1.
State (polity)
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A state is a type of polity that is an organized political community living under a single system of government. States may or may not be sovereign, for instance, federated states are members of a federal union, and may have only partial sovereignty, but are, nonetheless, states. Some states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony, in which ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, States that are sovereign are known as sovereign states. The term state can also refer to the branches of government within a state, often as a manner of contrasting them with churches. Speakers of American English often use the state and government as synonyms. Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia, over time a variety of different forms developed, employing a variety of justifications of legitimacy for their existence. In the 21st century, the modern nation-state is the predominant form of state to which people are subjected, there is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of the state. The term state refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, general categories of state institutions include administrative bureaucracies, legal systems, and military or religious organizations. Another commonly accepted definition of the state is the one given at the Montevideo Convention on Rights, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, a state is a. an organized political community under one government, a commonwealth, a nation. B. such a community forming part of a federal republic, confounding the definition problem is that state and government are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this schema, the states are nonphysical persons of international law. The relationship between a government and its state is one of representation and authorized agency, States may be classified as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation, such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government. One can commonly and sometimes readily classify states according to their apparent make-up or focus, the concept of the nation-state, theoretically or ideally co-terminous with a nation, became very popular by the 20th century in Europe, but occurred rarely elsewhere or at other times. Imperial states have sometimes promoted notions of racial superiority, the concept of temple states centred on religious shrines occurs in some discussions of the ancient world. To some extent, urban secession, the creation of a new city-state, a state can be distinguished from a government. The government is the group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that controls the state apparatus at a given time
2.
Kabbalah
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Kabbalah is an esoteric method, discipline, and school of thought that originated in Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist in Judaism is called a Mekubbal, Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal, and mysterious Ein Sof and the mortal and finite universe. While it is used by some denominations, it is not a religious denomination in itself. It forms the foundations of religious interpretation. Kabbalah seeks to define the nature of the universe and the human being, the nature and purpose of existence and it also presents methods to aid understanding of the concepts and thereby attain spiritual realisation. Kabbalah originally developed within the realm of Jewish tradition, and kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain, traditional practitioners believe its earliest origins pre-date world religions, forming the primordial blueprint for Creations philosophies, religions, sciences, arts, and political systems. Safed Rabbi Isaac Luria is considered the father of contemporary Kabbalah and it was popularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th century onwards. According to the Zohar, a text for kabbalistic thought. These four levels are called pardes from their initial letters, peshat, the direct interpretations of meaning. Derash, midrashic meanings, often with imaginative comparisons with similar words or verses, sod, the inner, esoteric meanings, expressed in kabbalah. Kabbalah is considered by its followers as a part of the study of Torah – the study of Torah being an inherent duty of observant Jews. A third tradition, related but more shunned, involves the magical aims of Practical Kabbalah and they can be readily distinguished by their basic intent with respect to God, The Theosophical tradition of Theoretical Kabbalah seeks to understand and describe the divine realm. Consequently, it formed a minor tradition shunned from Kabbalah. According to traditional belief, early kabbalistic knowledge was transmitted orally by the Patriarchs, prophets, According to this view, early kabbalah was, in around the 10th century BC, an open knowledge practiced by over a million people in ancient Israel. Foreign conquests drove the Jewish spiritual leadership of the time to hide the knowledge and make it secret and it is hard to clarify with any degree of certainty the exact concepts within kabbalah. There are several different schools of thought with different outlooks, however. From the Renaissance onwards Jewish Kabbalah texts entered non-Jewish culture, where they were studied and translated by Christian Hebraists, syncretic traditions of Christian Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah developed independently of Jewish Kabbalah, reading the Jewish texts as universal ancient wisdom. Both adapted the Jewish concepts freely from their Judaic understanding, to merge with other theologies, religious traditions, with the decline of Christian Cabala in the Age of Reason, Hermetic Qabalah continued as a central underground tradition in Western esotericism
3.
Jewish mysticism
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Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholems Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, distinguishes between different forms of mysticism across different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbalah, which emerged in 12th-century Europe, is the most well known, among previous forms were Merkabah mysticism, and Chassidei Ashkenaz around the time of Kabbalistic emergence. This issue is crystallised until today by alternative views on the origin of the Zohar, traditional Kabbalists regard it as originating in Tannaic times, redacting the Oral Torah, so do not make a sharp distinction between Kabbalah and early Rabbinic Jewish mysticism. Academic scholars regard it as a synthesis from Medieval times, but assimilating and incorporating into itself earlier forms of Jewish mystical tradition, after Luria, two new mystical forms popularised Kabbalah in Judaism, antinomian-heretical Sabbatean movements, and Hasidic Judaism. As separate traditions of development outside Judaism, drawing from, syncretically adapting, the Kabbalistic form of Jewish mysticism itself divides into three general streams, the Theosophical/Speculative Kabbalah, the Meditative/Ecstatic Kabbalah, and the Practical/Magical Kabbalah. As in Kabbalah, the text can contain aspects of all three approaches, though the three streams often distill into three separate literatures under the influence of particular exponents or eras. Within Kabbalah, the tradition is distinguished from many forms of mysticism in other religions by its doctrinal form as a mystical philosophy of Gnosis esoteric knowledge. Instead, the tradition of Meditative Kabbalah has similarity of aim, if not form, with traditions of general mysticism. The tradition of theurgic Practical Kabbalah in Judaism, censored and restricted by mainstream Jewish Kabbalists, has similarities with non-Jewish Hermetic Qabalah magical Western Esotericism
4.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
5.
