1.
CN Tower (Edmonton)
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CN Tower is an office tower in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It stands at 111 metres or 26 storeys tall, and was built, at the time of its construction it was the first skyscraper in Edmonton, and the tallest building in Western Canada. Its reign as Western Canadas tallest building lasted from 1966 to 1971, the building site was once the home to the CNR Edmonton station c.1905 as well as the 1928 addition. The former was demolished in 1953 and latter gave way to the CN Tower in 1966, designed by Abugov & Sunderland, it was western Canadas tallest office tower when completed in 1966. It is now owned by Calgary-based Strategic Group, and the last remaining CN employees moved out of the building in 2008, the CN logo is still found over the main entrance and on the top of the building. Since then, passenger trains serving Edmonton have stopped at the Edmonton railway station situated near the then active Edmonton City Centre Airport, the building suffered structural damage to the exterior on July 18,2009, during a severe thunderstorm. Two vehicles were crushed by the debris at the base of the building. List of tallest buildings in Edmonton CN Tower Emporis profile
2.
Ostankino Tower
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Ostankino Tower is a television and radio tower in Moscow, Russia, owned by the Moscow branch of unitary enterprise Russian TV and Radio Broadcasting Network. Standing 540.1 metres tall, Ostankino was designed by Nikolai Nikitin and it is currently the tallest freestanding structure in Europe and 11th tallest in the world. The tower was the first free-standing structure to exceed 500 m in height, Ostankino was built to mark the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution. It is named after the Ostankino district of Moscow in which it is located, construction began in 1963 and was completed in 1967. Extensive use of prestressed concrete resulted in a simple and sturdy structure that was a masterpiece of Soviet engineering in the period it was built. It surpassed the Empire State Building to become the tallest free-standing structure in the world and it held this record for nine years until the CN Tower was completed in Toronto, Canada in 1976, which surpassed its height by 13 metres. The Ostankino Tower remained the second-tallest structure in the world for another 31 years until the Burj Khalifa surpassed both it and the CN Tower in height in 2007, the Ostankino Tower has remained the tallest structure in Europe for 49 years. A1994 plan to increase the height to 561 metres by adding an antenna was not implemented for lack of funding. The tower caught fire on 27 August 2000, killing four people, three firefighters died in the attempt to extinguish the fire, and one lift operator died when her elevator cabin crashed to the ground level due to the fire. In addition, television and radio signals were disrupted around Moscow, the fire necessitated an evacuation of all visitors and staff from those locations. According to Russian news agencies, the evacuation was complete 90 minutes after the start of the fire, the loss was substantial due to the age and poor maintenance of the electronic equipment, much of which was installed in the 1960s. In addition, the tower had become increasingly packed with equipment, the failure of the fire suppression systems allowed the fire to destroy most of the towers interior. Temporary firewalls of asbestos placed 70 metres up stopped further spread, the fire knocked out virtually all television broadcasts in Moscow and the surrounding regions. The fire caused the upper spire to tilt slightly, triggering fears the tower might collapse. Subsequent inspection determined that although the structure sustained damage, the tower was not in danger of collapse. Efforts began immediately to rebuild the tower, which proved to be a long, Russian President Vladimir Putin stated that This latest accident shows the shape of our vital installations and the overall state of our country. We should not fail to see problems in the country behind this accident. Whether or not such accidents happen again in the future depend on how we work in this vital direction
3.
Burj Khalifa
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The Burj Khalifa, known as the Burj Dubai before its inauguration, is a megatall skyscraper in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It has a height of 828 m, and with its antenna included, it stands a total height of 829.8 m, making it the tallest building. Construction of the Burj Khalifa began in 2004, with the exterior completed 5 years later in 2009, the primary structure is reinforced concrete. The building was opened in 2010 as part of a new development called Downtown Dubai and it is designed to be the centrepiece of large-scale, mixed-use development. The decision to build the building is based on the governments decision to diversify from an oil-based economy. The building was named in honour of the ruler of Abu Dhabi and president of the United Arab Emirates, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Abu Dhabi, the building broke numerous height records, including its designation as the tallest tower in the world. Burj Khalifa was designed by Adrian Smith, then of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, whose firm designed the Willis Tower, Hyder Consulting was chosen to be the supervising engineer with NORR Group Consultants International Limited chosen to supervise the architecture of the project. The design is derived from the Islamic architecture of the region, the Y-shaped tripartite floor geometry is designed to optimize residential and hotel space. A buttressed central core and wings are used to support the height of the building, although this design was derived from Tower Palace III, the Burj Khalifa’s central core houses all vertical transportation with the exception of egress stairs within each of the wings. The structure also features a system which is designed to withstand Dubais hot summer temperatures. It contains a total of 57 elevators and 8 escalators, critical reception to Burj Khalifa has been generally positive, and the building has received many awards. However, the issues during construction were controversial, since the building was built primarily by migrant workers from South Asia with several allegations of mistreatment. Poor working conditions are common, as the result of the lack of minimum wage laws in the United Arab Emirates, several instances of suicides have been reported, which is not uncommon for migrant construction workers in Dubai despite safety precautions in place. Construction began on 6 January 2004, with the exterior of the completed on 1 October 2009. The building officially opened on 4 January 2010, and is part of the new 2 km2 development called Downtown Dubai at the First Interchange along Sheikh Zayed Road, near Dubais main business district. The towers architecture and engineering were performed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill of Chicago, with Adrian Smith as chief architect, the primary contractor was Samsung C&T of South Korea. The towers construction was done by the division of Al Ghurair Investment group. The decision to build Burj Khalifa is reportedly based on the decision to diversify from an oil-based economy to one that is service
4.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
5.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Canadian dollar
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The Canadian dollar is the currency of Canada. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $, or sometimes Can$ or C$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and it is divided into 100 cents. Canadas dollar is the fifth most held reserve currency in the world, accounting for approximately 2% of all global reserves, behind only the U. S. dollar, the euro, the yen and the pound sterling. In 1841, the Province of Canada adopted a new system based on the Halifax rating, the new Canadian pound was equal to four US dollars, making one pound sterling equal to 1 pound,4 shillings, and 4 pence Canadian. Thus, the new Canadian pound was worth 16 shillings and 5.3 pence sterling, the 1850s was a decade of wrangling over whether to adopt a sterling monetary system or a decimal monetary system based on the US dollar. In 1851, the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly passed an act for the purposes of introducing a sterling unit in conjunction with decimal fractional coinage. The idea was that the coins would correspond to exact amounts in relation to the U. S. dollar fractional coinage. This gold standard was introduced with the gold sovereign being legal tender at £1 = US$ 4.86 2⁄3, no coinage was provided for under the 1853 act. Sterling coinage was legal tender and all other silver coins were demonetized. The British government in principle allowed for a decimal coinage but nevertheless held out the hope that a unit would be chosen under the name of royal. However, in 1857, the decision was made to introduce a decimal coinage into the Province of Canada in conjunction with the U. S. dollar unit, in 1859, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with decimal denominations for the first time. In 1860, the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia followed the colony of Canada in adopting a system based on the U. S. dollar unit. In the following year, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with the shown in dollars. The U. S. dollar was created in 1792 on the basis of the weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. As such, the Spanish dollar was slightly more than the U. S. dollar, and likewise. In 1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were united in a called the Dominion of Canada. In 1871, Prince Edward Island went decimal within the U. S. dollar unit, however, the currency of Prince Edward Island was absorbed into the Canadian system shortly afterwards, when Prince Edward island joined the Dominion of Canada in 1873. The Canadian Parliament passed the Uniform Currency Act in April 1871, tying up loose ends as to the currencies of the various provinces, the gold standard was temporarily abandoned during the First World War and definitively abolished on April 10,1933
8.
WZMH Architects
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WZMH Architects is a Canadian multinational architectural firm established in 1961 and based in Toronto. Originally known as Webb Zerafa Menkès Housden the company’s name was changed to WZMH Architects in 2002, WZMH has incorporated sustainable design principles into the majority of its projects and has received numerous domestic and international Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design awards. In 2013, the firm’s Nova Scotia Power Corporate Headquarters was the first building in Atlantic Canada to receive LEED Platinum certification, WZMH has enduring developer relationships with Oxford Properties, Brookfield Properties, Infrastructure Ontario, ELAD Group, and Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts. In 2015, WZMH merged with pellow + associates, a known for its retail design. In 2016, WZMH Architects celebrated its 55th anniversary
9.
John Andrews (architect)
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John Hamilton Andrews is an Australian architect, known for designing a number of acclaimed structures in Australia, Canada and the United States. John Andrews was born in Sydney, New South Wales, in 1957 he entered the masters of architecture program at Harvard University. After graduation he worked with John B Parkin Associates in Don Mills, from 1962 until 1967 John Andrews was chairman of the University of Torontos program in architecture. In 1962 he established John Andrews Architects in Toronto, in 1973 he expanded his practice to Sydney and renamed the firm John Andrews International Pty. Ltd. Intelsat headquarters in Washington, D. C and he was awarded the RAIA Gold Medal by the Royal Australian Institute of Architects in 1980 and an Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects. John Hamilton Andrews at the Canadian Encyclopedia John Hamilton Andrews
10.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
11.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
12.
