1.
CMYK (EP)
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CMYK is the second solo extended play by London-based indie producer James Blake. It was released in both the United Kingdom and the United States on R&S Records on 28 May 2010 and it samples many tracks, mostly from 1990s R&B. The EP received positive reviews from critics, the title track samples Kelis Caught out There and Aaliyahs Are You That Somebody. Pitchfork Media described the track as modern homage to old ideas as Blake two R&B archetypes. and imagines them in a back and forth, on the track, Blake sings normally and also occasionally uses a vocoder to process his voice. The track is influenced by 1990s rave pop and also contains synthesizers, the following song, Footnotes also has Blake using the vocoder, but the song is hymnal and contains gospel chords. It is a track, it uses slight noises to create an atmospheric sound. The next song Ill Stay samples Aaliyahs Try Again and has described as the warmest, most accessible track of. It is also hymnal, but it contains a call and response with repeated, high-pitched synthesizers, the final track, Postpone has been likened to a lumbering requiem before transforming into lumbering exultation. It features electronic beats, hip hop choruses, and triumphant horns, the EP received generally positive reviews from music critics. Mike Powell of Pitchfork Media complimented how Blake used the samples in his music, FACT magazine named Postpone as the highlight of CMYK, and called the EP the most anthemic thing Blake’s done to date. In the review, the EP received 4 out of 5 records, sam Louis of Resident Advisor gave CMYK4 out of 5 stars and stated that Blake underpins nearly everything here with those comfortable blankets, wrapping you up while he makes you consider dancing. He also wrote clearly also knows that a bit of subtlety can go a long way. Pitchfork Media later named CMYK the eighth best album of the year, along with The Bells Sketch EP and Klavierwerke EP, all tracks written by James Blake. The following people were involved in the making of CMYK, James Blake – instruments, production Matt Colton – mastering
2.
MYB (gene)
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Myb proto-oncogene protein also known as transcriptional activator Myb is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MYB gene. Myb proto-oncogene protein is a member of the MYB family of transcription factors, the protein contains three domains, an N-terminal DNA-binding domain, a central transcriptional activation domain and a C-terminal domain involved in transcriptional repression. This protein plays an role in the regulation of hematopoiesis and may play a role in tumorigenesis. MYB factors represent a family of proteins include the conserved MYB DNA-binding domain. Plants contain a MYB-protein subfamily that is characterised by the R2R3-type MYB domain, the maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins. Ruby is a MYB transcriptional activator of genes that produce anthocyanin in citrus fruits, in most citrus varieties Ruby is non-functional, but in blood oranges it upregulates anthocyanin production to produce the characteristic red color of the fruit
3.
Microscope
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A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy, microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, the most common is the optical microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the microscope, the ultramicroscope. The earliest microscopes were single lens magnifying glasses with limited magnification which date at least as far back as the wide use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century. Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, the actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include what may be a claim by the son of Zacharias Janssen that his father invented the microscope and telescope as early as 1590. Historians note the compound microscope did not appear in the Netherlands until the 1620s, giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625. The first detailed account of the construction of living tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odiernas Locchio della mosca. It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, marcello Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures, beginning with the lungs. Robert Hookes Micrographia had an impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with a needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells and spermatozoa, on 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms. The performance of light microscopy depends as much on how the sample is illuminated as on how it is observed, early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination and this method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. In the early 20th century a significant alternative to light microscopy was developed, ernst Ruska started development of the first electron microscope in 1931 which was the transmission electron microscope. The transmission electron microscope works on the principle as an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light
4.
Subtractive color
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The color that a surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum are not absorbed and therefore remain visible. Subtractive color systems start with light, presumably white light, colored inks, paints, or filters between the watchers and the light source or reflective surface subtract wavelengths from the light, giving it color. If the incident light is other than white, our visual mechanisms are able to compensate well, conversely, additive color systems start with darkness. Light sources of various wavelengths are added in proportions to produce a range of colors. Usually, three colors are combined to stimulate humans’ trichromatic color vision, sensed by the three types of cone cells in the eye, giving an apparently full range. RYB is the standard set of subtractive primary colors used for mixing pigments. It is used in art and art education, particularly in painting and it predated modern scientific color theory. Red, yellow, and blue are the colors of the standard color wheel. The secondary colors, violet, orange, and green make up another triad, formed by mixing equal amounts of red and blue, red and yellow, in color printing, the usual primary colors are cyan, magenta and yellow. Cyan is the complement of red, meaning that the cyan serves as a filter that absorbs red, the amount of cyan applied to a white sheet of paper controls how much of the red in white light will be reflected back from the paper. Ideally, the cyan is completely transparent to green and blue light and has no effect on those parts of the spectrum, magenta is the complement of green, and yellow the complement of blue. Combinations of different amounts of the three can produce a range of colors with good saturation. In inkjet color printing and typical mass production photomechanical printing processes, additive color Color mixing Color motion picture film Color space Color theory Primary color Berns, Roy S. Billmeyer and Saltzmans Principles of Color Technology, 3rd edition. Stroebel, Leslie, John Compton, Ira Current, and Richard Zakia, basic Photographic Materials and Processes, 2nd edition. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Wyszecki, Günther & W. S. Stiles, colour Science, Concept and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae. Stanford University CS178 interactive Flash demo comparing additive and subtractive color mixing
5.
Color model
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A color model is an abstract mathematical model describing the way colors can be represented as tuples of numbers, typically as three or four values or color components. When this model is associated with a description of how the components are to be interpreted. This section describes ways in which human color vision can be modeled, the origin, =, corresponds to black. White has no position in this diagram, rather it is defined according to the color temperature or white balance as desired or as available from ambient lighting. The human color space is a horse-shoe-shaped cone such as here, extending from the origin to, in principle. The most saturated colors are located at the rim of the region. As far as the responses of the receptors in the eye are concerned, the latter color names refer to orange and white light respectively, with an intensity that is lower than the light from surrounding areas. The black areas have not actually become darker but appear black relative to the higher intensity white projected onto the screen around it, the human tristimulus space has the property that additive mixing of colors corresponds to the adding of vectors in this space. This makes it easy to, for example, describe the colors that can be constructed from the red, green. One of the first mathematically defined color spaces is the CIE XYZ color space and these data were measured for human observers and a 2-degree field of view. In 1964, supplemental data for a 10-degree field of view were published, note that the tabulated sensitivity curves have a certain amount of arbitrariness in them. The shapes of the individual X, Y and Z sensitivity curves can be measured with a reasonable accuracy. However, the luminosity function is subjective, since it involves asking a test person whether two light sources have the same brightness, even if they are in completely different colors. Along the same lines, the magnitudes of the X, Y. One could as well define a color space with an X sensitivity curve that has twice the amplitude. This new color space would have a different shape, the sensitivity curves in the CIE1931 and 1964 xyz color space are scaled to have equal areas under the curves. Because the CIE sensitivity curves have equal areas under the curves, the values for X, Y, and Z are obtained by integrating the product of the spectrum of a light beam and the published color-matching functions. This is called RGB color space, mixtures of light of these primary colors cover a large part of the human color space and thus produce a large part of human color experiences
6.