Christian Cabala
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The Renaissance saw the birth of Christian Kabbalah/Cabala, also spelled Cabbala. Interest grew among some Christian scholars in what they saw to be the mystical aspects of Judaic Kabbalah, although somewhat obscure, the tradition of Christian Cabala or Catholic Cabala still persists today. The movement was influenced by a desire to interpret aspects of Christianity even more mystically than current Christian Mystics, Greek Neoplatonic documents came into Europe from Constantinople in the reign of Mehmet II. Neoplatonism had been prevalent in Christian Europe and had entered into Scholasticism since the translation of Greek, the Renaissance trend was a relatively short-lived phenomenon, ending by 1750. Later Christian Cabala is mostly based on Pico della Mirandola, Johann Reuchlin, after the 18th century, Kabbalah became blended with European occultism, some of which had a religious basis, but the main thrust of Christian Kabbalah was by then dead. An early expression of Christian Kabbalah was among the Spanish conversos from Judaism and these include Abner of Burgos and Pablo de Heredia. Heredias Epistle of Secrets is the first recognizable work of Christian Kabbalah, however, Heredia’s Kabbalah consists of quotes from non-existent Kabbalistic works, and distorted or fake quotes from real Kabbalistic sources. Christian Kabbalah fully arose during the Renaissance as a result of continuing studies of Greek texts, the invention of the printing press also played its part in the wider dissemination of texts. Among the first to promote the knowledge of Kabbalah beyond exclusively Jewish circles was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola a student of Marsilio Ficino at his Florentine Academy and his syncretic world-view combined Platonism, Neoplatonism, Aristotelianism, Hermeticism and Kabbalah. Mirandolas work on Kabbalah was further developed by Athanasius Kircher, a Jesuit priest, Hermeticist and polymath, in 1652, though they both worked from within the Christian tradition, both were more interested in the syncretic approach. Their work led directly into Occult and Hermetic Qabalah and that could not be said of Reuchlin, Knorr von Rosenroth and Kemper. Johann Reuchlin, was Picos most important follower and his main sources for Kabbalah were Menahem Recanati and Joseph Gikatilla. The five-letter name associated with this period is the tetragrammaton with the additional letter shin and this name, YHShVH, is also known as the pentagrammaton. The first of Reuchlins two books on Cabala, De verbo mirifico, speaks of the name of Jesus derived from the tetragrammaton. His second book, De arte cabalistica, is a broader, francesco Giorgi, was a Venetian Franciscan friar and has been considered a central figure in sixteenth-century Christian Kabbalah both by his contemporaries and by modern scholars. According to Giulio Busi, he was the most important Christian Cabalist second to its founder Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and his, De harmonia mundi, was a massive and curious book, all Hermetic, Platonic, Cabalistic, and Pinchian. Balthasar Walther, was a Silesian physician, despite his claim to have spent six years in these travels, it appears that he only made several shorter trips. Walther himself did not author any significant works of Christian Kabbalah, the following century produced Athanasius Kircher, a German Jesuit priest, scholar and polymath
6.
Hermetic Qabalah
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Hermetic Qabalah is a Western esoteric tradition involving mysticism and the occult. The Hermetic Qabalah is the basis for Qliphothic Qabala as studied by left hand path orders, Hermetic Qabalah differs from the Jewish form in being a more admittedly syncretic system, however it shares many concepts with Jewish Kabbalah. Hermetic Qabalah holds to the conception that the manifest universe, of which material creation is a part. These emanations arise out of three states that are considered to precede manifestation. The emanations of creation arising from Ain Suph Aur are ten in number and these are conceptualised somewhat differently in Hermetic Qabalah to the way they are in Jewish Kabbalah. From Ain Suph Aur crystallises Kether, the first sephirah of the Hermetic Qabalistic tree of life. From Kether emanate the rest of the sephirot in turn, viz. Kether, Chokhmah, Binah, Daath, Chesed, Geburah, Tiphareth, Netzach, Hod, Yesod, Daath is not assigned a number as it is considered part of Binah or a hidden sephirah. Each sephirah is considered to be an emanation of the energy which ever flows from the unmanifest. This flow of light is indicated by the lightning flash shown on diagrams of the tree which passes through each sephirah in turn according to their enumerations. Each sephirah is a nexus of energy and each has a number of attributions. These attributions enable the Qabalist to form a comprehension of each particular sephirahs characteristics and this manner of applying many attributions to each sephirah is an exemplar of the diverse nature of Hermetic Qabalah. Hermetic Qabalists see the cards of the tarot as keys to the Tree of Life, while the sephiroth describe the nature of divinity, the paths between them describe ways of knowing the Divine. Traditionalist Judaic views of Kabbalahs origins view it as an inherent development from within the Jewish religion, in contrast, Hermeticists have taken different views of Qabalahs origins. Christians, in contrast, would have been persecuted for the same process, with the Renaissance, this wisdom would have been relearned by Christianity from Judaism. It contributed strongly to the Renaissance view of ritual magics relationship with Christianity, once Hermeticism was no longer endorsed by the Christian Church it was driven underground and a number of Hermetic brotherhoods were formed. Non-Jewish Cabala, unlike in Judaic Kabbalahs mainstream censure of its side, became a central component of Western occult, magic. Rosicrucianism and esoteric branches of Freemasonry taught religious philosophies, Qabalah and their esoteric teachings, and secret society structure of an outer body governed by a restricted inner level of adepts, laid the format for modern esoteric organisations. Post-Enlightenment Romanticism encouraged societal interest in occultism, of which Hermetic Qabalistic writing was a feature, francis Barretts The Magus handbook of ceremonial magic gained little notice until it influenced the French magical enthusiast Eliphas Levi
7.
Occult
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The occult is knowledge of the hidden. In common English usage, occult refers to knowledge of the paranormal, as opposed to knowledge of the measurable, the terms esoteric and arcane can also be used to describe the occult, in addition to their meanings unrelated to the supernatural. Occultism is the study of practices, including magic, alchemy, extra-sensory perception, astrology, spiritualism, religion. Alchemy was common among important seventeenth-century scientists, such as Isaac Newton, Newton was even accused of introducing occult agencies into natural science when he postulated gravity as a force capable of acting over vast distances. By the eighteenth century these unorthodox religious and philosophical concerns were well-defined as occult, inasmuch as they lay on the outermost fringe of accepted forms of knowledge and they were, however, preserved by antiquarians and mystics. Occult science is the research into or formulation of occult concepts in a manner that resembles the way natural science researches or describes phenomena. In his 1871 book Primitive Culture, the anthropologist Edward Tylor used the term occult science as a synonym for magic, Occult qualities are properties that have no known rational explanation, in the Middle Ages, for example, magnetism was considered an occult quality. Newtons contemporaries severely criticized his theory that gravity was effected through action at a distance, some religions and sects enthusiastically embrace occultism as an integral esoteric aspect of mystical religious experience. This attitude is common within Wicca and many other modern pagan religions, some other religious denominations disapprove of occultism in most or all forms. They may view the occult as being anything supernatural or paranormal which is not achieved by or through God, monistic in contrast to Christian dualistic beliefs of a separation between body and spirit, Gnostic i. e. Walker, Benjamin. Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric and the Supernatural, harold W. Percival, Joined the Theosophical Society in 1892. Blavatsky, Occultism versus the Occult Arts, Lucifer, May 1888 Bardon, true to His Ways, Purity & Safety in Christian Spiritual Practice, ISBN 1-932124-61-6. ISBN 1-57863-150-5 Forshaw, Peter, The Occult Middle Ages, in Christopher Partridge, The Occult World, London, Routledge,2014 Gettings, Fred, Vision of the Occult, ISBN 0-7126-1438-9 Kontou, Tatiana – Willburn, Sarah. The Ashgate Research Companion to Nineteenth-Century Spiritualism and the Occult, ISBN 978-0-7546-6912-8 Martin, W. Rische, J. Rische, K. & VanGordon, K. W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.201 p. N. B, the scope of this study also embraces the occult. ISBN 0-8028-0262-1 Partridge, Christopher, The Occult World, London, the Tree of Life, An Illustrated Study in Magic. Newton, Isaac, Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John by Sir Isaac Newton Rogers, L. W. Hints to Young Students of Occultism. Albany, NY, The Theosophical Book Company, joseph H. Peterson, Twilit Grotto, Archives of Western Esoterica Occult Science and Philosophy of the Renaissance
8.