Tower
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A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant margin. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, Towers are specifically distinguished from buildings in that they are not built to be habitable but to serve other functions. Towers can be stand alone structures or be supported by adjacent buildings or can be a feature on top of a structure or building. Old English torr is from Latin turris via Old French tor, the Latin term together with Greek τύρσις was loaned from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean language, connected with the Illyrian toponym Βου-δοργίς. The oldest known may be the stone tower in walls of Neolithic Jericho. Some of the earliest towers were ziggurats, which existed in Sumerian architecture since the 4th millennium BC, the most famous ziggurats include the Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, built the 3rd millennium BC, and the Etemenanki, one of the most famous examples of Babylonian architecture. The latter was built in Babylon during the 2nd millennium BC and was considered the tallest tower of the ancient world, some of the earliest surviving examples are the broch structures in northern Scotland, which are conical towerhouses. These and other examples from Phoenician and Roman cultures emphasised the use of a tower in fortification, for example, the name of the Moroccan city of Mogador, founded in the first millennium BC, is derived from the Phoenician word for watchtower. The Romans utilised octagonal towers as elements of Diocletians Palace in Croatia, which monument dates to approximately 300 AD, while the Servian Walls, the Chinese used towers as integrated elements of the Great Wall of China in 210 BC during the Qin Dynasty. Towers were also an important element of castles, other well known towers include the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa, Italy built from 1173 until 1372 and the Two Towers in Bologna, Italy built from 1109 until 1119. The Himalayan Towers are stone towers located chiefly in Tibet built approximately 14th to 15th century, up to a certain height, a tower can be made with the supporting structure with parallel sides. However, above a height, the compressive load of the material is exceeded. This can be avoided if the support structure tapers up the building. A second limit is that of buckling—the structure requires sufficient stiffness to avoid breaking under the loads it faces, many very tall towers have their support structures at the periphery of the building, which greatly increases the overall stiffness. A third limit is dynamic, a tower is subject to varying winds, vortex shedding and these are often dealt with through a combination of simple strength and stiffness, as well as in some cases tuned mass dampers to damp out movements. Varying or tapering the outer aspect of the tower with height avoids vibrations due to vortex shedding occurring along the building simultaneously. Although not correctly called towers many modern skyscraper are often called towers, in the United Kingdom, tall domestic buildings are referred to as tower blocks. In the United States, the original World Trade Center had the nickname the Twin Towers, the tower throughout history has provided its users with an advantage in surveying defensive positions and obtaining a better view of the surrounding areas, including battlefields
13.
Downtown Toronto
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Downtown Toronto is the main central business district in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Located entirely within the district of Old Toronto, it is bounded by Bloor Street to the north, Lake Ontario to the south, the Don River to the east. It is also the centre of the City of Toronto. The Financial District, centred on the intersection of Bay Street and it contains the Toronto Stock Exchange, which is the largest in Canada and seventh in the world by market capitalization. The construction of skyscrapers in Downtown Toronto had started to increase during the 1960s. The retail core of the downtown is the Downtown Yonge area located along Yonge Street from Queen Street to College Street, there is a large cluster of retail centres and shops in the area, including the Toronto Eaton Centre indoor mall. There are an estimated 600 retail stores,150 bars and restaurants, in recent years the area has been experiencing a renaissance as the Business Improvement Area has brought in new retail and improved the cleanliness. The area has seen the opening of the Dundas Square public square. The area includes several live theatres, a complex at Dundas Square. Historical sites and landmarks include the Arts & Letter Club, the Church of the Holy Trinity, Mackenzie House, Maple Leaf Gardens, Old City Hall, the area of St. Lawrence to the east of the financial district is the oldest area of Toronto. It features heritage buildings, theatres, music, dining and many pubs and it is a community of distinct downtown neighbourhoods including the site of the original Town of York, which was Torontos first neighbourhood, dating back to 1793. The area boasts one of the largest concentrations of 19th century buildings in Ontario, further to the east is Corktown and the Distillery District. On Saturday there is a farmers market, to the west of the financial district is the Entertainment District. It is home to hundreds of restaurants, nightclubs, sporting facilities, boutiques, hotels, attractions, the district was formerly an industrial area and was redeveloped for entertainment purposes in the early 1980s, becoming a major centre for entertainment. The redevelopment started with the Mirvish family refurbishing of the Royal Alexandra Theatre, the area is now the site of Roy Thomson Hall and the Canadian Broadcasting Centre. The Yorkville area, to the north, north of Bloor Street and the Mink Mile, has more than 700 designer boutiques, spas, restaurants, hotels and it is a former village in its own right and since the early 1970s has developed into an up-scale shopping district. The intersection of Bloor and Yonge Streets is the intersection of the subway lines and is one of the busiest intersections in the city. At the intersection of Avenue Road and Bloor Street is the Royal Ontario Museum, the Harbourfront area to the south was formerly an industrial and railway lands area
14.
Railway Lands
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Railway Lands is an area in Downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The lands were owned and maintained by the Canadian National Railway, the area is bounded by Front Street, Yonge Street, Gardiner Expressway and Bathurst Street. The western portion of the Railway Lands is now part of the CityPlace neighbourhood, the first railway, Ontario, Simcoe and Huron arrived in Toronto in 1853 with a station located near the current Union Station. Rivals Grand Trunk Railway and Great Western Railway arrived in Toronto to compete with OS&H, the competition placed a strain on the new station and by 1873 a new Union Station was built by the GTR. In the 1880s Grand Trunk Railway acquired rival railways and the Canadian Pacific Railway arrived in the city in 1888, the competition soon meant the second station was strained as well and by 1900 there was a need for a newer station. Delays on this station resulted in the third Union Station not opening until 1927, from the 1850s to 1920s the area south of the railway lands were filled in to accommodate railway needs. From 1858 onwards the railway expanded in area as the first Union Station was built, from the 1850s to 1920s, the area south of Front Street was filled in to provide more room for railways, industrial growth and harbour needs. The area was slated for re-development for post-railway beginning with plans for the building of a communications tower. Two years into the construction of the CN Tower, plans for Metro Centre were scrapped, development of the Railway Lands slowed between the 1970s and 1980. The early 1980s saw more redevelopment, with the opening of the Metro Convention Centre in 1984, the late 1980s saw the building of the SkyDome and the SkyWalk connecting the SkyDome with Union Station. It also saw the building of the Air Canada Centre in the late 1990s along the boundary of the Railway Lands. In the early 21st Century, the area began to change rapidly with residential. Railway Lands Central is mixed use land slightly east of Spadina to the area east of the CN Tower is home to Rogers Centre and CN Tower and parts of CityPlace. On August 3,2016, Mayor John Tory announced a proposal to create a Rail Deck Park, the proposed greenspace would comprise 8.3 hactares. The SkyWalk transverses a large part of the former Railway Lands, connecting Union Station with the lands south of the rail corridor
15.
Canadian National Railway
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The Canadian National Railway Company is a Canadian Class I railway headquartered in Montreal, Quebec that serves Canada and the Midwestern and Southern United States. CNs slogan is North Americas Railroad, CN is a public company with 24,000 employees. It had a capitalization of 32 billion CAD in 2011. CN was government-owned, having been a Canadian Crown corporation from its founding to its privatization in 1995, bill Gates was, in 2011, the largest single shareholder of CN stock. Its range once reached across the island of Newfoundland until 1988, the railway was referred to as the Canadian National Railways between 1918 and 1960, and as Canadian National/Canadien National from 1960 to the present. On November 17,1995, the government privatized CN. Over the next decade, the company expanded significantly into the United States, purchasing Illinois Central Railroad and Wisconsin Central Transportation, now primarily a freight railway, CN also operated passenger services until 1978, when they were assumed by Via Rail. The Newfoundland mixed trains lasted until 1988, while the Montreal commuter trains are now operated by Montreals AMT, the absorption of the Intercolonial Railway would see CNR adopt that systems slogan The Peoples Railway. The federal governments Department of Railways and Canals took over operation of the GTPR until July 12,1920, the Canadian National Railway was organized on October 10,1922. After several years of arbitration, the GTR was absorbed into CNR on January 30,1923, Canadian National Railways was born out of both wartime and domestic urgency. Railways, until the rise of the automobile and creation of taxpayer-funded all-weather highways, were the only viable long-distance land transportation available in Canada for many years. As such, their operation consumed a great deal of public, in the early 20th century, many governments were taking a more interventionist role in the economy, foreshadowing the influence of economists like John Maynard Keynes. This political trend, combined with broader geo-political events, made nationalization an appealing choice for Canada, the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 and allied involvement in the Russian Revolution seemed to validate the continuing process. The need for a rail system was paramount in a time of civil unrest. CN Telegraph originated as the Great North West Telegraph Company in 1880 to connect Ontario and Manitoba, in 1915, facing bankruptcy, GNWTC was acquired by the Canadian Northern Railways telegraph company. When Canadian Northern was nationalized in 1918 and amalgamated into Canadian National Railways in 1921, CN Telegraphs began co-operating with its Canadian Pacific owned rival CPR Telegraphs in the 1930s, sharing telegraph networks and co-founding a teleprinter system in 1957. In 1967 the two services were amalgamated into a joint venture CNCP Telecommunications which evolved into a telecoms company, CN sold its stake of the company to CP in 1984. This led to the creation of a network of CNR radio stations across the country, as anyone in the vicinity of a station could hear its broadcasts the networks audience extended far beyond train passengers to the public at large
16.