Color printing
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Color printing or colour printing is the reproduction of an image or text in color. The additive combination of any two colors in roughly equal proportion gives rise to the perception of a secondary color. For example, red and green yields yellow, red and blue yields magenta, yellow, cyan and magenta are merely the basic secondary colors, unequal mixtures of the primaries give rise to perception of many other colors all of which may be considered tertiary. While there are techniques for reproducing images in color, specific graphic processes. In this type of industrial or commercial printing, the used to print full-color images. Four inks are used, three colors plus black. These ink colors are cyan, magenta, yellow and key, cyan can be thought of as minus-red, magenta as minus-green, and yellow as minus-blue. These inks are semi-transparent or translucent, where two such inks overlap on the paper due to sequential printing impressions, a primary color is perceived. For example, yellow overprinted by magenta yields red, the secondary or subtractive colors cyan, magenta and yellow may be considered primary by printers and watercolorists. Two graphic techniques are required to prepare images for four-color printing, in the pre-press stage, original images are translated into forms that can be used on a printing press, through color separation, and screening or halftoning. These steps make possible the creation of printing plates that can transfer color impressions to paper on printing presses based on the principles of lithography. An emerging method of printing is six-color process printing which adds orange and green to the traditional CMYK inks for a larger and more vibrant gamut. However, such alternate color systems still rely on color separation, halftoning, color printing can also involve as few as one color ink, or multiple color inks which are not the primary colors. Using a limited number of inks, or specific color inks in addition to the primary colors, is referred to as spot color printing. Generally, spot-color inks are specific formulations that are designed to print alone, the range of available spot color inks, much like paint, is nearly unlimited, and much more varied than the colors that can be produced by four-color-process printing. Spot-color inks range from pastels to intense fluorescents to reflective metallics. Color printing involves a series of steps, or transformations, to generate a quality color reproduction, the following sections focus on the steps used when reproducing a color image in CMYK printing, along with some historical perspective. Woodblock printing on textiles preceded printing on paper in both Asia and Europe, and the use of different blocks to produce patterns in color was common
7.
Cyan
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It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of between 490–520 nm, between the wavelengths of blue and green. In the subtractive color system, or CMYK, which can be overlaid to produce all colors in paint and color printing, cyan is one of the colors, along with magenta, yellow. In the additive color system, or RGB color model, used to all the colors on a computer or television display, cyan is made by mixing equal amounts of green. Cyan is the complement of red, it can be made by the removal of red from white light, mixing red light and cyan light at the right intensity will make white light. The web color cyan is synonymous with aqua, other colors in the cyan color range are teal, turquoise, electric blue, aquamarine, and others described as blue-green. Its name is derived from the Ancient Greek κύανος, transliterated kyanos, meaning blue, dark blue enamel. It was formerly known as blue or cyan-blue, and its first recorded use as a color name in English was in 1879. Further origins of the name can be traced back to a dye produced from the cornflower. In most languages, cyan is not a color term. Reasons for why cyan is not linguistically acknowledged as a color term can be found in the frequent lack of distinction between blue and green in many languages. The web color cyan shown at right is a color in the RGB color model. In X11 colors, this color is called both cyan and aqua, in the HTML color list, this same color is called aqua. The web colors are more vivid than the used in the CMYK color system. To reproduce the web color cyan in inks, it is necessary to add some white ink to the printers cyan below, so when it is reproduced in printing, it is not a primary subtractive color. It is called aqua because it is a commonly associated with water. Cyan is also one of the inks used in four-color printing, along with magenta, yellow, and black. While both the secondary and the subtractive primary are called cyan, they can be substantially different from one another. Cyan printing ink can be saturated or less saturated than the RGB secondary cyan, depending on what RGB color space
8.
Magenta
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Magenta is a color that is variously defined as purplish-red, reddish-purple, or mauvish-crimson. On computer screens, it is made by mixing equal amounts of blue, on color wheels of the RGB and CMY color models, it is located midway between red and blue. It is the color of green. It is one of the four colors of ink used in printing and by an inkjet printer, along with cyan, yellow. The tone of magenta used in printing is called printers magenta, Magenta was first introduced as the color of a new aniline dye called fuchsine, patented in 1859 by the French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin. Its name was changed the year to magenta, to celebrate a victory of the French and Sardinian army at the Battle of Magenta on June 4,1859. The web color magenta is called fuchsia. Magenta is a color, meaning that it is not found in the visible spectrum of light. Rather, it is physiologically and psychologically perceived as the mixture of red and violet/blue light, with the absence of green. In the RGB color system, used to all the colors on a television or computer display, magenta is a secondary color, made by combining equal amounts of red. In this system, magenta is the color of green. In the CMYK color model, used in printing, it is one of the three primary colors, along with cyan and yellow, used to print all the rest of the colors. If magenta, cyan, and yellow are printed on top of each other on a page, in this model, magenta is the complementary color of green, and these two colors have the highest contrast and the greatest harmony. If combined, green and magenta ink will look dark gray or black, the magenta used in color printing, sometimes called process magenta, is a darker shade than the color used on computer screens. A purple hue in terms of theory, magenta is evoked by light having less power in green wavelengths than in blue/violet. In the Munsell color system, magenta is called red–purple, if the spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, magenta appears midway between red and violet. Violet and red, the two components of magenta, are at opposite ends of the spectrum and have very different wavelengths. The additive secondary color magenta, as noted above, is made by combining violet and red light at equal intensity, in optics, fuchsia and magenta are essentially the same color
9.
Yellow
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Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 570–590 nm, in traditional color theory, used in painting, and in the subtractive color system, used in color printing, yellow is a primary color. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is made by combining red, the word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish, derived from the Proto-Germanic word gelwaz yellow. It has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the gold and yell. In Iran it has connotations of pallor/sickness, but also wisdom and it plays an important role in Asian culture, particularly in China, where it is seen as the color of happiness, glory, wisdom, harmony, and culture. The word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish and it has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the words gold and yell, gʰel- means both bright and gleaming, and to cry out. The English term is related to other Germanic words for yellow, namely Scots yella, East Frisian jeel, West Frisian giel, Dutch geel, German gelb, and Swedish and Norwegian gul. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the oldest known use of word in English is from The Epinal Glossary in 700. Yellow, in the form of yellow pigment made from clay, was one of the first colors used in prehistoric cave art. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old, in Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be imperishable, eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold, the Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb paintings, they usually used either yellow ochre or the brilliant orpiment, though it was made of arsenic and was highly toxic. A small paintbox with orpiment pigment was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces. The ancient Romans used yellow in their paintings to represent gold and it is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii. During the Post-Classical period, yellow became firmly established as the color of Judas Iscariot, from this connection, yellow also took on associations with envy, jealousy and duplicity. The tradition started in the Renaissance of marking non-Christian outsiders, such as Jews, in 16th century Spain, those accused of heresy and who refused to renounce their views were compelled to come before the Spanish Inquisition dressed in a yellow cape. The color yellow has been associated with moneylenders and finance. The National Pawnbrokers Associations logo depicts three golden spheres hanging from a bar, referencing the three bags of gold that the saint of pawnbroking, St. Nicholas, holds in his hands. Additionally, the symbol of three golden orbs is found in the coat of arms of the House of Medici, a fifteenth century Italian dynasty of bankers and lenders
10.