Secret
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Secrecy is the practice of hiding information from certain individuals or groups who do not have the need to know, perhaps while sharing it with other individuals. That which is hidden is known as the secret. Secrecy is often controversial, depending on the content or nature of the secret, the group or people keeping the secret, and it is often contrasted with social transparency. Animals conceal the location of their den or nest from predators, squirrels bury nuts, hiding them, and they try to remember their locations later. Humans attempt to conceal aspects of themselves from others due to shame, or from fear of violence, rejection, harassment, loss of acceptance. Humans may also attempt to conceal aspects of their own self which they are not capable of incorporating psychologically into their conscious being, families sometimes maintain family secrets, obliging family members never to discuss disagreeable issues concerning the family with outsiders or sometimes even within the family. Many family secrets are maintained by using a mutually agreed-upon construct when speaking with outside members, agreement to maintain the secret is often coerced through shaming and reference to family honor. The information may even be something as trivial as a recipe, Secrets are sometimes kept to provide the pleasure of surprise. This includes keeping secret about a party, not telling spoilers of a story. Keeping ones strategy secret is important in aspects of game theory. In anthropology secret sharing is one way for men and women to establish relations with other men and women. A commonly used narrative that describes this kind of behavior is Joseph Conrads short story The Secret Sharer, governments often attempt to conceal information from other governments and the public. These state secrets can include weapon designs, military plans, diplomatic negotiation tactics, most nations have some form of Official Secrets Act and classify material according to the level of protection needed. An individual needs a security clearance for access and other protection methods, few people dispute the desirability of keeping Critical Nuclear Weapon Design Information secret, but many believe government secrecy to be excessive and too often employed for political purposes. Many countries have laws that attempt to limit government secrecy, such as the U. S, freedom of Information Act and sunshine laws. Government officials sometimes leak information they are supposed to keep secret, Secrecy in elections is a growing issue, particularly secrecy of vote counts on computerized vote counting machines. While voting, citizens are acting in a sovereign or owner capacity in selecting their government servants. It is argued that secrecy is impermissible as against the public in the area of elections where the government gets all of its power, in any event, permissible secrecy varies significantly with the context involved
9.
Cabal ministry
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The Cabal ministry refers to a group of high councillors of King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1668 to circa 1674. The term Cabal has a meaning in this context. It refers to the fact that, for perhaps the first time in English history, effective power in a council was shared by a group of men. The term also serves as the acronym C-A-B-A-L for the names of the five Privy Councillors who formed the councils Committee for Foreign Affairs, through the Foreign Affairs committee and their own offices, the five members were able to direct government policy both at home and abroad. The notion of an group in government, as opposed to a single royal favourite holding clear power, was seen by many as a threat to the authority of the throne. Others saw it as subverting the power of the Council or of Parliament, however, there were sharp ideological divisions between the five, ranging from the Parliamentary idealism of Ashley to the autocratic absolutism of Lauderdale. The linchpin of the Cabal was probably George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, nonetheless, Buckingham was in constant contact and clear favourite of the king, and the center of the Cabals grip on power. Gilbert Burnet, who some of its members personally, said that Buckingham stood somewhat apart from the rest of the Cabal, hating them. The Lord High Treasurer Wriothesley having died just before Clarendons departure, but as Monck was practically retired from public life, control of the Treasury commission was taken up by Sir Thomas Clifford and Anthony Ashley Cooper. Foreign affairs was principally directed by Henry Bennet, Earl of Arlington, with assistance from George Villiers. Despite their comparative energy and efficiency, the Cabal was a fractious, although perceived as a secretive and unsavoury junta, they rarely formed a united front, and their internal quarrels often spilled over into the public arena. J. P. Kenyon suggests that the King actually encouraged the Cabal members to quarrel, in the belief that this made them easier to control. They in turn, never trusted him not to bring them down as he had brought down Clarendon, and as Kenyon remarks, they hardly dared turn their back on him for fear of sudden dismissal. It was said that the King treated his ministers very much as he did his mistresses, he used them, but he was not in love with them, personal rivalries and a conflict over foreign policy between Buckingham and Arlington escalated. The Ministry became very unpopular, characterised by arbitrary rule, the public saw them as untrustworthy, venal and self-seeking, towards the end of the year, Ashley, now the Earl of Shaftesbury, became Lord Chancellor, leaving Treasury matters to Clifford and the Exchequer to Duncombe. He pressed publicly for greater reform of government, taking the side of the Opposition against his colleagues and the King. Clifford resigned over the in-fighting and retired from life, as an open Roman Catholic he would in any case have been debarred by the Test Act of 1673 from holding office in the future. Shaftesbury was replaced by Viscount Osborne, soon to become Earl of Danby, in the summer of 1673, on the recommendation of Buckingham, Danby immediately established his authority over the remaining members of the Cabal
10.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
11.
Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh
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Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh was an English statesman and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1660 to 1672 when he was created Baron Clifford. Clifford was born in Ugbrooke, the son of Hugh Clifford of Chudleigh, Devon and he was baptised on 4 August 1630 at Ugbrooke. He matriculated at Exeter College, Oxford in 1647 and entered Middle Temple in 1648, in April 1660, Clifford was elected Member of Parliament for Totnes in the Convention Parliament. He was re-elected MP for Totnes in 1661 for the Cavalier Parliament and he distinguished himself in naval battles, and was knighted. He became Comptroller of the Household in 1666 and a member of the Privy Council, at the end of the Dutch war in 1669 he intrigued against the peace treaty, preferring the French interests. He was one of the five Counsellors who formed the Cabal and this clique had a reputation for self-seeking policies. Indeed, Clifford was known as the Bribe Master General, Clifford was created the first Baron Clifford of Chudleigh on 22 April 1672 for his suggestion that the King supply himself with money by stopping, for one year, all payments out of the Exchequer. He was Lord High Treasurer from 28 November 1672 to June 1673 and he died by his own hand a few months after his retirement. *His father, Sir Hugh Clifford of Chudleigh, Devon and Ugbrooke His mother, Mary, daughter of Sir George Chudleigh and his aunt, Sabina Clifford, married Matthew Hals of Kenendon. Their daughter, Anne, married Rev John Tindal and was the mother of Dr Matthew Tindal and he married Elizabeth Martin, who died in 1709. She was the daughter of Richard Martin of Lindridge House, Devon and they had fifteen children, eight of which were daughters, Elizabeth, born before 1655, died as infant. Elizabeth, born 1655, died 1677, married in 1673 Henry Carew, Mary, born 1658, died 9 October 1715, married in 1673 Sir Simon Leach of Cadeleigh. Amy, born 1661, died 1693, married in October 1681 John Courtenay of Molland and they had numerous issue, as the mural monument in Molland Church attests. No male grandsons resulted and Molland descended via their daughter Mary who married William Paston of Horton Court, Chipping Sodbury, isabel Clifford, born between 1665 and 1669, died as infant. Catherine Clifford, born 1670, died 1708, and their sons were, Thomas, born before 1652, died as infant. Thomas, born before 1652, died as infant, Thomas, born on 3 December 1652, died in 1671 in Florence, Italy. George, born between 1653 and 1662, died as infant Hugh, 2nd Baron Clifford of Chudleigh Simon, born 1666, charles, born 1671, baptized on 24 June 1671, died on 4 July 1691, buried in Ugbrooke
12.
Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington
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Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington, KG, PC was an English statesman. He was the son of Sir John Bennet of Dawley, Middlesex, by Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Crofts of Little Saxham and he was the younger brother of John Bennet, 1st Baron Ossulston, his sister was Elizabeth Bennet who married Sir Robert Carr. He was baptized at Little Saxham, Suffolk, in 1618 and he gained some distinction as a scholar and a poet, and was originally destined for holy orders. In 1643, he was secretary to Lord Digby at Oxford, subsequently, he took up arms for the king, and received a wound on the bridge of his nose in the skirmish at Andover in 1644. The scar resulting from this wound was prominent because Arlington took to covering it with black plaster and he was said by some to have been the father of an illegitimate child by Lucy Walter. In March 1657, he was knighted, and the year was sent as Charless agent to Madrid. On his return to England in 1661 he was keeper of the privy purse. One of his duties was the procuring and management of the royal mistresses and he represented Callington from 1661 till 1665, but appears never to have taken part in debate. He served subsequently on the committees for explaining the Irish Act of Settlement, in 1665 he obtained a peerage as Baron Arlington, and in 1667 was appointed one of the postmasters-general. Elisabeth was the daughter of Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd, in 1665 he advised Charles to grant liberty of conscience, but this was merely a concession to gain money during the war, and he showed great activity later in oppressing the nonconformists. He advised Charles in March 1673 to submit the legality of the declaration of indulgence to the House of Lords, and supported the Test Act of the same year, which compelled Clifford to resign. He joined the Dutch party, and in order to make his peace with his new allies, disclosed the secret treaty of Dover to the staunch Protestants Ormonde and Shaftesbury. Arlington had, however, lost the confidence of all parties, but the motion for his removal, owing chiefly to the bad influence of his brother-in-law, the popular Lord Ossory, was rejected by 166 votes to 127. His escape could not, however, prevent his fall, and he resigned the secretaryship on 11 September 1674, in November he went on a Mission to The Hague, with the popular objects of effecting a peace and of concluding an alliance with William and Jamess daughter Mary. In this he failed, and he returned home completely discredited. He had again been disappointed of the treasurership when Danby succeeded Clifford and his intrigues with discontented persons in parliament to stir up an opposition to his successful rival came to nothing. From this time, though lingering on at court, he possessed no influence, in 1681 he was made lord lieutenant of Suffolk. He died on 28 July 1685, and was buried at Euston and his residence in London was Arlington House, built when Goring House burned down, on the site of which was eventually built Buckingham Palace
13.
George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham
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George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, 20th Baron de Ros, KG, PC, FRS was an English statesman and poet. George was the son of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favourite of James I and Charles I and he was only seven months old when his father was assassinated at Portsmouth by the renegade officer John Felton. Subsequently he was brought up in the household of Charles I, together with his younger brother Francis and the Kings own children. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained the degree of Master of Arts in 1642, for a time he was taught geometry by Thomas Hobbes. During this time he was acquainted with George Aglionby, whose influence he later accredited with persuading him to follow the English King in the Civil War. In the Civil War he fought for the King, and took part in Prince Rupert of the Rhines attack on Lichfield Close in April 1643, under the care of the Earl of Northumberland, George and his brother travelled abroad and lived in Florence and Rome. When the Second English Civil War broke out they joined Royalist combatant Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland in Surrey, Holland scraped together a small force of 600 men and appointed Buckingham as his General of the Horse. This force was scattered after an engagement near Kingston upon Thames in which Buckinghams brother Francis was killed. Buckingham himself escaped after a stand against six Roundhead opponents, his back against an oak tree. After another doomed combat at St Neots the Duke succeeded in escaping to the Netherlands, on 19 September 1649, Charles II conferred on him the Order of the Garter and admitted him to his Privy Council on 6 April 1650. He fought alongside Charles at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651 and his estrangement from the royal family was completed by his audacious courtship of the kings widowed sister Mary, Princess of Orange, and by a money dispute with Charles. Buckingham was soon suspected of organizing a Presbyterian plot against the government, an order was issued for his arrest on 9 October, despite Fairfaxs interest with Cromwell. He was placed under house arrest at York House in April 1658, escaped and he was then imprisoned in the Tower of London until 23 February 1659, being freed after promising not to assist the enemies of the government, and on Fairfaxs security of £20,000. He joined Fairfax in his march against General John Lambert in January 1660, the returning King Charles at first received Buckingham coldly, but Buckingham was soon back in favour. He was appointed a Gentleman of the Bedchamber, carried the Sovereigns Orb at the coronation on 23 April 1661, the same year, he accompanied Princess Henrietta to Paris to marry the Duke of Orleans, but made such shameless advances to her that he was recalled. On 28 April 1662 he was admitted to the Privy Council and his confiscated estates, amounting to £26,000 a year, were restored to him, and he was said to be the kings richest subject. He helped suppress the insurrection in Yorkshire in 1663, went to sea in the second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665. He was, however, debarred from high office by the influence of Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, Buckingham now plotted to effect the Chancellors ruin
14.