Divestment
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In finance and economics, divestment or divestiture is the reduction of some kind of asset for financial, ethical, or political objectives or sale of an existing business by a firm. A divestment is the opposite of an investment, firms may have several motives for divestitures, a firm may divest businesses that are not part of its core operations so that it can focus on what it does best. For example, Eastman Kodak, Ford Motor Company, Future Group, divestitures generate funds for the firm because it is selling one of its businesses in exchange for cash. For example, CSX Corporation made divestitures to focus on its core railroad business, a firms break-up value is sometimes believed to be greater than the value of the firm as a whole. In other words, the sum of an individual asset liquidation values exceeds the market value of the firms combined assets. This encourages firms to sell off what would be worth more when liquidated than when retained, divesting a part of a firm may enhance stability. Divesting a part of a company may eliminate a division which is under-performing or even failing, regulatory authorities may demand divestiture, for example in order to create competition. Pressure from shareholders for social reasons, examples include disinvestment from South Africa in the former era of apartheid, and more recent calls for fossil fuel divestment in response to global warming. Often the term is used as a means to grow financially in which a company sells off a unit in order to focus their resources on a market it judges to be more profitable. Sometimes, such an action can be a spin-off, in the United States, divestment of certain parts of a company can occur when required by the Federal Trade Commission before a merger with another firm is approved. A company can divest assets to wholly owned subsidiaries and it is a process of selling an asset. The largest and likely the most famous corporate divestiture in history was the 1984 U. S. Department of Justice-mandated breakup of the Bell System into AT&T, some firms are using technology to facilitate the process of divesting some divisions. They post the information about any division that they wish to sell on their website so that it is available to any firm that may be interested in buying the division, for example, Alcoa has established an online showroom of the divisions that are for sale. By communicating the information online, Alcoa has reduced its hotel, travel, firms use transitional service agreements to increase the strategic benefits of divestitures. Divestment execution includes five critical work streams, governance, tax, carve-out financial statements, deal-basis information, companies often create cross-disciplined teams composed of IT, HR, legal, tax, and other key business units, to implement a business separation. With economic liberalization of the Indian economy, Ministry of Finance of India had set up a separate Department of Disinvestments, Corporate spin-off Consolidation Corporate social responsibility Demerger Disinvestment Fossil fuel divestment Financial economics Tax resistance Socially responsible investing
17.
Crown corporations of Canada
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Canadian Crown corporations are enterprises owned by the Sovereign of Canada. Crown corporations have a long standing presence in the country and have been instrumental in the formation of the state. They can provide services required by the public that otherwise would not be viable as a private enterprise. Some Crown corporations are expected to be profitable organisations, while others are non-commercial, further, in the federal sphere, certain Crown corporations can be an agents or non-agent of the Queen in Right of Canada. One with agent status is entitled to the same prerogatives, privileges. The Crown is thus responsible for the actions of these organisations. Prior to the formation of Crown corporations as presently understood, much of what later became Canada was settled and governed by a type of entity called a chartered company. These companies were established by a charter by the Scottish, English, or French crown. They fulfilled the roles of promoting government policy abroad and making a return for shareholders. The first colonies on the island of Newfoundland were founded in this manner, Canadas most famous, and influential chartered company, was the Hudsons Bay Company, founded on May 2,1670, by royal charter of King Charles II. The HBC thus often being the point of first contact between the government and First Nations. By the late 19th century, however, the HBC lost its monopoly over Ruperts Land, the first major Canadian experience with directly state-owned enterprises came during the early growth of the railways. When four British colonies joined to create the Canadian federation in 1867, as well, the construction of the Intercolonial Railway between them was one of the terms of the new constitution. The first section of this entirely government-owned railway was completed in 1872, western Canadas early railways were all run by privately owned companies backed by government subsidies and loans. By the early century, however, many of these had become bankrupt. Provincial Crown corporations also re-emerged in the twentieth century, most notably in the selling of alcohol. Virtually all the provinces used this system at one point, the largest of these government liquor businesses, the Liquor Control Board of Ontario, was by 2008 one of the worlds largest alcohol retailers. Resource and utility companies also emerged at this time, notably Ontario Hydro in 1906, Alberta Government Telephones in 1906, provincial governments also re-entered the railway business as in Northern Alberta Railways in 1925 and what later became BC Rail in 1918
18.
Canton Tower
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The tower was topped out in 2009 and it became operational on 29 September 2010 for the 2010 Asian Games. The tower briefly held the title of tallest tower in the world, replacing the CN Tower and it was the tallest structure in China prior to the topping out of Shanghai Tower on 3 August 2013. It is now the second tallest tower and the fifth-tallest freestanding structure in the world, there had been a long discussion about the naming of the Canton Tower since the commencement of its construction in 2005 after the groundbreaking ceremony. In September 2009, at the request of the towers investor, the contest attracted over 180,000 valid entries, among which Haixin Tower was awarded the first prize. The name alluded to the historical setting as the start of the Maritime Silk Road. However, this name was considered obscure to people unfamiliar with the history of the city, Local residents continued to refer to the tower by various nicknames including Slim Waist, Twisted Firewood and Yangdianfeng. The naming was reconsidered in 2010, after surveying a broad range of public opinions, Canton Tower was decided as the official name and announced at the end of September 2010. The new English name, alluded to the prosperous past, was considered the most identifying. Guangzhou Tower was constructed by Guangzhou New Television Tower Group who were responsible for the construction, in 2004, Information Based Architecture and Arup won the international competition, in which many internationally large architectural offices participated. The same year the IBA – Arup team in Amsterdam, developed the concept design. In later stages, IBA cooperated mainly with the local Chinese office of Arup, subsequently, in 2005, the groundbreaking of the Canton Tower took place. The tower, although not fully completed, opened to the public on 1 October 2010 in time for the 16th Asian Games, the rooftop observatory finally received its official opening in December 2011. The Canton towers twisted shape or hyperboloid structure corresponds to the Russian Empire patent No,1896, dated 12 March 1899 received by Vladimir Shukhov, the Russian engineer and architect. The structure is similar to the Adziogol Lighthouse in Ukraines Dnepr delta, the tower was designed by Information Based Architecture and Arup. The Arup team led by structural engineer Prof. Dr, the waist of the tower contains a 180 m open-air skywalk where visitors can physically climb the tower. There are outdoor gardens set within the structure, and at the top, just above 450 m, a deck at the base of the tower hides the towers functional workings. All infrastructural connections – metro and bus stations – are situated underground and this level also includes exhibition spaces, a food court, a commercial space, a parking area for cars and coaches. There are two types of lifts, slow-speed panoramic and high-speed double-decker, the zone from 80 to 170 m consists of a 4D cinema, a play-hall area, restaurants, coffee shops and outdoor gardens with teahouses
19.
Wonders of the World
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Various lists of the Wonders of the World have been compiled from antiquity to the present day, to catalogue the worlds most spectacular natural wonders and manmade structures. The number seven was chosen because the Greeks believed it represented perfection and plenty, many similar lists have been made. The historian Herodotus, and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene at the Museum of Alexandria and their writings have not survived, except as references. Brewers Dictionary of Phrase and Fable refers to them as later list suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages, many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages, but were well known. Some of the most notable lists are presented below, good Morning America announced one wonder per day over a period of a week. An eighth wonder was chosen on November 24,2006 from viewer feedback, similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, and there has been debate over how large the list should be. Twenty-one finalists were announced January 1,2006, in response, Giza was named an honorary Candidate. Iguazu Falls Halong Bay Jeju Island Puerto Princesa Underground River Table Mountain Komodo Island Amazon Rainforest New7Wonders Cities is the global vote organized by New7Wonders. In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark. In 2003, the BBC aired a seven-part docudrama exploring the same feats, travel writer Howard Hillman published two books on the subject, one with 10 man-made wonders, and one with 10 natural wonders. British biographer, science writer, and novelist Ronald W. Clark published a book of man-made and natural wonders titled Wonders of the World, in a 1999 article, Astronomy magazine listed the Seven Wonders of the Solar System. This article was made into a video. In Civilization V, natural wonders such as Mount Fuji and Old Faithful were added, similar mechanics of wonders are found in another video game series, Rise of Nations. Board games following the Civilization mould have also allowed players to build a number of wonders from the ancient and these games include Through the Ages, A Story of Civilization and Patchistory, as well as the official Civilization board games
20.
