was intended to serve as the Royal Canadian Air Forces primary interceptor in the 1960s and beyond. The Arrow was the culmination of a series of design studies begun in 1953 examining improved versions of the Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck, after considerable study, the RCAF selected a dramatically more powerful design, and serious development began in March 1955. The aircraft was intended to be directly from the production line. I, RL-201, was rolled out to the public on 4 October 1957, flight testing began with RL-201 on 25 March 1958, and the design quickly demonstrated excellent handling and overall performance, reaching Mach 1.9 in level flight. Powered by the Pratt & Whitney J75, another three Mk, 1s were completed, RL-202 through -204. On 20 February 1959, the development of the Arrow was abruptly halted before a project review had taken place. Two months later, the line, tooling, plans. This action effectively put Avro out of business and its highly skilled engineering, in the post-Second World War period, the Soviet Union began developing a capable fleet of long-range bombers with the ability to deliver nuclear weapons across North America and Europe. To counter this threat, Western countries strenuously undertook the development of interceptors that could engage, the next year the company began the design of Canadas first jet fighter for the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Avro CF-100 Canuck all-weather interceptor. The Canuck underwent a lengthy and troubled prototype stage before entering service seven years later in 1953, nevertheless, it went on to become one of the most enduring aircraft of its class, serving in a variety of roles until 1981. In March 1952, the RCAFs Final Report of the All-Weather Interceptor Requirements Team was submitted to Avro Canada, Avro engineering had been considering supersonic issues already at this point. Supersonic flight works in a different fashion and presents a number of new problems. One of the most critical, and surprising, was the onset of a new form of drag. The effects of wave drag were so strong that engines of the era could not provide power to overcome it. German research during the Second World War had shown the onset of wave drag was reduced by using airfoils that varied in curvature as gradually as possible. This suggested the use of thinner airfoils with much longer chord than designers would have used on subsonic aircraft and these designs were impractical because they left little internal room in the wing for armament or fuel
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