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury
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A founder of the Whig party, he is also remembered as the patron of John Locke. Anthony Ashley Cooper was born in 1621 and had lost both of his parents by the age of eight and he was brought up by Edward Tooker and other guardians named in his fathers will, before attending Exeter College, Oxford, and Lincolns Inn. During the English Civil War, Cooper initially fought as a Royalist and he also opposed the religious extremism of the Fifth Monarchists during Barebones Parliament. As a member of the Council of State, Cooper opposed the New Model Armys attempts to rule the following the downfall of Richard Cromwell. Shortly before his coronation, Charles created Cooper Lord Ashley, so when the Cavalier Parliament assembled in 1661 he moved from the House of Commons to the House of Lords and he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1661–1672. After the fall of Clarendon, Ashley was one of the members of the so-called Cabal Ministry and he was created Earl of Shaftesbury in 1672. During this period, John Locke entered Ashleys household, by 1673, Ashley was worried that the heir to the throne, James, Duke of York, was secretly a Roman Catholic. After the Cabal Ministry ended, Shaftesbury became a leader of the opposition to the policies pursued by Thomas Osborne, Danby favoured strict interpretation of the penal laws, enforcing mandatory membership of the Church of England. Shaftesbury, who sympathised with the Protestant Nonconformists, briefly agreed to work with the Duke of York, the Whig party was born during the Exclusion Crisis, and Shaftesbury was one of the partys most prominent leaders. In 1681, during the Tory reaction following the failure of the Exclusion Bill, Shaftesbury was arrested for high treason, in 1682, after the Tories had gained the ability to pack London juries with their supporters, Shaftesbury, fearing a second prosecution, fled the country. Upon arriving in Amsterdam, he fell ill, and soon died and he was born on 22 July 1621, at the home of his maternal grandfather Sir Anthony Ashley in Wimborne St Giles, Dorset. He was named Anthony Ashley Cooper because of a promise the couple had made to Sir Anthony. Coopers father was created a baronet in 1622, and he represented Poole in the parliaments of 1625 and 1628, supporting the attack on Richard Neile, Sir Anthony Ashley insisted that a man with Puritan leanings, Aaron Guerdon, be chosen as Coopers first tutor. In 1629, his father remarried, this time to the widowed Mary Moryson, one of the daughters of wealthy London textile merchant Baptist Hicks, through his stepmother, Cooper thus gained an important political connection in the form of her grandson, the future 1st Earl of Essex. Coopers father died in 1630, leaving Cooper a wealthy orphan, upon his fathers death, he inherited his fathers baronetcy and was now Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper. Coopers father had held his lands in knight-service, so Coopers inheritance now came under the authority of the Court of Wards, Cooper was sent to live with his fathers trustee Sir Daniel Norton in Southwick, Hampshire. Norton had joined in Sir John Coopers denunciation of Arminianism in the 1628–29 parliament, Sir Daniel died in 1636, and Cooper was sent to live with his fathers other trustee, Edward Tooker, at Maddington, near Salisbury. Here his tutor was a man with an MA from Oriel College, while there he fomented a minor riot and left without taking a degree
15.
John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale
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John Maitland, 1st Duke and 2nd Earl of Lauderdale, 3rd Lord Thirlestane KG PC, was a Scottish politician, and leader within the Cabal Ministry. In 1645 he advised Charles to reject the proposals of Independents, returning to Scotland, in the spring of 1648, Lauderdale joined the party of Hamilton in alliance with the English royalists. Lauderdale remained in confinement from his capture at Worcester until March 1660 and he was exempted from Cromwells Act of Grace under which his estates were confiscated by Oliver Cromwell the Lord Protector. In 1669 he was able to boast with truth that the king is now master here in all causes, on 2 May 1672 he was created Duke of Lauderdale and Earl of March, and on 3 June Knight of the Garter. In 1673, on the resignation of James, Duke of York in consequence of the Test Act, in October he visited Scotland to suppress the dissenters and obtain money for the Third Anglo-Dutch War. On 25 June 1674 he was created Earl of Guilford and Baron Petersham in the Peerage of England and his ferocious measures having failed to suppress the conventicles in Scotland, he summoned to his aid in 1677 a band of Highlanders, who were sent into the western country. In consequence, a party of Scottish nobles went to London, made common cause with the English Country Faction. In May 1678 another demand made in the Commons for Lauderdales removal was defeated due to court influence and he maintained his triumphs almost to the end. In Scotland, which he visited immediately after this victory in the Parliament of England, later that summer on 22 June 1679 the last attempt of the Covenanters was suppressed at the Battle of Bothwell Brig. His vote given for the execution of Lord Stafford on 29 November incurred the displeasure of the Duke of York, Lauderdales first marriage was to Lady Anne Home, daughter of Alexander Home, 1st Earl of Home, by whom he had one daughter. He left no heir, consequently his dukedom and his English titles became extinct. William Maitland of Lethington Marshall, Rosalind K. Murray, Elizabeth, duchess of Lauderdale, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Yorke, Philip Chesney. The EB article lists the sources, Lauderdale Papers Add. Several speeches of Lauderdale are extant
16.
Secret Treaty of Dover
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The Treaty of Dover, also known as the Secret Treaty of Dover, was a treaty between England and France signed at Dover on 1 June 1670. It required France to assist England in the aim that it would rejoin the Roman Catholic Church. The Third Anglo-Dutch War was a consequence of this treaty. Exactly who first proposed the alliance between the two kingdoms is unknown, as is the date when the possibility was first discussed, however, it is known that the two nations had discussed forming a closer relationship since 1663. The only participants in the talks to begin with were Louis XIV of France, Charles II of England, Louis was first cousin to Charles. Henrietta was also Louiss sister-in-law through her marriage to his only brother Phillippe, no real progress was made in the negotiations until 1669 after Charles allegedly held a meeting with some of his advisors. During this meeting Charles announced that he wished to convert to Catholicism. Whether this meeting took place is a source of intense speculation. Although much of the groundwork had been laid by Henrietta, the points and actual provisions of the treaty were hammered out by Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington. Charles was to abandon Englands Triple Alliance with Sweden and the Dutch Republic in favour of assisting Louis in conquering the Dutch Republic, provided that the conquest was successfully completed, England was promised several very profitable ports along one of the major rivers that run through the Dutch Republic. The date of this declaration is left absolutely to his own pleasure, the King of France will faithfully observe the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, as regards Spain, and the King of England will maintain the Treaty of the Triple Alliance in a similar manner. If new rights to the Spanish monarchy revert to the King of France, the two Kings will declare war against the United Provinces. The King of France will attack them by land, and will receive the help of 6000 men from England, the King of England will send 50 men-of-war to sea, and the King of France 30, the combined fleets will be under the Duke of Yorks command. His Britannic Majesty will be content to receive Walcheren, the mouth of the Scheldt, separate articles will provide for the interests of the Prince of Orange. The Treaty of Commerce, which has begun, shall be concluded as promptly as possible. The secret treaty did not in fact public until 1771 after the historian Sir John Dalrymple published its contents in his Memoirs of Great Britain. The secret treaty, often known as The Treaty of Madame, the Duke of Buckingham was then appointed to negotiate a treaty with the King of France. He was amazed by how smoothly it went and this treaty was signed by all five members of the Cabal Ministry on 21 December 1670
17.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
18.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
19.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
20.