Black
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Black is the darkest color resulting from the absence or complete absorption of light. Like white and grey, it is a color, literally a color without hue. It is one of the four colors in the CMYK color model, along with cyan, yellow. Black is often used to represent darkness, it is the symbolic opposite of white, Black was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings. In the 14th century, it began to be worn by royalty and it became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century. In the Roman Empire, it became the color of mourning, according to surveys in Europe and North America, it is the color most commonly associated with mourning, the end, secrets, magic, force, violence, evil, and elegance. More distant cognates include Latin flagrare, and Ancient Greek phlegein, the Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity. Kuanos could mean both dark blue and black, the Ancient Romans had two words for black, ater was a flat, dull black, while niger was a brilliant, saturated black. Ater has vanished from the vocabulary, but niger was the source of the country name Nigeria the English word Negro, old High German also had two words for black, swartz for dull black and blach for a luminous black. These are parallelled in Middle English by the terms swart for dull black, swart still survives as the word swarthy, while blaek became the modern English black. In heraldry, the used for the black color is sable, named for the black fur of the sable. Black was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. They began by using charcoal, and then made more vivid black pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder of manganese oxide, for the ancient Egyptians, black had positive associations, being the color of fertility and the rich black soil flooded by the Nile. It was the color of Anubis, the god of the underworld, who took the form of a black jackal, and offered protection against evil to the dead. For the ancient Greeks, black was also the color of the underworld, separated from the world of the living by the river Acheron and those who had committed the worst sins were sent to Tartarus, the deepest and darkest level. In the center was the palace of Hades, the king of the underworld, Black was one of the most important colors used by ancient Greek artists. In the 6th century BC, they began making pottery and later red figure pottery. In black-figure pottery, the artist would paint figures with a clay slip on a red clay pot
11.
Mnemonic
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A mnemonic device, or memory device is any learning technique that aids information retention in the human memory. Mnemonics make use of encoding, retrieval cues, and imagery as specific tools to encode any given information in a way that allows for efficient storage. Mnemonics aid original information in becoming associated with something more meaningful—which, in turn, the word mnemonic is derived from the Ancient Greek word μνημονικός, meaning of memory, or relating to memory and is related to Mnemosyne, the name of the goddess of memory in Greek mythology. Both of these words are derived from μνήμη, remembrance, memory, mnemonics in antiquity were most often considered in the context of what is today known as the art of memory. Ancient Greeks and Romans distinguished between two types of memory, the memory and the artificial memory. The former is inborn, and is the one that everyone uses instinctively, the latter in contrast has to be trained and developed through the learning and practice of a variety of mnemonic techniques. Mnemonic systems are techniques or strategies consciously used to improve memory and they help use information already stored in long-term memory to make memorisation an easier task. Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek sophists and philosophers and are referred to by Plato. In later times the poet Simonides was credited for development of these techniques, the Romans valued such helps in order to support facility in public speaking. The Greek and the Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of mental places and signs or pictures, to recall these, an individual had only to search over the apartments of the house until discovering the places where images had been placed by the imagination. Except that the rules of mnemonics are referred to by Martianus Capella, among the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte memorativa. Ramon Llull devoted special attention to mnemonics in connection with his ars generalis, about the end of the 15th century, Petrus de Ravenna provoked such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats that he was believed by many to be a necromancer. His Phoenix artis memoriae went through as many as nine editions, about the end of the 16th century, Lambert Schenkel, who taught mnemonics in France, Italy and Germany, similarly surprised people with his memory. He was denounced as a sorcerer by the University of Louvain, the most complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil Martin Sommer, published in Venice in 1619. In 1618 John Willis published Mnemonica, sive ars reminiscendi, containing a statement of the principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum, other writers of this period are the Florentine Publicius, Johannes Romberch, Hieronimo Morafiot, Ars memoriae, and B. The philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz adopted a very similar to that of Wennsshein for his scheme of a form of writing common to all languages. Wennssheins method was adopted with slight changes afterward by the majority of subsequent original systems and it was modified and supplemented by Richard Grey, a priest who published a Memoria technica in 1730
12.
Additive color
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Additive color is color created by mixing a number of different light colors, with shades of red, green, and blue being the most common primary colors used in additive color system. Computer monitors and televisions are the most common examples of additive color, the colored sub-pixels do not overlap on the screen, but when viewed from a normal distance they overlap and blend on the eyes retina, producing the same result as external superimposition. Another example of color can be found in the overlapping projected colored lights often used in theatrical lighting for plays, concerts, circus shows. The full gamut of color available in any additive color system is defined by all the combinations of all the possible luminosities of each primary color in that system. In chromaticity space, the gamut is a convex polygon with corners at the primaries. For three primaries, it is a triangle, for example, in subtractive color systems, green is a combination of yellow and cyan, in additive color, red plus green makes yellow. Additive color is a result of the way the eye detects color, there is a vast difference between a pure spectral yellow light, with a wavelength of approximately 580 nm, and a mixture of red and green light. However, both stimulate our eyes in a manner, so we do not detect that difference. Systems of additive color are motivated by the Young–Helmholtz theory of color vision. For his experimental work on the subject, James Clerk Maxwell is sometimes credited as being the father of additive color. He had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon on black-and-white film three times, first with a red, then green, then blue color filter over the lens. When brought into alignment, the three formed a full color image, thus demonstrating the principles of additive color. The following chart demonstrates an example of the mixing and perception of additive primaries, to fully understand the process, it should be demonstrated how dull colors are obtained using cyan, magenta, and yellow instead of red, green, and blue. Color mixing Color space Color theory Color motion picture film Kinemacolor Prizma Color RGB color model Subtractive color Technicolor William Friese-Greene RGB, http, //www. edinphoto. org. uk/1_P/1_photographers_maxwell. htm - Photos and stories from the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation. Stanford University CS178 interactive Flash demo comparing additive and subtractive color mixing
13.
RGB color model
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The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red, green and blue light are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The name of the model comes from the initials of the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Before the electronic age, the RGB color model already had a theory behind it. Thus an RGB value does not define the same color across devices without some kind of color management, typical RGB input devices are color TV and video cameras, image scanners, video games, and digital cameras. Typical RGB output devices are TV sets of technologies, computer and mobile phone displays, video projectors, multicolor LED displays. Color printers, on the hand are not RGB devices. This article discusses concepts common to all the different color spaces that use the RGB color model, to form a color with RGB, three light beams must be superimposed. Each of the three beams is called a component of color, and each of them can have an arbitrary intensity, from fully off to fully on. The RGB color model is additive in the sense that the three beams are added together, and their light spectra add, wavelength for wavelength. This is essentially opposite to the color model that applies to paints, inks, dyes. When the intensities for all the components are the same, the result is a shade of gray, darker or lighter depending on the intensity. When the intensities are different, the result is a colorized hue, a secondary color is formed by the sum of two primary colors of equal intensity, cyan is green+blue, magenta is red+blue, and yellow is red+green. The RGB color model itself does not define what is meant by red, green and blue colorimetrically, and so the results of mixing them are not specified as absolute, but relative to the primary colors. When the exact chromaticities of the red, green and blue primaries are defined, the normal three kinds of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the human eye respond most to yellow, green, and violet light. As an example, suppose that light in the range of wavelengths enters the eye. Light of these wavelengths would activate both the medium and long wavelength cones of the retina, but not equally—the long-wavelength cells will respond more, the difference in the response can be detected by the brain, and this difference is the basis of our perception of orange. Thus, the appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously. The first experiments with RGB in early color photography were made in 1861 by Maxwell himself, to reproduce the color photograph, three matching projections over a screen in a dark room were necessary
14.