American Society of Civil Engineers
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The American Society of Civil Engineers is a tax-exempt professional body founded in 1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. Headquartered in Reston, Virginia, it is the oldest national engineering society in the United States and it was the first national engineering society created in the United States. In 1999, the ASCE elected the top-ten civil engineering achievements that had the greatest positive impact on life in the 20th century in broad categories. Monuments of the Millennium were a combination of technical engineering achievement, courage and inspiration, and it also publishes conference proceedings, standards, manuals of practice, technical reports, and monographs. The ASCE corporate website hosts the society’s bookstore, the access to all journal articles published since 1983, all conference proceedings since 2000. Each year, more than 55,000 engineers earn continuing education units and/or professional development hours by participating in ASCE’s continuing education programs, ASCE hosts more than 15 annual and specialty conferences, over 200 continuing education seminars and more than 300 live Web seminars. The Societys Committee on Technical Advancement has 10 divisions, each year, more than 6,000 civil engineering professionals contribute volunteer technical expertise through participation on ASCE technical committees. These committees are housed in the divisions of the Committee on Technical Activities or in the Society’s institutes, the efforts of these volunteers advance the profession in many ways including the numerous conferences held each year, manuals of practice, journals and standards. Certification is the recognition of attaining advanced knowledge and skills in a specialty area of civil engineering, ASCE offers certifications for engineers who demonstrate advanced knowledge and skills in their area of engineering. American Academy of Water Resources Engineers Academy of Geo-Professionals Academy of Coastal, Ocean, michel Award for Industry Advancement of Research and the Charles Pankow Award for innovation,11 scholarships and fellowships for student members. Special consideration is given to private practice engineering work that is recognized as a contribution to the field of environmental engineering. The Lifetime Achievement Award has been presented annually since 1999 and recognizes five different individual leaders, one award is present in each category of design, construction, government, education, and management. ASCE designates national and international Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks, on February 12,2007 Lt. Gen Strock gave all expert review panel members an Outstanding Civilian Service Medals. On June 1,2007, the ASCE issued its expert review panel report, the report stated that had levees and pump stations not failed, far less property loss would have occurred and nearly two-thirds of deaths could have been avoided. The ASCE administration was criticized by the Times-Picayune for an attempt to minimize, the Corps acknowledged receiving a copy of the letter and refused to comment until the ASCEs Committee on Professional Conduct had commented on the complaint. It took over a year for the ASCE to announce the results of the CPC, the ASCE self-study panel did not file charges of ethical misconduct and blamed errors on staff and not review panel members having created the June press release. On November 14,2007, ASCE announced that U. S, congressman Sherwood Boehlert, R‑N. Y. would lead an independent task force of outside experts to review how ASCE participated in engineering studies of national significance. ASCE President David Mongan said the review was to address criticism of ASCE´s role in assisting the Army Corps of Engineers-sponsored investigation of Katrina failures
21.
Skyline
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A skyline is the horizon created by a citys overall structure, or by human intervention in a non-urban setting or in nature. City skylines serve as a kind of fingerprint as no two skylines are alike, for this reason, news and sports programs, television shows, and movies often display the skyline of a city to set a location. The term The Sky Line of New York City was first introduced in 1896, paul D. Spreiregen, FAIA, has called a skyline a physical representation facts of life. Some natural skylines have been modified for commercial reasons. Tall buildings, including skyscrapers, are the feature of urban skylines. Towers from different eras make for contrasting skylines, san Gimignano, in Tuscany, Italy, has been described as having an unforgettable skyline with its competitively built towers. The Colosseum and 2008 Beijing Olympic Stadium give varied sport stadium skylines, some remote locations have striking skylines, created either by nature or by sparse human settlement in an environment not conducive to housing significant populations. Norman Foster served as architect for the Gherkin in London and the Hearst Tower in Midtown Manhattan, albert Speer made a notable night time skyline with searchlights at Nuremberg. Skylines are sometimes used as backgrounds for movies, television shows, news websites, several services rank skylines based on their own subjective criteria. Emporis is one service, which uses height and other data to give point values to buildings. Cityscape List of cities with the most skyscrapers Emporis ranking of cities by the impact of their skylines Attoe. Skylines, understanding and molding urban silhouettes, what is skyline, a quantitative approach. Architectural science, past, present and future, Proceedings of the Conference of the Australian, the urban skyline as a city classification system
22.
CityPlace, Toronto
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CityPlace is a neighbourhood in Downtown Toronto, Canada, within the former Railway Lands. When completed, this area will be the largest residential development ever created in Toronto, the area is bordered by Bathurst Street to the west, Lake Shore Boulevard to the south, and Front Street to the north and Blue Jays Way and the Rogers Centre to the east. Cityplace is also a 5- to 10-minute walk from King Street West and Liberty Village, the neighbourhood is also home to the Canoe Landing Park designed by famed Canadian writer and artist Douglas Coupland. Further development took place in the 1980s, with the 1984 completion of the Metro Toronto Convention Centre drawing new attention to the area. With the arrival of new visitors and development of new commercial draws, work commenced after the demolition of the last railway buildings with the construction of SkyDome, which was completed in 1989. At the same time, a new network of roads, parks, the final portion of CityPlace to be developed is Block 31. Initially, the proposal for Block 31 included a 42-storey mixed-use tower and it was criticized for the shadows it would cast over nearby amenity spaces and the sites adjoining Canoe Landing Park, as well as the views it would partially obstruct. Following a round of consultations in early 2015, the new schematic design for Block 31 was revealed. It will include two schools and a new community centre, Toronto District School Board and the Toronto Catholic District School Board have both been designated to use the new space. The shared school building will seek to maximize efficiency, with a common gym. Block 31s design attempts to maximize available green space, with an articulated green roof spanning the complexs footprint. The 150,000 square foot complex is expected to cost $55 million to construct, the current CityPlace development was conceived by Concord Adex Developments, the same company that helped revitalize a large section of former Expo 86 lands in Vancouver. Project size,18 hectares including an 8-hectare community park, residential development is divided into 10 street blocks, numbered from 1 to 10. Each street block contains a number of towers with its own sets of common facilities. Block 1 was developed first with 4 towers, namely Matrix A/B and Apex C/D, the street block features buildings directly facing the entertainment district and the closest walk to the Financial District. Block 2 features 1 building only, directly behind the Rogers Centre and it features a heightened privacy comparing to the other interconnected towers. Block 3 is the largest street block in the entire CityPlace complex, with 4 towers, the project was named Harbour View Estates and was completed in 2006. Block 4 features 2 towers and a mid-rise, mirroring the Harbour View Estates both in location and in design, the buildings are named as WestOne, N1/N2 and The Gallery, was completed by October 2007
23.
Front Street (Toronto)
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Front Street is an east-west road in downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. First laid out in 1796, the street is one of the streets of the Town of York. The street was laid out along the shoreline of Lake Ontario as it existed during that time, Front Street runs from Bathurst Street in the west, east to Bayview Avenue to the east. From Bathurst Street, the street is four lanes wide, on the south side are the large downtown rail yards. From Bathurst to Spadina, the side is a mix of residential apartments. The Globe and Mail newspaper is headquartered in a building just west of Spadina Avenue, East of Spadina, Front Street diverges from the rail line. Along this stretch, which at one time was industrial with many rail sidings and these are mostly residential with ground and lower floors given to retail and commercial uses. East of Blue Jays Way, the area becomes commercial, on the north side of the street are office buildings, including the headquarters for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Along the south side, is an office building to the north of the Rogers Centre stadium. From John Street east to nearly Simcoe is the Metro Convention Centre, from Simcoe East are a few remnant industrial buildings, repurposed for office and retail uses. 151 Front Street West is a hotel that houses more than a hundred telecommunication companies. Between York and Bay Streets, the side is the Union Station railway and subway station, the north side is the large Fairmont Royal York Hotel. In this stretch, both sides of the street are reserved for parking for cabs and passenger drop-offs, and there is a center divider. East of Bay, the side is the TD Canada Trust tower. The road curves to the north-east here to meet at Yonge, on the north-east corner is the Brookfield Place office complex, which incorporates some heritage buildings along Yonge Street. One of the houses the Hockey Hall of Fame, East of Yonge Street, the street is for a few blocks a two-lane one-way east street angling further to the north. The corner here is the site of the Sony Centre for the Performing Arts theater, the north side is the Altius Group office building, with ground-floor retail. One block east is the St. Lawrence Centre for the Arts theatre building on the south side, along the south side to the east of the theatre are 19th Century commercial low-rise heritage buildings
24.