Cabal Ministry
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The Cabal ministry refers to a group of high councillors of King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1668 to circa 1674. The term Cabal has a meaning in this context. It refers to the fact that, for perhaps the first time in English history, effective power in a council was shared by a group of men. The term also serves as the acronym C-A-B-A-L for the names of the five Privy Councillors who formed the councils Committee for Foreign Affairs, through the Foreign Affairs committee and their own offices, the five members were able to direct government policy both at home and abroad. The notion of an group in government, as opposed to a single royal favourite holding clear power, was seen by many as a threat to the authority of the throne. Others saw it as subverting the power of the Council or of Parliament, however, there were sharp ideological divisions between the five, ranging from the Parliamentary idealism of Ashley to the autocratic absolutism of Lauderdale. The linchpin of the Cabal was probably George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, nonetheless, Buckingham was in constant contact and clear favourite of the king, and the center of the Cabals grip on power. Gilbert Burnet, who some of its members personally, said that Buckingham stood somewhat apart from the rest of the Cabal, hating them. The Lord High Treasurer Wriothesley having died just before Clarendons departure, but as Monck was practically retired from public life, control of the Treasury commission was taken up by Sir Thomas Clifford and Anthony Ashley Cooper. Foreign affairs was principally directed by Henry Bennet, Earl of Arlington, with assistance from George Villiers. Despite their comparative energy and efficiency, the Cabal was a fractious, although perceived as a secretive and unsavoury junta, they rarely formed a united front, and their internal quarrels often spilled over into the public arena. J. P. Kenyon suggests that the King actually encouraged the Cabal members to quarrel, in the belief that this made them easier to control. They in turn, never trusted him not to bring them down as he had brought down Clarendon, and as Kenyon remarks, they hardly dared turn their back on him for fear of sudden dismissal. It was said that the King treated his ministers very much as he did his mistresses, he used them, but he was not in love with them, personal rivalries and a conflict over foreign policy between Buckingham and Arlington escalated. The Ministry became very unpopular, characterised by arbitrary rule, the public saw them as untrustworthy, venal and self-seeking, towards the end of the year, Ashley, now the Earl of Shaftesbury, became Lord Chancellor, leaving Treasury matters to Clifford and the Exchequer to Duncombe. He pressed publicly for greater reform of government, taking the side of the Opposition against his colleagues and the King. Clifford resigned over the in-fighting and retired from life, as an open Roman Catholic he would in any case have been debarred by the Test Act of 1673 from holding office in the future. Shaftesbury was replaced by Viscount Osborne, soon to become Earl of Danby, in the summer of 1673, on the recommendation of Buckingham, Danby immediately established his authority over the remaining members of the Cabal
21.
English governance
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There has not been a government of England since 1707 when the Kingdom of England ceased to exist as a sovereign state, as it merged with the Kingdom of Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. The UK since then has gone through significant change to its system of government, with devolved parliaments, assemblies and governments in Scotland, Wales, one possible solution to the West Lothian question would be devolution to the English regions but attempts have been unsuccessful so far. Amongst the parts of England, Greater London has a degree of devolved power with power vested in an elected Mayor of London, currently Sadiq Khan and the London Assembly. The country is officially divided into the following in terms of governance, The nine English regions, The modern day local authority areas. The incumbent government has no plans to create a devolved English parliament, several Government Departments of the UK Government have responsibilities for matters affecting England alone, The Department for Communities and Local Government. The Department for Education is responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is responsible for environmental protection, food production and standards, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England. The Department of Health, has responsibility for government policy on health, social care, the Office for Standards in Education, Childrens Services and Skills which is a non-ministerial department headed by Her Majestys Chief Inspector of Schools in England
22.
Chief Ministers of England
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Among them are regicides, revolutionaries and loyal subjects who among other things, created Parliament, and a few became monarchs themselves. The Chief Ministership, being an office, had many titles, sometimes none at all. It was a dangerous position, and prior to 1700. 940–957, Æthelstan Half-King, so called because he had almost as much power as the king himself, 1550–1553, John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, 1st Duke of Northumberland, executed by Mary I. The Glorious Revolution of 1688–9 furthered this process and by the time of Queen Anne, from 1693 onwards, the government was increasingly dominated by the Whig Junto. The Kingdoms of England and Scotland united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. In the immediate aftermath of the death of Queen Anne in 1714, as a stopgap, Parliament elected Thomas Parker, 1st Earl of Macclesfield Regent, or acting king until the new monarch arrived to take his crown. Later, George, Prince of Wales reigned as regent for six months from July 1716 to January 1717 when the King went to Hanover. In the early part of the reign of George I of Great Britain, who could not speak English, from 1717 to 1721 Lords Stanhope and Sunderland led the administration jointly, with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland managing home affairs. Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned in April 1721, Townshend, thus the First Lord of the Treasury came to be the most powerful minister and the prototype of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and its dominions. Colliers Encyclopedia, Volume 9 Electron Gun to Fischer, p. 184-5, colliers Encyclopedia, Volume 11 Germanium to Heath Hen, p. 372-3
23.
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
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Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon was an English statesman who served as Lord Chancellor to King Charles II from 1658, two years before the Restoration of the Monarchy, until 1667. He was loyal to the king and built-up the royalist cause and he was one of the most important historians of England, as author of the most influential contemporary history of the Civil War, The History of the Rebellion. He was the grandfather of two monarchs, Queen Mary II and Queen Anne. Hyde was the son of Henry Hyde of Dinton and Purton. Henrys brother was Sir Lawrence Hyde, Attorney General, the family of Hyde was long established at Norbury in Cheshire. Hyde was fond of his mother and idolised his father, whom he called the best father, the best friend, and the wisest man I have known. He was educated at Gillingham School, and in 1622 entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, having been rejected by Magdalen College, Oxford, and graduated BA in 1626. Intended originally for holy orders in the Church of England, the death of two brothers made him his fathers heir, and in 1625 he entered the Middle Temple to study law. Of the most excellent men in their several kinds that lived in that age and these included Ben Jonson, John Selden, Edmund Waller, John Hales and especially Lord Falkland, who became his best friend. From their influence and the reading in which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning. The diarist Samuel Pepys wrote thirty years later that he never knew anyone who could speak as well as Hyde and he was one of the most prominent members of the famous Great Tew Circle, a group of intellectuals who gathered at Lord Falklands country house Great Tew, Oxfordshire. In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good position and practice, both his marriages gained him influential friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of the writs and rolls of the Court of Common Pleas. In April 1640, Hyde was elected Member of Parliament for both Shaftesbury and Wootton Bassett in the Short Parliament and chose to sit for Wootton Bassett. Hyde opposed legislation restricting the power of the King to appoint his own advisors, viewing it unnecessary and he gradually moved over towards the royalist side, championing the Church of England and opposing the execution of the Earl of Strafford, Charless primary advisor. Following the Grand Remonstrance of 1641, Hyde became an advisor to the King. He left London about 20 May 1642, and rejoined the king at York, in February 1643, Hyde was knighted and was officially appointed to the Privy Council, the following month he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. Despite his own opposition to the King he found it hard to forgive anyone, even a close friend, who fought for Parliament. His view of the conflict and of his opponents was undoubtedly coloured by the death of his best friend Lord Falkland at the First Battle of Newbury in September 1643
24.