Primary color
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A set of primary colors is a small, arbitrary set of pigmented physical media, lights or purely abstract elements of a mathematical colorspace model. Distinct colors from a larger gamut can be specified in terms of a mixture of colors which facilitates technological applications such as painting, electronic displays. Any small set of pigments or lights are imperfect physical primary colors in that they cannot be mixed to yield all possible colors that can be perceived by the color vision system. In an additive set of colors, as in coincident projected lights or in electronic visual displays, in a subtractive set of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes for printing, the colors magenta, yellow and cyan are normally used. See RGB color model, and CMYK color model for more on these sets of primary colors. Primary colors are not a property of light but are related to the color vision system in animals. The human eye normally contains three types of color photoreceptors that are associated with specialized cone cells. Each photoreceptor responds to different ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. Humans and other species with three types of color photoreceptor are known as trichromats. Color appearance models like CIECAM02 describe color more generally in six dimensions, most placental mammals other than primates have only two types of color photoreceptor and are therefore dichromats while birds and marsupials are tetrachromats with four color photoreceptor types. There is no peer reviewed scholarly work that has confirmed the existence of a functional human tetrachromat though they are suspected to exist. Demonstrating improved spectral discrimination in any animal can be difficult since complex sets of neurons affect color perception in ways that are difficult to interrogate. Before the nature of colorimetry and visual physiology were well understood a number of color models assigned primary colors to different hues. Young originally proposed red, green and violet, and Maxwell changed violet to blue, Helmholtz proposed a slightly red, a vegetation-green, slightly yellowish. In modern understanding, human cells do not correspond precisely to a specific set of primary colors. There are hundreds of available pigments for visual artists to use. A common approach is to use just a palette of pigments that can be physically mixed to any color that the artist desires in the final work. Contemporary classical realists have often advocated that a palette of white, red, yellow
15.
Colorfulness
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Colorfulness or saturation in colorimetry and color theory refers to the perceived intensity of a specific color. Colorfulness is the visual sensation according to which the color of an area appears to be more or less chromatic. Chroma is the relative to the brightness of a similarly illuminated area that appears to be white or highly transmitting. Therefore, chroma should not be confused with colorfulness, saturation is the colorfulness of a color relative to its own brightness. A highly colorful stimulus is vivid and intense, while a less colorful stimulus appears more muted, with no colorfulness at all, a color is a “neutral” gray. Any color can be described using three color appearance parameters — colorfulness, lightness, and hue, saturation is one of three coordinates in the HSL and HSV color spaces. The saturation of a color is determined by a combination of light intensity, the purest color is achieved by using just one wavelength at a high intensity, such as in laser light. If the intensity drops, then as a result the saturation drops, to desaturate a color of given intensity in a subtractive system, one can add white, black, gray, or the hues complement. CIELUV The chroma normalized by the lightness, s u v = C u v ∗ L ∗ =132 +2 where is the chromaticity of the white point, and chroma is defined below. Nevertheless, this provides a reasonable predictor of saturation. S a b = C a b ∗ C a b ∗2 + L ∗2100 % where Sab is the saturation, L* the lightness and C*ab is the chroma of the color. CIECAM02 The square root of the colorfulness divided by the brightness, M is proportional to the chroma C, thus the CIECAM02 definition bears some similarity to the CIELUV definition. An important difference is that the CIECAM02 model accounts for the conditions through the parameter FL. Different color spaces, such as CIELAB or CIELUV may be used, the naïve definition of saturation does not specify its response function. However, both color spaces are nonlinear in terms of perceived color differences. It is also possible—and sometimes desirable—to define a quantity that is linearized in term of the psychovisual perception. The transformation of to is given by, C a b ∗ = a ∗2 + b ∗2 h a b = arctan b ∗ a ∗ and analogously for CIE L*C*h. The chroma in the CIE L*C*h and CIE L*C*h coordinates has the advantage of being more psychovisually linear, and therefore, chroma in CIE1976 L*a*b* and L*u*v* color spaces is very much different from the traditional sense of saturation
16.
Halftone
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Halftone is the reprographic technique that simulates continuous tone imagery through the use of dots, varying either in size or in spacing, thus generating a gradient-like effect. Halftone can also be used to specifically to the image that is produced by this process. This reproduction relies on an optical illusion, the tiny halftone dots are blended into smooth tones by the human eye. At a microscopic level, developed black-and-white photographic film also consists of two colors, and not an infinite range of continuous tones. The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create another optical effect—full-color imagery, william Fox Talbot is credited with the idea of halftone printing. In a 1852 patent he suggested using photographic screens or veils in connection with an intaglio process. Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades, one of the well known attempts was by Stephen H. Horgan while working for the New York Daily Graphic. The first printed photograph was an image of Steinway Hall in Manhattan published on December 2,1873, the Graphic then published the first reproduction of a photograph with a full tonal range in a newspaper on March 4,1880 with a crude halftone screen. The first truly successful commercial method was patented by Frederic Ives of Philadelphia in 1881, although he found a way of breaking up the image into dots of varying sizes, he did not make use of a screen. In 1882, the German Georg Meisenbach patented a process in England. His invention was based on the ideas of Berchtold and Swan. He used single lined screens which were turned during exposure to produce cross-lined effects and he was the first to achieve any commercial success with relief halftones. Shortly afterwards, Ives, this time in collaboration with Louis and Max Levy, improved the process further with the invention, the relief halftone process proved almost immediately to be a success. The use of blocks in popular journals became regular during the early 1890s. The development of printing methods for lithography appears to have followed a largely independent path. In the 1860s, A. Hoen & Co. focused on methods allowing artists to manipulate the tones of hand-worked printing stones, by the 1880s, Hoen was working on halftone methods that could be used in conjunction with either hand-worked or photolithographic stones. The most common method of creating screens—amplitude modulation—produces a regular grid of dots that vary in size, the other method of creating screens—frequency modulation—is used in a process also known as stochastic screening. Both modulation methods are named by analogy with the use of the terms in telecommunications, the resolution of a halftone screen is measured in lines per inch
17.
Color vision
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Color vision is the ability of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths of the light they reflect, emit, or transmit. In essence, different people see the same illuminated object or light source in different ways, isaac Newton discovered that white light splits into its component colours when passed through a dispersive prism. Newton also found that he could recombine these colours by passing them through a different prism to make white light, the characteristic colours are, from long to short wavelengths, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple. In very low levels, vision is scotopic, light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little, if any, in brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic, light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for colour vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm, between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in colour perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect, the perception of white is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colours of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of colour receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells containing pigments with different spectral sensitivities, known as cone cells. In humans, there are three types of cones sensitive to three different spectra, resulting in color vision. Each individual cone contains pigments composed of opsin apoprotein, which is linked to either 11-cis-hydroretinal or more rarely 11-cis-dehydroretinal. The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities, short, medium and these three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as red receptors, similarly, the S- and M-cones do not directly correspond to blue and green, although they are often described as such. The RGB color model, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color, two complementary theories of color vision are the trichromatic theory and the opponent process theory. Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory in 1872 and it states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way, red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are now accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, green ←→ Magenta and Blue ←→ Yellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a slightly negative positive number, a range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. Yellowish-green light, for example, stimulates both L and M cones equally strongly, but only stimulates S-cones weakly, the brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light. The opsins present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X chromosome, the OPN1LW gene, which codes for the opsin present in the L cones, is highly polymorphic
18.