First Canadian Place
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First Canadian Place is a skyscraper in Financial District of Toronto, Ontario, at the northwest corner of King and Bay streets, and serves as the global headquarters of the Bank of Montreal. At 298 m, it is Canadas tallest skyscraper and the 15th tallest building in North America to structural top and 9th highest to the top. It is the third tallest free-standing structure in Canada, after the CN Tower, first Canadian Place is named for Canadas first bank, the Bank of Montreal. The site was the last of corners of King and Bay to be redeveloped in the 1960s and 1970s, first Canadian Place was the 6th tallest building in the world to structural top and the tallest building overall outside of Chicago and New York when built in 1975. It was also the tallest building in the Commonwealth of Nations until the completion of the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 1998. The Bank of Montreal M-bar logo at the top of the building was the highest sign in the world from 1975 until overtaken by the sign atop CITIC Plaza in 1997, the roof is still the location of a number of antennas used for radio and television broadcasting. The structure contains 29 elevators, and is one of only a few buildings in the world uses the double-decked variety. The building was pictured on the front and rear cover of the 1981 album This Is the Ice Age by Canadian New Wave band Martha And The Muffins & also their 7 single Women Around The World At Work. The album featured two photos which were taken from the place but at different times by Muffins guitarist Mark Gane using a time lapse camera. The 7 cover again features the photo but has 9 small images taken at various times of the day & night. The rejuvenation program design architects were Moed de Armas & Shannon Architects, the entire project, completed in 2012, cost was in excess of CA$100 million, paid by the owner. This extensive capital improvement project was intended to provide a new exterior for FCP and eliminate the maintenance costs associated with marble upkeep
25.
Microwave
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Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter, with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves, the broad definition includes both UHF and EHF bands. A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz, in all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band at minimum. Frequencies in the range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations, S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band. The prefix micro- in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range and it indicates that microwaves are small, compared to waves used in typical radio broadcasting, in that they have shorter wavelengths. The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study. At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, microwaves are extremely widely used in modern technology. Although at the low end of the band they can pass through building walls enough for useful reception, therefore on the surface of the Earth microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 30 -40 miles. Microwaves are absorbed by moisture in the atmosphere, and the attenuation increases with frequency, beginning at about 40 GHz, atmospheric gases also begin to absorb microwaves, so above this frequency microwave transmission is limited to a few kilometers. A spectral band structure causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies, in a microwave beam directed at an angle into the sky, a small amount of the power will be randomly scattered as the beam passes through the troposphere. A sensitive receiver beyond the horizon with a high gain antenna focused on that area of the troposphere can pick up the signal. This technique has been used at frequencies between 0.45 and 5 GHz in tropospheric scatter communication systems to communicate beyond the horizon and their short wavelength allows narrow beams of microwaves to be produced by conveniently small high gain antennas from a half meter to 5 meters in diameter. Therefore beams of microwaves are used for point-to-point communication links, an advantage of narrow beams is that they allow frequency reuse by nearby transmitters. Parabolic antennas are the most widely used directive antennas at microwave frequencies, flat microstrip antennas are being increasingly used in consumer devices. Where omnidirectional antennas are required, for example in wireless devices and Wifi routers for wireless LANs, small monopoles, dipole, or patch antennas are used. Due to the high cost and maintenance requirements of waveguide runs, the term microwave also has a more technical meaning in electromagnetics and circuit theory. As a consequence, practical microwave circuits tend to away from the discrete resistors, capacitors. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines used at lower frequencies are replaced by waveguides and stripline, high-power microwave sources use specialized vacuum tubes to generate microwaves
26.
Aurora, Ontario
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Aurora is a town in central York Region in the Greater Toronto Area, within the Golden Horseshoe of Southern Ontario. It is located north of the Town of Richmond Hill and is situated on the Oak Ridges Moraine. In the Canada 2016 Census, the population of Aurora was the 95th largest in Canada. Aurora has consistently ranked in the top 10 wealthiest cities in Canada, lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe gave the order for Yonge Street to be extended to Holland Landing in 1793, and the way was paved for the establishment of a community where Aurora now stands. In 1795, the first house in Aurora was built at Yonge St, in 1804, Richard Machell became the first merchant at the cross roads of Yonge and Wellington and the hamlet soon became known as Machells Corners. Charles Doan was another early businessman at Machells Corners and became the first postmaster and later the first reeve, as postmaster, he was influential in renaming the village Aurora. With the coming of the railway in 1853, Aurora emerged as an important centre north of Toronto, the Fleury plough works was established soon after and Aurora was on its way to becoming a flourishing industrial town. The population of Aurora in 1863 was 700, and by 1888 it had grown to become a town of 2,107 residents, with some ups and downs in growth over the years, Aurora is now a flourishing town with a strong commercial and industrial base. Worthy of note is the fact that Aurora was the home of Lester B. Pearson, Prime Minister of Canada from 1963 to 1968, when his father, Aurora is noted for preserving its historical built form and in 2008 was awarded The Prince of Wales Prize for Municipal Heritage Leadership. In 2009 the town received the Lieutenant Governors Ontario Heritage Award for Community Leadership in heritage conservation and promotion, on April 8,2010, the town re-opened the historic and fully renovated Church Street School as the Aurora Cultural Centre. Aurora is twinned with Leksand, Sweden, the towns growth rate from 2011 to 2016 was 4.2 per cent. Based upon current population figures and total area, the population density is 1,068.8 residents per square kilometre. The population is forecasted to reach approximately 69,688 by 2020, in 2010, average household income in Aurora was $155,463, making it one of Canadas most affluent towns. English is the tongue of 73. 7% of Aurora residents. Following are Italian, Russian, Persian, Chinese, not otherwise specified, mother Languages as reported by each person, Source, The Town of Aurora municipal government is composed of a mayor and eight councillors elected on an at large basis. The councillor with the highest votes becomes the deputy mayor and may proxy for the mayor, the mayor is a member of York Regional Council. In the municipal elections of 25 October 2010, Geoff Dawe was elected mayor, the town is part of the federal riding of Newmarket—Aurora
27.
Oshawa
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Oshawa is a city in Ontario, Canada, on the Lake Ontario shoreline. It lies in Southern Ontario, approximately 60 kilometres east of Downtown Toronto and it is commonly viewed as the eastern anchor of the Greater Toronto Area and of the Golden Horseshoe. It is the largest municipality in the Regional Municipality of Durham, the name Oshawa originates from the Ojibwa term aazhaway, meaning the crossing place or just cross. Oshawa’s roots are tied to the industry, specifically the Canadian division of General Motors Company. Founded in 1876 as the McLaughlin Carriage Company, General Motors of Canadas headquarters are located in the city, the automotive industry was the inspiration for Oshawas previous mottos, The City that Motovates Canada, and The City in Motion. Once recognized as the sole Automotive Capital of Canada, Oshawa today is an education, key labour force sectors include advanced manufacturing, health technology, logistics, energy and IT. Downtown Oshawa is identified as an Urban Growth Centre in the Government of Ontarios Places to Grow initiative, more than 5,000 people work and more than 2,400 university students study in the downtown core. The downtown is a prominent centre for entertainment and sporting events, food, Oshawa is home to a Regional Innovation Centre and offers start-up facilities for entrepreneurs and small businesses. Co-working offices are located in the downtown. Historians believe that the area that would become Oshawa began as a point for the fur trade. Beaver and other animals trapped for their pelts by local natives were traded with the Coureurs des bois, furs were loaded onto canoes by the Mississauga Indians at the Oshawa harbour and transported to the trading posts located to the west at the mouth of the Credit River. Around 1760, the French constructed a trading post near the location, this was abandoned after a few years. Most notably, one of the fur traders was Moody Farewell, in the late 18th century a local resident, Roger Conant, started an export business shipping salmon to the United States. His success attracted further migration into the region, a large number of the founding immigrants were United Empire Loyalists, who left the United States to live under British rule. Later Irish and then French Canadian immigration increased as did industrialization, as well, the surveys ordered by Governor John Graves Simcoe, and the subsequent land grants, helped populate the area. When Col. Asa Danforth laid out his York-to-Kingston road, it passed through what would later become Oshawa, in 1822, a colonization road known as Simcoe Street was constructed. It more or less followed the path of an old trail known as the Nonquon Road. This intersected the Kingston Road at what would become Oshawas Four Corners, in 1842, Skae, the postmaster, applied for official post office status, but was informed the community needed a better name
28.