Usenet
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Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP dial-up network architecture, tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages to one or more categories, known as newsgroups, Usenet resembles a bulletin board system in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially, the name comes from the term users network. One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store, individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider, their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server. Usenet has significant cultural importance in the world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as FAQ, flame. The name Usenet emphasized its creators hope that the USENIX organization would take a role in its operation. The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, for instance, sci. math and sci. physics are within the sci. * hierarchy, for science. Or, talk. origins and talk. atheism are in the talk. * hierarchy, when a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles that user has read. In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article, the set of articles that can be traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into threads and subthreads, when a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that users news server. Each news server talks to one or more servers and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from server to server, the later peer-to-peer networks operate on a similar principle, but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Usenet was designed under conditions when networks were much slower and not always available, many sites on the original Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely because the POTS network was used for transfers. The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages, today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. The groups in alt. binaries are still used for data transfer
25.
Valve Corporation
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Valve Corporation is an American video game developer and digital distribution company headquartered in Bellevue, Washington. The company is known for the Half-Life, Counter-Strike, Portal, Day of Defeat, Team Fortress, Left 4 Dead, and Dota 2 games, Valve was founded in 1996 as a limited liability company by former Microsoft employees Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington. Their debut product, the PC first-person shooter Half-Life, was released in 1998 to critical acclaim and commercial success, in 2004, Valve launched Steam alongside the critically acclaimed Half-Life 2. By 2011, over half of digital PC game sales were through Steam, in 2015, Valve entered the game hardware market with the Steam Machine, a line of prebuilt gaming computers running SteamOS, a Valve-developed fork of the Debian operating system. Valve was founded by former longtime Microsoft employees Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington on August 24,1996, as Valve L. L. C. based in Kirkland, Harrington left the company in 2000. After incorporation in April 2003, it moved from its location to Bellevue, Washington. In 2010, the office was moved again to a location in Bellevue. In 2016, Valve signed a lease in the Lincoln Square complex in downtown Bellevue. After securing a license to the Quake engine through the help of friend Michael Abrash of id Software in late 1996, Newell, originally planned for release in late 1997, Half-Life launched on November 19,1998. Valve acquired TF Software Pty. Ltd. the makers of the Team Fortress mod for Quake, the Team Fortress Classic mod, essentially a port of the original Team Fortress mod for Quake, was released for Half-Life in 1999. Gearbox contributed much after the release of Half-Life, after the success of Half-Life, the team worked on mods, spin-offs, and sequels, including Half-Life 2. All current Valve games are built on its Source engine, the company has developed six game series, Half-Life, Team Fortress, Portal, Counter-Strike, Left 4 Dead and Day of Defeat. Valve is noted for its support of its games modding community, most prominently, Counter-Strike, Team Fortress, Valve has branched out with this tradition to continue developing Dota 2 as the standalone sequel to the Warcraft III mod. Each of these began as a third-party mod that Valve purchased and developed into a full game. They also distribute community mods on Steam, Valve announced the Source 2 engine in March 2015, later porting the entirety of Dota 2 to the engine in September of that year. Valve has grown both in scope and commercial value, on January 10,2008, Valve announced the acquisition of Turtle Rock Studios. On April 8,2010, Valve won The Escapist Magazines March Mayhem tournament for the best developer of 2010, beating out Zynga in the semi-finals, in 2012, the company acquired Star Filled Studios, a two-man gaming company to open a San Francisco office. In August 2013, however, Valve ended the operation when it was decided there was little benefit coming from the arrangement
26.
Conficker
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Conficker, also known as Downup, Downadup and Kido, is a computer worm targeting the Microsoft Windows operating system that was first detected in November 2008. The Conficker worm infected millions of computers including government, business and home computers in over 190 countries, recent estimates of the number of infected computers have been notably difficult because the virus has changed its propagation and update strategy from version to version. In January 2009, the number of infected computers ranged from almost 9 million to 15 million. Microsoft has reported the number of infected computers detected by its antimalware products has remained steady at around 1.7 million from mid-2010 to mid-2011. By mid 2015, the number of infections had dropped to about 400,000. The origin of the name Conficker is thought to be a combination of the English term configure, while Windows 7 may have been affected by this vulnerability, the Windows 7 Beta was not publicly available until January 2009. Although Microsoft released an emergency out-of-band patch on October 23,2008 to close the vulnerability, a second variant of the virus, discovered in December 2008, added the ability to propagate over LANs through removable media and network shares. Researchers believe that these were factors in allowing the virus to propagate quickly. Intramar, the French Navy computer network, was infected with Conficker on 15 January 2009, the network was subsequently quarantined, forcing aircraft at several airbases to be grounded because their flight plans could not be downloaded. The United Kingdom Ministry of Defence reported that some of its major systems, on 2 February 2009, the Bundeswehr, the unified armed forces of Germany, reported that about one hundred of its computers were infected. An infection of Manchester City Councils IT system caused an estimated £1. 5m worth of disruption in February 2009, the use of USB flash drives was banned, as this was believed to be the vector for the initial infection. A memo from the Director of the UK Parliamentary ICT service informed the users of the House of Commons on 24 March 2009 that it had infected with the virus. The memo, which was leaked, called for users to avoid connecting any unauthorised equipment to the network. Five variants of the Conficker virus are known and have been dubbed Conficker A, B, C, D and E and they were discovered 21 November 2008,29 December 2008,20 February 2009,4 March 2009 and 7 April 2009, respectively. The Conficker Working Group uses namings of A, B, B++, C and this means that B++ is equivalent to C and C is equivalent to D. exe. Variants B and later may attach instead to a running services. exe or Windows Explorer process, variants B and C can remotely execute copies of themselves through the ADMIN$ share on computers visible over NetBIOS. If the share is password-protected, an attack is attempted, potentially generating large amounts of network traffic. Variants B and C place a copy of their DLL form on any attached removable media, the virus has several mechanisms for pushing or pulling executable payloads over the network
27.