Teton Range
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The Teton Range is a mountain range of the Rocky Mountains in North America. A north-south range, it is mostly on Wyomings eastern side of the Idaho state line and it is south of Yellowstone National Park. Most of the east slope of the range is in Grand Teton National Park, early French Voyageurs used the name les trois tétons. It is likely that the Shoshone people once called the whole range Teewinot, other peaks in the range include Mount Moran 12,605 feet, Mount Wister 11,490 feet, Buck Mountain 11,938 feet and Static Peak 11,303 feet. Between six and nine years ago, stretching and thinning of the Earths crust caused movement along the Teton fault. The west block along the line rose to form the Teton Range. The faults east block fell to form the valley called Jackson Hole, the geological processes that led to the current composition of the oldest rocks in the Teton range began about 2.5 billion years ago. At that time, sand and volcanic debris settled into an ancient ocean, additional sediment was deposited for millions of years and eventually heat and pressure metamorphosed the sediment into gneiss. Subsequently, magma was forced up through the cracks in the gneiss to form granite, other intrusive igneous rocks are noticeable as the black dikes of diabase, visible on the southwest face of Mount Moran and on the Grand Teton. Starting during the Cambrian period, deep deposits of rock were deposited in shallow seas over the metamorphic basement rocks. 2.1 million years ago the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff was deposited along the west slope of the part of the range. One reason the Teton Range is famous is because of the elevation above the eastern side. Unlike most mountain ranges, the east side of the teton range lacks foothills and this is due to the Teton Fault at the base of the range on the eastern side, and the range being too young to have eroded into soft hills. The east slope of the Teton range rises sharply, from 5,000 to 7,000 feet above the valley floor. Jackson Hole and the Tetons have been the setting for a number of films, including John Waynes movie acting debut in The Big Trail in 1930 and the western film classic, Shane in 1953. Mount Moran and the mountains were used as a backdrop for the lake/swamp setting in the original series of Land of the Lost
19.
Serif
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In typography, a serif /ˈsɛərəf/ is a small line attached to the end of a stroke in a letter or symbol. A typeface with serifs is called a serif typeface, a typeface without serifs is called sans-serif or sans serif, from the French sans, meaning without. Some typography sources refer to sans-serif typefaces as Grotesque or Gothic, serifs originated in the Latin alphabet with inscriptional lettering—words carved into stone in Roman antiquity. Another theory is that serifs were devised to neaten the ends of lines as they were chiseled into stone, the origin of the word serif is obscure, but apparently is almost as recent as the type style. The standard also proposed that surripsis may be a Greek word derived from συν, the printer Thomas Curson Hansard referred to them as ceriphs in 1825. The oldest citations in the Oxford English Dictionary are 1830 for serif and 1841 for sans serif, the OED speculates that serif was a back-formation from sanserif. Websters Third New International Dictionary traces serif to the Dutch noun schreef, meaning line, stroke of the pen, related to the verb schrappen, to delete, schreef now also means serif in Dutch. The OEDs earliest citation for grotesque in this sense is 1875 and it would seem to mean out of the ordinary in this usage, as in art grotesque usually means elaborately decorated. Other synonyms include Doric and Gothic, commonly used for Japanese Gothic typefaces, serifed fonts are widely used for body text because they are considered easier to read than sans-serif fonts in print. However, scientific study on this topic has been inconclusive, colin Wheildon, who conducted scientific studies from 1982 to 1990, found that sans serif fonts created various difficulties for readers that impaired their comprehension. According to Kathleen Tinkel, studies suggest that most sans serif typefaces may be less legible than most serif faces. The difference can be offset by careful setting, other studies have found no significant difference in readability for serif or sans serif. Serifed fonts are overwhelmingly preferred for lengthy text printed in books, newspapers, for such purposes sans-serif fonts are more acceptable in Europe than in North America, but still less common than serifed typefaces. Sans-serif are considered to be legible on computer screens, according to Alex Poole, we should accept that most reasonably designed typefaces in mainstream use will be equally legible. A study suggested that serif fonts are more legible on a screen but are not generally preferred to sans serif fonts, another study indicated that comprehension times for individual words are slightly faster when written in a sans serif font versus a serif font. Most web pages employ sans-serif type, hinting information, spatial anti-aliasing, and subpixel rendering technologies have partially mitigated the perception of serif fonts on screen. Due to the constraint of screen resolution the serifs in some fonts can be difficult to discern on screen. Some serif fonts, such as Georgia, are designed for web readability, employing higher x-heights in the letters
20.
Printing registration
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In color printing, registration is the method of correlating overlapping colors on one single image. There are many different styles and types of registration, many of which employ the alignment of specific marks, when printing an image that has more than one color, it is necessary to print each color separately and ensure each color overlaps the others precisely. If this is not done, the image will look fuzzy. To help line the colors up correctly, a system of registration is necessary, there are many different styles of registration for many different types of printing. These deal with stone lithography, as used in fine arts printmaking and this method, using small measured registration marks on both the stone and the paper, is very accurate and simple to do. The printer measures the size of the paper and the desired margins. Then marks are made at both ends of the sheet of paper, and corresponding marks are made on the stone, then the printer matches the marks on the paper to those on the stone. This way many runs of different colors can be pulled exactly in line with one another, each of them measured from the same system of marks. This method involves laying the paper on the surface. Then the locations of the holes are transferred to each sheet of paper to be printed, when printing, one should place pins in each hole of a sheet of paper, and lower it onto the inked stone, placing each pin in its respective hole in the stone. This method can ruin paper by creating holes, and if the holes get too large, they lose their function as registration devices. This method relies solely on hand–eye coordination, the printer places the paper over the stone-image, measuring and judging registration by eye. This is not very consistent, depending on the person
21.