Niagara Escarpment
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The Niagara Escarpment is a long escarpment, or cuesta, in the United States and Canada that runs predominantly east/west from New York, through Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois. The escarpment is most famous as the cliff over which the Niagara River plunges at Niagara Falls, the Niagara Escarpment is the most prominent of several escarpments formed in the bedrock of the Great Lakes Basin. From its easternmost point near Watertown, New York, the escarpment shapes in part the individual basins and landforms of Lakes Ontario, Huron, in Rochester, New York, three waterfalls over the escarpment are where the Genesee River flows through the city. The escarpment thence runs westward to the Niagara River, forming a gorge north of Niagara Falls. Study of rock exposures and drillholes demonstrates that no displacement of the rock layers occurs at the escarpment, the escarpments caprock is dolomitic limestone, which is more resistant and overlies weaker, more easily eroded shale as a weathering-resistant cap. The escarpment thus formed over millions of years through a process of erosion of rocks of different hardnesses. Through time the soft rocks weather away or erode by the action of streams, the gradual removal of the soft rocks undercuts the resistant caprock, leaving a cliff or escarpment. The erosional process is most readily seen at Niagara Falls, where the river has quickened the process and it can also be seen at the three waterfalls of the Genesee River at Rochester. Also, in places thick glacial deposits conceal the Niagara Escarpment, such as north of Georgetown, Ontario. The dolostone cap was laid down as sediment on the floor of a marine environment, in Michigan, behind the escarpment, the cuesta capstone slopes gently to form a wide basin, the floor of an Ordovician-Silurian-age tropical sea. During the Silurian period, some magnesium substituted for some of the calcium in the carbonates, worldwide sea levels were at their all-time maximum in the Ordovician, as the sea retreated, erosion inevitably began. This dolostone basin contains Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie, the Welland Canal allows ships to traverse the escarpment between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario on the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario. In southern Ontario, the Bruce Trail runs the length of the escarpment from Queenston on the Niagara River to Tobermory on the Bruce Peninsula. Highway 401, Canadas busiest, also crosses the Niagara Escarpment, beginning its descent through rolling hills, farmland. Rock exposed on the face of the escarpment can be seen along Highway 26 from Owen Sound eastwards towards Meaford, hamilton, Ontario, is situated on the escarpment in such a way that the north end of the city is below and the south part above. Affectionately referred to as The Mountain by its residents, many roads or mountain accesses join the urban core below with the suburban expansion above. High Cliff State Park in Wisconsin shows how modern and prehistoric humans used the escarpment for not only cultural reasons, a number of different animal and geometric effigy mounds and the remains of an early 20th-century limestone quarry and kiln are within the park. The relief and exposed edge are used by wind farms stretching from Pipe, Wisconsin, to Brownsville
29.
Hamilton, Ontario
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Hamilton is a port city in the Canadian province of Ontario. Residents of the old city are known as Hamiltonians, since 1981, the metropolitan area has been listed as the ninth largest in Canada and the third largest in Ontario. Hamilton is home to the Royal Botanical Gardens, the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum, McMaster University is ranked 4th in Canada and 94th in the world by Times Higher Education Rankings 2015-16 and has a well-known medical school. Possibly because of its environment, numerous TV and film productions have been filmed in Hamilton, regulated by the Hamilton Film. A growing arts and culture community garnered media attention in 2006 when the Globe and Mail published an article called Go West, the article highlighted local art galleries, recording studios and independent film production. In pre-colonial times, the Neutral Indians used much of the land but were driven out by the Five Nations who were allied with the British against the Huron. A member of the Iroquois Confederacy provided the route and name for Mohawk Road, which originally included King Street in the lower city. In 1784, about 10,000 United Empire Loyalists settled in Upper Canada, chiefly in Niagara, around the Bay of Quinte, and along the St. Lawrence River between Lake Ontario and Montreal. They were soon followed by many more Americans, some of not so much ardent loyalists but attracted nonetheless by the availability of inexpensive. At the same time, large numbers of Iroquois loyal to Britain arrived from the United States and were settled on reserves west of Lake Ontario. The town of Hamilton was conceived by George Hamilton, when he purchased farm holdings of James Durand, nathaniel Hughson, a property owner to the north, cooperated with George Hamilton to prepare a proposal for a courthouse and jail on Hamiltons property. Hamilton offered the land to the crown for the future site, Durand was empowered by Hughson and Hamilton to sell property holdings which later became the site of the town. As he had instructed, Durand circulated the offers at York during a session of the Legislative Assembly. Initially, this town was not the most important centre of the Gore District, a permanent jail was not constructed until 1832 when a cut-stone design was completed on one of the two squares created in 1816, Princes Square. Subsequently, the first police board and the limits were defined by statute on February 13,1833. Official City status was achieved on June 9,1846, by an act of Parliament,9 Victoria Chapter 73, the city had several interurban electric street railways and two inclines, all powered by the Cataract Power Co. Though suffering through the Hamilton Street Railway strike of 1906, with industrial businesses expanding, allan Skyway in 1958, and the first Tim Hortons store in 1964. Since then, many of the industries have moved or shut down operations and the economy has shifted more toward the service sector, such as transportation, education
30.
Fort Niagara State Park
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Fort Niagara State Park is located in the Town of Porter in Niagara County, New York, United States. Historic Fort Niagara is located within the park, the 504-acre park is northwest of Youngstown near the northern terminus of the Robert Moses State Parkway and is in the Niagara Falls National Heritage Area. A brief history of the now known as Fort Niagara State Park. 1678 - Fort Conti is built by French explorers 1687 - Fort Denonville on the site of Fort Conti 1726 - The French built the two story “Maison a Machicoulis”. 1944-1946 - Fort Niagara served as a camp for German prisoners of war 1948 - Land transferred to the jurisdiction of the New York State Council of Parks to be managed as a state park. 1965-1966 - The garrison buildings were demolished, of the 100 buildings on the base, there are two boat launches on the lower Niagara River. The park includes the Old Fort Niagara Historic Site, tom Loftin Johnson painted five murals at The Officers Club which commemorate the history of the 28th regiment from its founding in 1905. During the summer, a park naturalist provides nature programs. The skyline of Toronto,30 miles to the north, is visible across Lake Ontario from the park on clear days. The tops of the CN Tower and other skyscrapers can be seen, the current lighthouse in Fort Niagara State Park, constructed in 1872, is the third to be built at Fort Niagara. It was constructed by the United States government after the wooden one was damaged by a tornado. It is a limestone tower featuring a storage room at the base. The Fresnel lens from the old tower was used and the tower was lit for the first time on June 10,1872, in 1900 the tower was raised an additional 11 feet when a watch room was added between the lamp and the limestone tower. Lifting the lamp extended the reach of the light to 25 miles, adjacent to the lighthouse is the keepers quarters which is a colonial-style home that now serves as a private residence. The U. S. Coast Guard ran the light until 1993, a modern steel beacon tower was erected near the Coast Guard station and the Old Fort Niagara Association runs the 1872 tower as a museum and gift shop. The original Fresnel lens is now on display in the Forts museum, in 2015, as part of Governor Cuomo and New York States plan to invest $72 million in their state parks, $2,500,000 was pledged to modernize the bathhouses at Fort Niagaras swimming areas. List of New York state parks New York State Parks, Fort Niagara State Park The FORT of FOUR Nations Popular Mechanics, December 1934, pp. 867-869
31.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
32.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
33.
Soil
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Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake
34.
Shale
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Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. The ratio of clay to other minerals is variable, shale is characterized by breaks along thin laminae or parallel layering or bedding less than one centimeter in thickness, called fissility. Mudstones, on the hand, are similar in composition. Before the mid 19th century, the slate, shale. In the context of underground mining, shale was frequently referred to as slate well into the 20th century. Non-fissile rocks of similar composition but made of smaller than 0.06 mm are described as mudstones or claystone. Rocks with similar sizes but with less clay and therefore grittier are siltstones. Shale is the most common sedimentary rock, shales are typically composed of variable amounts of clay minerals and quartz grains and the typical color is gray. Addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters the color of the rock, black shale results from the presence of greater than one percent carbonaceous material and indicates a reducing environment. Black shale can also be referred to as black metal, red, brown and green colors are indicative of ferric oxide, iron hydroxide, or micaceous minerals. Clays are the constituent of shales and other mudrocks. The clay minerals represented are largely kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite, clay minerals of Late Tertiary mudstones are expandable smectites whereas in older rocks especially in mid- to early Paleozoic shales illites predominate. The transformation of smectite to illite produces silica, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and these released elements form authigenic quartz, chert, calcite, dolomite, ankerite, hematite and albite, all trace to minor minerals found in shales and other mudrocks. Shales and mudrocks contain roughly 95 percent of the matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale, black shales, which form in anoxic conditions, contain reduced free carbon along with ferrous iron and sulfur. Pyrite and amorphous iron sulfide along with carbon produce the black coloration, the process in the rock cycle which forms shale is called compaction. The fine particles that compose shale can remain suspended in long after the larger particles of sand have deposited. Shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are found in lakes and lagoonal deposits, in river deltas, on floodplains
35.