Newsprint
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Newsprint is a low-cost non-archival paper consisting mainly of wood pulp and most commonly used to print newspapers and other publications and advertising material. Invented in 1844 by Charles Fenerty of Nova Scotia, Canada, it usually has an off white cast and it is designed for use in printing presses that employ a long web of paper rather than individual sheets of paper. Newsprint is favored by publishers and printers as it is low cost, strong. Charles Fenerty began experimenting with wood pulp around 1838, making his discovery in 1844, World demand of newsprint in 2006 totaled about 37.2 million metric tonnes, according to the Montreal-based Pulp & Paper Products Council. This was about 1. 6% less than in 2000, between 2000 and 2006, the biggest changes were in Asia—which saw newsprint demand grow by about 20%—and North America, where demand fell by about 25%. Demand in China virtually doubled during the period, to about 3.2 million metric tonnes, about 35% of global newsprint usage in 2006 was in Asia, with approximately 26% being in North America and about 25% in Western Europe. Latin America and Eastern Europe each represented about 5% of world demand in 2006, according to PPPC, with smaller shares going to Oceania, according to NAA, daily ad revenues reached their all-time peak in 2000, and by 2007 had fallen by 13%. Newsprint demand has also affected by attempts on the part of newspaper publishers to reduce marginal printing costs through various conservation measures intended to cut newsprint usage. According to the World Association of Newspapers, in 2007 Asia was the home to 74 of the world’s 100 highest-circulation dailies, with millions of Chinese and Indians entering the ranks of those with disposable income, newspapers have gained readers along with other news media. Newsprint is used worldwide in the printing of newspapers, flyers, in the U. S. about 80% of all newsprint that is consumed is purchased by daily newspaper publishers, according to PPPC. Dailies use a majority of total demand in most other regions as well. In such cases the press owner might also purchase newsprint from the mill for such contract printing jobs, the biggest inputs to the newsprint manufacturing process are energy, fiber, and labor. Mill operating margins have been affected in the 2006–2008 time-frame by rising energy costs. Many mills fiber costs have also been affected during the U. S, another consideration in the newsprint business is delivery, which is affected by energy cost trends. Newsprint around the world may be delivered by rail or truck, or by barge, the cost-competitiveness of each freight mode for a specific mill’s business may depend on local infrastructure issues, as well as the degree of truck-vs-freight competition in the mills region. The appropriate freight mode for delivery from a mill to a specific pressroom can also depend on the press ability to accept enough trucks or rail cars. A newspaper rolls width is called its web width and is defined by how many front pages it can print, a full roll prints four front pages with four back pages behind it. Modern printing facilities most efficiently print newspapers in multiples of eight pages on a newsprint roll in two sections of four pages each
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Visible spectrum
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The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called light or simply light. A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from about 390 to 700 nm, in terms of frequency, this corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–770 THz. The spectrum does not, however, contain all the colors that the human eyes, unsaturated colors such as pink, or purple variations such as magenta, are absent, for example, because they can be made only by a mix of multiple wavelengths. Colors containing only one wavelength are called pure colors or spectral colors. Visible wavelengths pass through the window, the region of the electromagnetic spectrum that allows wavelengths to pass largely unattenuated through the Earths atmosphere. An example of this phenomenon is that clean air scatters blue light more than red wavelengths, the optical window is also referred to as the visible window because it overlaps the human visible response spectrum. The near infrared window lies just out of the vision, as well as the Medium Wavelength IR window. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon theorized that rainbows were produced by a process to the passage of light through glass or crystal. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton discovered that prisms could disassemble and reassemble white light and he was the first to use the word spectrum in this sense in print in 1671 in describing his experiments in optics. The result is red light is bent less sharply than violet as it passes through the prism. Newton divided the spectrum into seven named colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, the human eye is relatively insensitive to indigos frequencies, and some people who have otherwise-good vision cannot distinguish indigo from blue and violet. For this reason, some commentators, including Isaac Asimov, have suggested that indigo should not be regarded as a color in its own right. However, the evidence indicates that what Newton meant by indigo, comparing Newtons observation of prismatic colors to a color image of the visible light spectrum shows that indigo corresponds to what is today called blue, whereas blue corresponds to cyan. In the 18th century, Goethe wrote about optical spectra in his Theory of Colours, Goethe used the word spectrum to designate a ghostly optical afterimage, as did Schopenhauer in On Vision and Colors. Goethe argued that the spectrum was a compound phenomenon. Where Newton narrowed the beam of light to isolate the phenomenon, Goethe observed that a wider aperture produces not a spectrum but rather reddish-yellow, the spectrum appears only when these edges are close enough to overlap. Young was the first to measure the wavelengths of different colors of light, the connection between the visible spectrum and color vision was explored by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in the early 19th century
23.
Gamut
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In color reproduction, including computer graphics and photography, the gamut, or color gamut /ˈɡæmət/, is a certain complete subset of colors. The most common refers to the subset of colors which can be accurately represented in a given circumstance. Another sense, less used but not less correct, refers to the complete set of colors found within an image at a given time. In the 1850s, the term was applied to a range of colors or hue, for example by Thomas De Quincey, in color theory, the gamut of a device or process is that portion of the color space that can be represented, or reproduced. When certain colors cannot be expressed within a color model. For example, while pure red can be expressed in the RGB color space, it cannot be expressed in the CMYK color space, a device that is able to reproduce the entire visible color space is an unrealized goal within the engineering of color displays and printing processes. While modern techniques allow increasingly good approximations, the complexity of systems often makes them impractical. While processing an image, the most convenient color model used is the RGB model. Printing the image requires transforming the image from the original RGB color space to the printers CMYK color space, during this process, the colors from the RGB which are out of gamut must be somehow converted to approximate values within the CMYK space gamut. Simply trimming only the colors which are out of gamut to the closest colors in the space would burn the image. There are several algorithms approximating this transformation, but none of them can be truly perfect and this is why identifying the colors in an image which are out of gamut in the target color space as soon as possible during processing is critical for the quality of the final product. Gamuts are commonly represented as areas in the CIE1931 chromaticity diagram as shown at right, the cone drawn in grey corresponds roughly to the CIE diagram at right, with the added dimension of brightness. The axes in these diagrams are the responses of the short-wavelength, middle-wavelength, the other letters indicate black, red, green, blue, cyan, magenta, yellow, and white colors. The exact positions of the apexes depends on the spectra of the phosphors in the computer monitor. The gamut of the CMYK color space is, ideally, approximately the same as that for RGB, with slightly different apexes, depending on both the exact properties of the dyes and the light source. In practice, due to the way raster-printed colors interact with other and the paper and due to their non-ideal absorption spectra. The gamut of colors in nature has a similar, though more rounded. An object that only a narrow band of wavelengths will have a color close to the edge of the CIE diagram
24.
Pantone
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Pantone Inc. is a corporation headquartered in Carlstadt, New Jersey. X-Rite Inc. a supplier of color measurement instruments and software, Pantone began in New York City in the 1950s as the commercial printing company of M & J Levine Advertising. In 1956, its founders, advertising executives brothers Mervin and Jesse Levine, for instance, a particular page might contain a number of yellows of varying tints. The idea behind the PMS is to allow designers to color match specific colors when a design enters production stage and this system has been widely adopted by graphic designers and reproduction and printing houses. Pantone recommends that PMS Color Guides be purchased annually, as their inks become yellowish over time, Color variance also occurs within editions based on the paper stock used, while interedition color variance occurs when there are changes to the specific paper stock used. The Pantone Color Matching System is largely a standardized color reproduction system, by standardizing the colors, different manufacturers in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system to make sure colors match without direct contact with one another. One such use is standardizing colors in the CMYK process, the CMYK process is a method of printing color by using four inks—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. A majority of the printed material is produced using the CMYK process. Those that are possible to simulate through the CMYK process are labeled as such within the companys guides, however, most of the Pantone systems 1,114 spot colors cannot be simulated with CMYK but with 13 base pigments mixed in specified amounts. The Pantone system also allows for many special colors to be produced, such as metallics, while most of the Pantone system colors are beyond the printed CMYK gamut, it was only in 2001 that Pantone began providing translations of their existing system with screen-based colors. Screen-based colors use the RGB color model—red, green, blue—system to create various colors, the Goe system has RGB and LAB values with each color. Pantone colors are described by their allocated number, PMS colors are almost always used in branding and have even found their way into government legislation and military standards. In January 2003, the Scottish Parliament debated a petition to refer to the blue in the Scottish flag as Pantone 300, countries such as Canada and South Korea and organizations such as the FIA have also chosen to refer to specific Pantone colors to use when producing flags. US states including Texas have set legislated PMS colors of their flags and it has also been used in an art project by the Brazilian photographer Angelica Dass which applies Pantone to the human skin color spectrum. On September 5,2007, Pantone introduced the Goe System, Goe consisted of over 2,000 new colors in a new matching and numbering system. The Goe system was streamlined to use base colors and accommodate many technical challenges in reproducing colors on a press. The Pantone Goe system was discontinued in November 2013, in mid-2006 Pantone, partnering with Vermont-based Fine Paints of Europe, introduced a new line of interior and exterior paints. The color palette uses Pantones color research and trending and has more than 3,000 colors, in November 2015, Pantone partnered with Redland London to create a collection of bags inspired from Pantones authority on color
25.
CcMmYK color model
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CcMmYK, sometimes referred to as CMYKLcLm or CMYKcm, is a six color printing process used in some inkjet printers optimized for photo printing. It complements the more common four color CMYK process, which stands for Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Key, by adding light cyan, individually, light cyan is often abbreviated to Lc or c, and light magenta is represented as Lm or m. Usually when printing a dark color the printer will saturate the area with colored ink dots, the result is hard to notice with yellow because yellow is perceived as a very light color. However, the cyan and magenta ink dots will stand out in a sparse pattern due to their darker color against a white background. By using light cyan or magenta, the printer can saturate areas that would typically use halftoning with these inks to remove the look of sparse magenta and cyan dots. The downside is the printer needs approximately twice as much light cyan, the end result, however, is significantly better for some photos. CcMmYK colorants reduce graininess in the middle tone region and this reduced graininess typically improves the photographic appearance of blue skies and some flesh tones
26.
Inkjet printing
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Inkjet printing is a type of computer printing that recreates a digital image by propelling droplets of ink onto paper, plastic, or other substrates. Inkjet printers are the most commonly used type of printer, the concept of inkjet printing originated in the 20th century, and the technology was first extensively developed in the early 1950s. Starting in the late 1970s inkjet printers that could reproduce digital images generated by computers were developed, mainly by Epson, Hewlett-Packard, in the worldwide consumer market, four manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet printer sales, Canon, HP, Epson, and Brother. The emerging ink jet material deposition market also uses inkjet technologies, typically printheads using piezoelectric crystals, the technology has been extended and the ″ink″ can now also comprise living cells, for creating biosensors and for tissue engineering. There are two main technologies in use in contemporary inkjet printers, continuous and Drop-on-demand, the continuous inkjet method is used commercially for marking and coding of products and packages. In 1867 Lord Kelvin patented the syphon recorder, which recorded telegraph signals as a trace on paper using an ink jet nozzle deflected by a magnetic coil. The first commercial devices were introduced in 1951 by Siemens, the ink droplets are subjected to an electrostatic field created by a charging electrode as they form, the field varies according to the degree of drop deflection desired. This results in a controlled, variable electrostatic charge on each droplet, charged droplets are separated by one or more uncharged guard droplets to minimize electrostatic repulsion between neighbouring droplets. The more highly charged droplets are deflected to a greater degree, only a small fraction of the droplets is used to print, the majority being recycled. CIJ is one of the oldest ink jet technologies in use and is fairly mature, viscosity is monitored and a solvent is added to counteract solvent loss. Drop-on-demand is divided into thermal DOD and piezoelectric DOD, most consumer inkjet printers, including those from Canon, Hewlett-Packard, and Lexmark, use the thermal inkjet process. Vaughts work started in late 1978 with a project to develop fast, low-cost printing, the team at HP found that thin-film resistors could produce enough heat to fire an ink droplet. Two years later the HP and Canon teams found out about each others work, in the thermal inkjet process, the print cartridges consist of a series of tiny chambers, each containing a heater, all of which are constructed by photolithography. The inks involved are usually water-based and use either pigments or dyes as the colorant, the inks must have a volatile component to form the vapor bubble, otherwise droplet ejection cannot occur. As no special materials are required, the print head is generally cheaper to produce than in other inkjet technologies, most commercial and industrial inkjet printers and some consumer printers use a piezoelectric material in an ink-filled chamber behind each nozzle instead of a heating element. When a voltage is applied, the material changes shape, generating a pressure pulse in the fluid. A DOD process uses software that directs the heads to apply between zero and eight droplets of ink per dot, only where needed, piezo inkjet technology is often used on production lines to mark products. For instance, the date is often applied to products with this technique, in this application the head is stationary
27.
CIE 1931 color space
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The CIE1931 color spaces were the first defined quantitative links between physical pure colors in the electromagnetic visible spectrum, and physiological perceived colors in human color vision. The CIE1931 RGB color space and CIE1931 XYZ color space were created by the International Commission on Illumination in 1931 and they resulted from a series of experiments done in the late 1920s by William David Wright and John Guild. The experimental results were combined into the specification of the CIE RGB color space, the CIE1931 color spaces are still widely used, as is the 1976 CIELUV color space. The human eye with normal vision has three kinds of cells, which sense light, with spectral sensitivity peaks in short, middle. These cone cells underlie human color perception under medium- and high-brightness conditions, thus, three parameters, corresponding to levels of stimulus of the three types of cone cells, can in principle describe any color sensation. The tristimulus values associated with a space can be conceptualized as amounts of three primary colors in a tri-chromatic additive color model. In some color spaces, including LMS and XYZ spaces, the colors used are not real colors. The CIE XYZ color space encompasses all color sensations that a person can experience. That is why CIE XYZ is a device invariant color representation and it serves as a standard reference against which many other color spaces are defined. Consider two light sources made up of different mixtures of various wavelengths, such light sources may appear to be the same color, this effect is called metamerism. Such light sources have the apparent color to an observer when they produce the same tristimulus values. Most wavelengths stimulate two or all three types of cell, because the spectral sensitivity curves of the three types of cone cells overlap. Certain tristimulus values are thus physically impossible, to avoid these negative RGB values, and to have one component that describes the perceived brightness, imaginary primary colors and corresponding color-matching functions have been formulated. The resulting tristimulus values are defined by the CIE1931 color space, in which they are denoted X, Y, and Z. When judging the relative luminance of different colors in well-lit situations, humans tend to perceive light within the green parts of the spectrum as brighter than red or blue light of equal power. The luminosity function that describes the perceived brightnesses of different wavelengths is thus analogous to the spectral sensitivity of M cones. The CIE model capitalises on this fact by defining Y as luminance, Z is quasi-equal to blue stimulation, or the S cone response, and X is a mix of cone response curves chosen to be nonnegative. The XYZ tristimulus values are thus analogous to, but different from, defining Y as luminance has the useful result that for any given Y value, the XZ plane will contain all possible chromaticities at that luminance
28.
Dither
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Dither is an intentionally applied form of noise used to randomize quantization error, preventing large-scale patterns such as color banding in images. Dither is routinely used in processing of digital audio and video data, and is often one of the last stages of mastering audio to a CD. A typical use of dither is converting an image to black and white. …ne of the earliest of dither came in World War II, airplane bombers used mechanical computers to perform navigation and bomb trajectory calculations. Curiously, these computers performed more accurately when flying on board the aircraft, engineers realized that the vibration from the aircraft reduced the error from sticky moving parts. Instead of moving in short jerks, they moved more continuously, small vibrating motors were built into the computers, and their vibration was called dither from the Middle English verb didderen, meaning to tremble. Today, when you tap a mechanical meter to increase its accuracy, you are applying dither, in minute quantities, dither successfully makes a digitization system a little more analog in the good sense of the word. The term dither was published in books on analog computation and hydraulically controlled guns shortly after the Second World War. The concept of dithering to reduce quantization patterns was first applied by Lawrence G. Roberts in his 1961 MIT masters thesis and 1962 article though he did not use the term dither, by 1964 dither was being used in the modern sense described in this article. Dither is often used in audio and video processing. It is utilized in different fields where digital processing and analysis are used. These uses include systems using digital processing, such as digital audio, digital video, digital photography, seismology, radar, weather forecasting systems. The premise is that quantization yields error, if that error is repeating and correlated to the signal, the error that results is repeating, cyclical, and mathematically determinable. In some fields, especially where the receptor is sensitive to such artifacts, in these fields introducing dither results in less determinable artifacts. The field of audio is an example of this. The human ear functions much like a Fourier transform, wherein it hears individual frequencies, in audio, dither can be useful to break up periodic limit cycles, which are a common problem in digital filters. Random noise is less objectionable than the harmonic tones produced by limit cycles. Gaussian noise requires a level of added noise for full elimination of distortion than do rectangular PDF or triangular PDF noise
29.