Rebar
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Rebars surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the concrete. Rebar has been used in construction since at least the 15th century, more recently, during the 18th century, rebar was used to form the carcass of the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk in Russia, built on the orders of the industrialist Akinfiy Demidov. The cast iron used for the rebar was of high quality, the carcass of the tower was connected to its cast iron tented roof, crowned with one of the first known lightning rods. More recently these techniques have been refined by embedding the steel bars in the concrete, concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concretes behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads, rebar is also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area. Rebar may also be used to other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate their loads. External steel tie bars can constrain and reinforce masonry structures, as illustrated by the Nevyansk Tower or ancient structures in Rome, masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with voids to accommodate rebar and this combination is known as reinforced masonry. Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete, if this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members, or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction, too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard and this phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. This is a problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in winter. Even damaged bars have shown better performance than uncoated reinforcing bars, though issues from debonding of the coating from the bars. These bars are used in over 70,000 bridge decks in the USA, fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is also used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in forms, such as spirals for reinforcing columns, common rods. Most commercially available rebar is made from glass fibre reinforced thermoset resins
36.
Wire rope
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Wire rope is rope made from wire. It consists of several strands of metal wire laid into a helix, initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main material used for wire ropes. Historically wire rope evolved from wrought iron chains, which had a record of mechanical failure. While flaws in chain links or solid steel bars can lead to catastrophic failure, friction between the individual wires and strands, as a consequence of their twist, further compensates for any flaws. Wire ropes were developed starting with mining hoist applications in the 1830s, Wire ropes are used dynamically for lifting and hoisting in cranes and elevators, and for transmission of mechanical power. Wire rope is used to transmit force in mechanisms, such as a Bowden cable or the control surfaces of an airplane connected to levers. Also, aircraft cables are available in smaller diameters than wire rope, for example, aircraft cables are available in 3/64 in. Diameter while most wire ropes begin at a 1/4 in, static wire ropes are used to support structures such as suspension bridges or as guy wires to support towers. An aerial tramway relies on wire rope to support and move cargo overhead, modern wire rope was invented by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal, Lower Saxony, Germany. It was quickly accepted because it proved superior to ropes made of hemp or to metal chains, Wilhelm Alberts first ropes consisted of three strands consisting of four wires each. In 1840, Scotsman Robert Stirling Newall improved the process further, the decades were witness to a burgeoning increase in deep shaft mining in both Europe and North America as surface mineral deposits were exhausted and miner had to chase layers along inclined layers. To drive their first shafts into lower slopes beginning Lansford and its Schuylkill County twin-town Coaldale, the German engineering firm of Adolf Bleichert & Co. was founded in 1874 and began to build bicable aerial tramways for mining in the Ruhr Valley. Adolf Bleichert & Co. went on to hundreds of aerial tramways around the world, from Alaska to Argentina, Australia. The Bleichert company also built hundreds of aerial tramways for both the Imperial German Army and the Wehrmacht, in the last half of the 19th century, wire rope systems were used as a means of transmitting mechanical power including for the new cable cars. Wire rope systems cost one-tenth as much and had lower friction losses than line shafts, because of these advantages, wire rope systems were used to transmit power for a distance of a few miles or kilometers. In America wire rope was later manufactured by John A. Roebling, forming the basis for his success in suspension bridge building, Roebling introduced a number of innovations in the design, materials and manufacture of wire rope. Steel wires for wire ropes are made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.4 to 0. 95%. The very high strength of the wires enables wire ropes to support large tensile forces
37.
Slip forming
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This article is about pouring concrete in moving forms. See Slipform stonemasonry for another type of forming, and Slipcasting for manufacture of ceramic vessels. Slip forming, continuous poured, continuously formed, or slipform construction is a method in which concrete is poured into a continuously moving form. Slip forming is used for structures, as well as horizontal structures. Slipforming enables continuous, non-interrupted, cast-in-place flawless concrete structures which have superior characteristics to piecewise construction using discrete form elements. Slip forming relies on the properties of concrete, and requires a balance between quick-setting capacity and workability. Concrete needs to be enough to be placed into the form and consolidated. In vertical slip forming the concrete form may be surrounded by a platform on which workers stand, placing steel reinforcing rods into the concrete, together, the concrete form and working platform are raised by means of hydraulic jacks. Generally, the slipform rises at a rate which permits the concrete to harden by the time it emerges from the bottom of the form. In horizontal slip forming for pavement and traffic separation walls concrete is laid down, vibrated, worked and this method was initially devised and utilized in Interstate Highway construction initiated by the Eisenhower administration during the 1950s. The slip forming technique was in use by the early 20th century for building silos, James Macdonald, of Macdonald Engineering of Chicago was the pioneer in utilizing slip form concrete for construction. His concept of placing circular bins in clusters was patented, with photographs and illustrations, contained in a 1907 book, “The Design Of Walls, Bins and this paper details the concept and procedure for creating slip form concrete structures. On May 24,1917, a patent was issued to James Macdonald of Chicago, for a device to move, James Macdonald’s bin and silo design was utilized around the world into the late 1970s by Macdonald Engineering. The technique was introduced to residential and commercial buildings in the late 1960s, the first notable use of the method in a residential/retail business was the Skylon Tower in Niagara Falls, Ontario, which was completed in 1965. Another unusual structure was the tapered buttress structures for the Sheraton Waikiki Hotel in Honolulu, Hawaii, another shear wall supported structure was the Casa Del Mar Condominium on Key Biscayne, Miami, FL in 1970. In addition to the silos and shear walls and cores in buildings. The technique was utilized to build the Inco Superstack in Sudbury, Ontario, in 2010, the technique was used to build the core of the supertall Shard London Bridge tower in London, England. Slip-Form Construction Time Lapse - The Dalles, Oregon Retrieved 2014-04-22, Slipform Nawy, Edward G. Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook
38.
Inco Superstack
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It is also the second tallest freestanding structure of any type in Canada, behind the CN Tower but ahead of First Canadian Place. It is the 40th tallest freestanding structure in the world, the Superstack is located on top of the largest nickel smelting operation in the world at Incos Copper Cliff processing facility in the city of Greater Sudbury. The Superstack was built by Inco Limited at an estimated cost of 25 million dollars, construction on the structure was underway during the Sudbury tornado of 20 August 1970, the structure swayed heavily in the wind, but remained standing and suffered only minor damage. Six workers were on top of the platform when the storm hit, all six survived. The same day was the day of construction on the stack. The stack entered into operation in 1972. From the date of its completion until the Ekibastuz GRES-2 chimney was constructed in 1987, between the years 1972–75 it was the tallest freestanding structure in Canada. There were once many other shorter stacks beside it, prior to the construction of the Superstack, the waste gases contributed to severe local ecological damage. The Copper Cliff smelter was already home to some of the worlds tallest stacks, however these proved to be insufficient and compounded by open coke beds in the early to mid-20th century and logging for fuel, an inevitable near-total loss of native vegetation occurred. By the 1950s, Sudburys image as a barren, rocky wasteland was established, despite the industry, a growing working class population, and subsequent deforestation of the past century, some pockets of old growth forests have survived. The Superstack was built to disperse sulphur gases and other byproducts of the smelting process away from the city of Sudbury and it did this by placing the gases high in the air, where they normally blew right past the city on the prevailing winds. As a result, these gases can be detected in the atmosphere around Greater Sudbury in a 240 kilometres radius of the Inco plant. During the 1970s and 80s, the smoke plume formed a permanent, opaque, periodic inversions would cause the plume to fall into the city. Construction of the Superstack was followed by an environmental project which has included rehabilitation of existing landscapes. An ambitious regreening plan has seen over three million new trees planted within the Greater Sudbury area, in 1992, Inco and the city were given an award by the United Nations in honour of their environmental rehabilitation programmes. On November 3,2014, Vale announced that they may decide to stop using the stack, if no other use for it is found, Vale may decommission the superstack, demolish it, and replace it with a much smaller chimney. In 2017, Vale announced plans to decommission the Superstack upon the construction of two smaller, more energy efficient stacks, while the Superstack lowered the ground-level pollution in the city, it has dispersed sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide gases over a much larger area. Though not the source of lake acidification, it appears even the heavily industrialized Ohio Valley has contributed to the ecological problem of lakes as far north as northern Ontario
39.
Plumb bob
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A plumb bob, or plummet, is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom, suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line. It is essentially the equivalent of a water level. The instrument has been used since at least the time of ancient Egypt to ensure that constructions are plumb and it is also used in surveying, to establish the nadir with respect to gravity of a point in space. It is used with a variety of instruments to set the instrument exactly over a survey marker or to transcribe positions onto the ground for placing a marker. The plumb in plumb-bob comes from the fact that tools were originally made of lead. The adjective plumb developed by extension, as did the noun aplomb, until the modern age, plumb-bobs were used on most tall structures to provide vertical datum lines for the building measurements. A section of the scaffolding would hold a line, which was centered over a datum mark on the floor. As the building proceeded upward, the line would also be taken higher. Many cathedral spires, domes and towers still have brass datum marks inlaid into their floors, which signify the center of the structure above. Although a plumb-bob and line alone can determine only a vertical if they are mounted on a suitable scale, the early skyscrapers used heavy plumb-bobs, hung on wire in their elevator shafts. A plumb bob may be in a container of water, molasses, very viscous oils or other liquids to dampen any swinging movement, functioning as a shock absorber. Students of figure drawing will also use of a plumb line to find the vertical axis through the center of gravity of their subject. The device used may be purpose-made plumb lines, or simply makeshift devices made from a piece of string and this plumb line is important for lining up anatomical geometries and visualizing the subjects center of balance. Bob Centre of mass – used to find the centre of mass on a 2D shape which has uniform density Chalk line Vertical direction 60 oz. Plumb Bob
40.
Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane
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The Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane is an American twin-engine heavy-lift helicopter. It is the version of the United States Armys CH-54 Tarhe. The S-64 Aircrane is the current production version, manufactured by the Erickson Air-Crane company, the Sikorsky S-64 was designed as an enlarged version of the prototype flying crane helicopter, the Sikorsky S-60. The S-64 had a main rotor and was powered by two 4,050 shaft horsepower Pratt & Whitney JFTD12A turboshaft engines. The prototype S-64 first flew on 9 May 1962 and was followed by two examples for evaluation by the German armed forces. The Germans did not place an order, but the United States Army placed an order for six S-64A helicopters. Seven S-64E variants were built by Sikorsky for the civil market, originally a Sikorsky Aircraft product, the type certificate and manufacturing rights were purchased from them by Erickson Air-Crane in 1992. The Aircrane can be fitted with a 2, 650-gallon fixed retardant tank to assist in the control of bush fires, S-64 Aircranes have been sold to the Italian and Korean Forest Services for fire suppression and emergency response duties. Erickson is manufacturing new S-64s, as well as remanufacturing existing CH-54s, Erickson gives each of its S-64s an individual name, the best-known being Elvis, used in fighting fires in Australia alongside The Incredible Hulk and Isabelle. Other operators, such as Siller Brothers, have followed with their Sikorsky S-64E, the Erickson S-64E nicknamed Olga was used to lift the top section of the CN Tower into place in Toronto, Canada. S-64 Twin-engined heavy-lift helicopter,3 built, S-64A Six test and evaluation helicopters for the US Army. S-64B Civil version of CH-54A,7 built, S-64E Upgraded & certified CH-54A helicopters, plus one new build aircraft. S-64F Upgraded & certified CH-54B helicopters, powered by two Pratt & Whitney JFTD12-5A engines. Italy Corpo Forestale dello Stato South Korea Korea Forest Service United States Columbia Helicopters Erickson Air-Crane Evergreen Helicopters, while operating for the USFS The Erickson S-64 snagged a dip tank and the helicopter rolled over and crashed. N198AC Shirley Jean – S-64F, sold to European Air-Crane c.2006 as I-SEAD, Aircraft was destroyed in a post-crash fire. N248AC Aurora – S-64E, named after Aurora State Airport, home to Columbia Helicopters, former owner of aircraft. Crashed on 26 August 2004 in Corsica, killing its Canadian pilot, the Air-Crane was chartered by the interior ministry to fight fires on the French Mediterranean island of Corsica
41.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
42.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
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Financial District, Toronto
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The Financial District is a business district in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, within the downtown core. It was originally planned as New Town in 1796 as an extension of the Town of York and it is the main financial district in Toronto, and is the financial heart of Canada. Examples of this trend are the Telus Tower and RBC Centre, within the district was the historic Wholesale District along Bay Street from Melinda Street to The Esplanade was destroyed by the Great Fire of Toronto of 1904. It is the most densely built-up area of Toronto, home to banking companies, corporate headquarters, high-powered legal and accounting firms, insurance companies. In turn, the presence of so many decision-makers has brought in advertising agencies, the banks have built large office towers, much of whose space is leased to these companies. The vast majority of stores are only open during weekdays during the business day when the financial district is populated. During the evenings and weekends, the walkways remain open but the area is almost deserted and it is estimated that 100,000 commuters enter and leave the financial district each working day. Transport links are centered on Union Station at the end of the financial district. Most of these banks were regional and came and went and it was not until the second half of the 20th Century that the Big Five banks located their headquarters there. The organization engages in streetscape improvements, addressing key issues that impact the area, and promoting the areas businesses online
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Metro Toronto Convention Centre
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Metro Toronto Convention Centre, is a convention complex located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada along Front Street West in the former Railway Lands in Downtown Toronto. The property is owned by Oxford Properties. The centre is operated by the Metropolitan Toronto Convention Centre Corporation, the MTCC has 600,000 square feet of space, and is home to the 1330-seat John Bassett Theatre. To the east end of the complex is the 586-room InterContinental Toronto Centre hotel, at the west end of the complex is a 265,000 square foot Class-B office building. Within the office building is the Baton Rouge restaurant, which was formerly a Planet Hollywood from 1996 to 2006, a south building containing exhibition space is located south of the rail lines, on Bremner Boulevard. The centre is connected to the Union Station railway and transit station through the SkyWalk, the centre is also connected by the Skywalk system to the nearby Rogers Centre and large conventions or exhibitions will sometimes also use it as an additional venue. The site was formerly federally owned Railway Lands, prior to the early 1980s the site was home to tail end tracks and a parking lot. During the 1970s the site was part of the proposed and failed Metro Centre development which sought to convert the rail lands in one large development. Development instead proceeded in parcel-by-parcel fashion, with such as Roy Thomson Hall, the CN Tower. The rail yards were transferred to new locations north and east of Toronto, the main rail lines south of the Centre were retained. The convention centre and hotel was completed in 1984, built by CN Real Estate designed by Architects Crang, in 1995, ownership was transferred to Canada Lands Corporation, an agency of the Government of Canada. A new largely underground addition, designed by Bregman + Hamann Architects, was added south of the railways, in April 2011, the Canada Lands Corporation announced that the centre and hotel was for sale. OMERS-owned Oxford Properties won the rights to the complex in August 2011, the purchase of the North Building, the hotel, the 277 Front Street West office building and a 1,200 stall parking facility was completed in September 2011 for $238 million. The complex was adjacent to other Oxford-owned properties at 315 and 325 Front Street, in October 2012, Oxford Properties proposed the re-development of the site with an updated convention centre, casino, hotel and retail complex. The current MTCC complex would be demolished and replaced with a new complex, the centre has hosted many large-scale events over the years. The G-20 summit was held at the centre on June 26 and it was the same venue for the 14th G7 summit held in 1988. The 1985 NHL Entry Draft was held at the centre and it has also hosted the XVI International AIDS Conference in 2006. As well, it has played host to Toronto auditions for So You Think You Can Dance Canada and it has also been the site of numerous political conventions, and was the annual home of the NHL Awards
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Rogers Centre
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Rogers Centre, originally named SkyDome, is a multi-purpose stadium in downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada situated just southwest of the CN Tower near the northern shore of Lake Ontario. Opened in 1989 on the former Railway Lands, it is home to the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball, previously, the stadium served as home to the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League and the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association. The Buffalo Bills of the National Football League played a game at the stadium as part of the Bills Toronto Series from 2008 to 2013. While it is primarily a venue, it also hosts other large-scale events such as conventions, trade fairs, concerts, travelling carnivals. The stadium was renamed Rogers Centre following the purchase of the stadium by Rogers Communications, the venue was noted for being the first stadium to have a fully retractable motorized roof, as well as for the 348-room hotel attached to it, with 70 rooms overlooking the field. It is also the last North American major-league stadium built to both football and baseball. The stadium served as the site of both the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2015 Pan American Games, during the ceremonies, the site was referred to as the Pan Am Dome instead of its official name. The stadiums construction lasted two and a half years, from October 1986 to May 1989. The approximate cost of construction was C$570 million which was paid for by the government, Ontario provincial government, the City of Toronto. The main impetus for building a sports venue came following the Grey Cup game in November 1982. The game was played in a rainstorm that left most of the crowd drenched. As many of the seats were completely exposed to the elements, to make a bad experience even worse, the washrooms overflowed. In attendance that day was Bill Davis, the Premier of Ontario, the following day, at a rally at Toronto City Hall, tens of thousands of people who attended the game began to chant, We want a dome. Seven months later, in June 1983, Premier Davis formally announced that a committee would look into the feasibility of building a domed stadium at Exhibition Place. The committee consisted of Paul Godfrey, Larry Grossman and former Ontario Hydro chairman Hugh Macaulay, the committee examined various projects, including a large indoor stadium at Exhibition Place with an air-supported dome, similar to BC Place in Vancouver. In 1985, a design competition was launched to design a new stadium. Some of the sites included Exhibition Place, Downsview Airport. The final site was located at the base of the CN Tower not far from Union Station, the Railway Lands were a major Canadian National Railway rail switching yard encompassing the CNR Spadina Roundhouse
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