ICC profile
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In color management, an ICC profile is a set of data that characterizes a color input or output device, or a color space, according to standards promulgated by the International Color Consortium. Profiles describe the attributes of a particular device or viewing requirement by defining a mapping between the device source or target color space and a profile connection space. This PCS is either CIELAB or CIEXYZ, mappings may be specified using tables, to which interpolation is applied, or through a series of parameters for transformations. Every device that captures or displays color can be profiled, the ICC defines the format precisely but does not define algorithms or processing details. This means there is room for variation between different applications and systems that work with ICC profiles, since late 2010, the current version of the specification is 4.3. Details are at http, //www. color. org/iccmax/ To see how this works in practice, suppose we have a particular RGB and CMYK color space, the first step is to obtain the two ICC profiles concerned. To perform the conversion, each RGB triplet is first converted to the Profile connection space using the RGB profile, if necessary the PCS is converted between CIELAB and CIEXYZ, a well defined transformation. Then the PCS is converted to the four values of C, M, Y, K required using the second profile, so a profile is essentially a mapping from a color space to the PCS, and from the PCS to the color space. The profile might do this using tables of values to be interpolated. A profile might define several mappings, according to rendering intent and these mappings allow a choice between closest possible color matching, and remapping the entire color range to allow for different gamuts. The reference illuminant of the Profile connection space is a 16-bit fractional approximation of D50, different source/destination white points are adapted using the Bradford transformation. Another kind of profile is the device link profile, instead of mapping between a device color space and a PCS, it maps between two specific device spaces. While this is less flexible, it allows for an accurate or purposeful conversion of color between devices. For example, a conversion between two CMYK devices could ensure that colors using only black ink convert to target colors using only black ink, the ICC profile specification, currently being progressed as International Standard ISO 15076-1,2005, is widely referred to in other standards. The following International and de facto standards are known to reference to ICC profiles. A test page for browsers ICC profiles in Adobe Photoshop CoCa - Open source ICC profile creator by Andrew Stawowczyk Long ICC profiles in MATLAB
30.
Jacob Christoph Le Blon
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He used the mezzotint method to engrave three or four metal plates to make prints with a wide range of colours. His methods helped form the foundation for modern colour printing, on his father’s side Le Blon descended from Huguenots fleeing France in 1576, having settled in Frankfurt. His grandfather Christof Le Blon married Susanna Barbara Merian daughter of the artist, Le Blon is reported to have received training as a young man from the Swiss painter and engraver Conrad Ferdinand Meyer in Zurich but there is no documentary evidence. It is generally agreed that Le Blon had an extended stay sometime between 1696 and 1702 in Rome where he is reported to have studied art under the painter Carlo Maratta. Encouraged by van Overbeek, Le Blon moved to Amsterdam, presumably in 1702, in 1705 he married Gerarda Vloet with whom he had two sons that appear to have died in infancy. In 1707 Le Blon issued a publication in Dutch on the forms of the human body. In 1708 and 1709 he is known to have made colorant mixing experiments in Amsterdam and in 1710 he made his first color prints with yellow, red, and blue plates. While in Amsterdam he became acquainted with Arnold Houbraken, who quoted him as a source of information on German painters for his Schouburg, later published after Houbrakens death in 1718. Le Blons wife died in 1716 and in 1717 he moved to London where he received patents for the three-color printing process. The tapestry process involved using white, yellow, red, blue, the printing process involved using three different intaglio plates, inked in different colours. In 1722 he published a book, Coloritto, in French. In it he stated that “Painting can represent all visible objects with three colors, yellow, red, and blue”, during his stay in England he produced several dozen of three- and four-colored images in multiple copies that initially sold well in England and on the continent. In the long run his enterprise did not succeed, however, during his last years several sequences of prints were produced and sold showing the different steps of his printing process, such as a portrait of the French Cardinal de Fleury. In 1740 he began work on a collection of prints for which he had a solid list of subscribers. When he died in 1741 in Paris he left a 4½ year-old daughter, Margueritte, a detailed description of Le Blon’s work was published in 1756 by Antoine Gautier de Montdorge who befriended him during his final years in Paris. Le Blon’s process was practiced in France after his death and progressed in the century into chromolithography. Jacob Christof Le Blon on Artnet O. M. Lilien, jacob Christoph Le Blon, 1667-1741, Inventor of three- and four colour printing. “Jacob Christoph Le Blon’s system of printing and weaving” in The Creation of Color in the 18th century Europe, New York
31.
Specifications for Web Offset Publications
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The SWOP specification covers many areas related to print production, complementing, extending and limiting those in other industry standards. A specification for the colors of the cyan, magenta, yellow, inks conforming to the specification can be called SWOP inks. The specifications make reference to, but are not identical to, a specification for the colors of proofs produced by various technologies, so they are accurate representation of the SWOP inks eventually used to print. Proofs made from systems that meet these specifications may be called SWOP Proofs, requirements for producing halftones and color separation Design constraints, such as the minimum size of type which is to printed reversed or knocked out of a background, to keep legibility. Production constraints, such as a limit of 300% on the mixture of inks. SWOP also endorse, produce or specify some other things, tR001 profiles are not universal, because they were generated and tested with specific inks, papers, and printing technologies. The SWOP booklet gives the specifications mentioned above, often in reference to other industry specifications, a SWOP Certification Program for proofing printing systems. This is used by manufacturers, rather than purchasers, of systems, SWOP is a non-profit volunteer organisation, and concerns itself only with the United States. In some other areas, similar efforts have made by other organisation, taking account of national variations in printing techniques, expectations. SWOP Frequently Asked Questions SWOP Website
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
33.
Color space
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A color space is a specific organization of colors. In combination with physical device profiling, it allows for reproducible representations of color, for example, Adobe RGB and sRGB are two different absolute color spaces, both based on the RGB color model. When defining a color space, the reference standard is the CIELAB or CIEXYZ color spaces. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB color model, colors can be created in printing with color spaces based on the CMYK color model, using the subtractive primary colors of pigment. The resulting 3-D space provides a position for every possible color that can be created by combining those three pigments. Colors can be created on computer monitors with color spaces based on the RGB color model, a three-dimensional representation would assign each of the three colors to the X, Y, and Z axes. Note that colors generated on given monitor will be limited by the medium, such as the phosphor or filters. Another way of creating colors on a monitor is with an HSL or HSV color space, based on hue, saturation, with such a space, the variables are assigned to cylindrical coordinates. Many color spaces can be represented as three-dimensional values in this manner, but some have more, or fewer dimensions, Color space conversion is the translation of the representation of a color from one basis to another. The RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used, by far the most common general-used incarnation as of 2006 is the 24-bit implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of color per channel. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is limited to a range of 256×256×256 ≈16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component for 48 bits total and this is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces, or when a large number of digital filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color space based on the color model. CIE1931 XYZ color space was one of the first attempts to produce a space based on measurements of human color perception. The CIERGB color space is a companion of CIE XYZ. Additional derivatives of CIE XYZ include the CIELUV, CIEUVW, RGB uses additive color mixing, because it describes what kind of light needs to be emitted to produce a given color. RGB stores individual values for red, green and blue, RGBA is RGB with an additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency. Common color spaces based on the RGB model include sRGB, Adobe RGB, ProPhoto RGB, scRGB, one starts with a white substrate, and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image
Color vision.