Computer worm
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A computer worm is a standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers. Often, it uses a network to spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it. Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, even if only by consuming bandwidth, many worms that have been created are designed only to spread, and do not attempt to change the systems they pass through. However, as the Morris worm and Mydoom showed, even these payload free worms can cause major disruption by increasing network traffic, the actual term worm was first used in John Brunners 1975 novel, The Shockwave Rider. In that novel, Nichlas Haflinger designs and sets off a data-gathering worm in an act of revenge against the men who run a national electronic information web that induces mass conformity. You have the biggest-ever worm loose in the net, and it automatically sabotages any attempt to monitor it, theres never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail. S. Court of Appeals estimated the cost of removing the virus from each installation was in the range of $200–53,000, Morris himself became the first person tried and convicted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Any code designed to do more than spread the worm is typically referred to as the payload, typical malicious payloads might delete files on a host system, encrypt files in a ransomware attack, or exfiltrate data such as confidential documents or passwords. Probably the most common payload for worms is to install a backdoor and this allows the computer to be remotely controlled by the worm author as a zombie. Networks of such machines are referred to as botnets and are very commonly used for a range of malicious purposes. Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems, vendors with security problems supply regular security updates, and if these are installed to a machine then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, users need to be wary of opening unexpected email, and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails. However, as with the ILOVEYOU worm, and with the growth and efficiency of phishing attacks. Anti-virus and anti-spyware software are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days, the use of a firewall is also recommended. In the April–June,2008, issue of IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, the researchers discovered how to contain the kind of worm that scans the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect. They found that the key is for software to monitor the number of scans that machines on a network send out. When a machine starts sending out too many scans, it is a sign that it has been infected, allowing administrators to take it off line, in addition, machine learning techniques can be used to detect new worms, by analyzing the behavior of the suspected computer. Those worms allowed testing by John Shoch and Jon Hupp of the Ethernet principles on their network of Xerox Alto computers, the Nachi family of worms tried to download and install patches from Microsofts website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system—by exploiting those same vulnerabilities
28.
Haskell programming language
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Haskell /ˈhæskəl/ is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry, the latest standard of Haskell is Haskell 2010. As of May 2016, a group is working on the next version, Haskell features a type system with type inference and lazy evaluation. Type classes first appeared in the Haskell programming language and its main implementation is the Glasgow Haskell Compiler. Haskell is based on the semantics, but not the syntax, of the language Miranda, Haskell is used widely in academia and also used in industry. Following the release of Miranda by Research Software Ltd, in 1985, by 1987, more than a dozen non-strict, purely functional programming languages existed. Of these, Miranda was used most widely, but it was proprietary software, the committees purpose was to consolidate the existing functional languages into a common one that would serve as a basis for future research in functional-language design. The first version of Haskell was defined in 1990, the committees efforts resulted in a series of language definitions. The committee expressly welcomed creating extensions and variants of Haskell 98 via adding and incorporating experimental features, in February 1999, the Haskell 98 language standard was originally published as The Haskell 98 Report. In January 2003, a version was published as Haskell 98 Language and Libraries. The language continues to rapidly, with the Glasgow Haskell Compiler implementation representing the current de facto standard. In early 2006, the process of defining a successor to the Haskell 98 standard, informally named Haskell Prime and this was intended to be an ongoing incremental process to revise the language definition, producing a new revision up to once per year. The first revision, named Haskell 2010, was announced in November 2009 and it introduces the Language-Pragma-Syntax-Extension which allows for code designating a Haskell source as Haskell 2010 or requiring certain extensions to the Haskell language. Haskell features lazy evaluation, pattern matching, list comprehension, type classes and it is a purely functional language, which means that in general, functions in Haskell have no side effects. A distinct construct exists to represent side effects, orthogonal to the type of functions, a pure function may return a side effect which is subsequently executed, modeling the impure functions of other languages. Haskell has a strong, static type system based on Hindley–Milner type inference, haskells principal innovation in this area is to add type classes, originally conceived as a principled way to add overloading to the language, but since finding many more uses. The construct which represents side effects is an example of a monad, monads are a general framework which can model different kinds of computation, including error handling, nondeterminism, parsing, and software transactional memory. Monads are defined as ordinary datatypes, but Haskell provides some syntactic sugar for their use, Haskell has an open, published specification, and multiple implementations exist
29.
Package manager
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A package manager deals with packages, distributions of software and data in archive files. Packages contain metadata, such as the name, description of its purpose, version number, vendor, checksum. Upon installation, metadata is stored in a package database. Package managers typically maintain a database of software dependencies and version information to prevent software mismatches and they work closely with software repositories, binary repository managers, and app stores. Package managers are designed to eliminate the need for manual installs, a software package is an archive file containing a computer program as well as necessary metadata for its deployment. The computer program can be in source code that has to be compiled, Package metadata include package description, package version, and dependencies. Package managers are charged with the task of finding, installing, maintaining or uninstalling software packages upon the users command, in these systems, complex relationships between different packages requiring different versions of libraries results in a challenge colloquially known as dependency hell. On Microsoft Windows systems, this is also called DLL hell when working with dynamically linked libraries, good package management is vital on these systems. System administrators may install and maintain software using other than package management software. For example, an administrator may download unpackaged source code, compile it. This may cause the state of the system to fall out of synchronization with the state of the package managers database. The local administrator will be required to take measures, such as manually managing some dependencies or integrating the changes into the package manager. There are tools available to ensure that locally compiled packages are integrated with the package management, particularly troublesome with software upgrades are upgrades of configuration files. There are exceptions to this that usually apply to kernel configuration, problems can be caused if the format of configuration files changes. For instance, if the old configuration file does not explicitly disable new options that should be disabled, some package managers, such as Debians dpkg, allow configuration during installation. In other situations, it is desirable to install packages with the configuration and then overwrite this configuration, for instance. This kind of pre-configured installation is also supported by dpkg, to give users more control over the kinds of software that they are allowing to be installed on their system, software is often downloaded from a number of software repositories. This process is called version pinning
30.
Club (organization)
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A club is an association of two or more people united by a common interest or goal. A service club, for example, exists for voluntary or charitable activities, there are clubs devoted to hobbies and sports, social clubs, political and religious clubs. Historically, clubs occurred in all ancient states of which we have detailed knowledge, once people started living together in larger groups, there was need for people with a common interest to be able to associate despite having no ties of kinship. Organizations of the sort have existed for years, as evidenced by Ancient Greek clubs. It is uncertain whether the use of the club originated in its meaning of a knot of people. The oldest English clubs were merely informal periodic gatherings of friends for the purpose of dining or drinking with one another, thomas Occleve mentions such a club called La Court de Bonne Compagnie, of which he was a member. In 1659 John Aubrey wrote, “We now use the word clubbe for a sodality in a tavern. ”Of early clubs the most famous, John Selden, John Donne, John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont were among the members. Another such club, founded by Ben Jonson, met at the Devil Tavern near Temple Bar, the word “club, ” in the sense of an association to promote good-fellowship and social intercourse, became common in England at the time of Tatler and The Spectator. With the introduction of coffee-drinking in the middle of the 17th century, the coffee houses of the later Stuart period are the real originals of the modern clubhouse. The clubs of the late 17th and early 18th century type resembled their Tudor forerunners in being oftenest associations solely for conviviality or literary coteries, but many were confessedly political, e. g. The Rota, or Coffee Club, a society for the spread of republican ideas, broken up at the Restoration in 1660, the Calves Head Club. The characteristics of all clubs were, No permanent financial bond between the members, each man’s liability ending for the time being when he had paid his “score” after the meal. No permanent clubhouse, though each clique tended to some special coffee house or tavern their headquarters. ”So unpopular was this proclamation that it was almost instantly found necessary to withdraw it. The idea of the club developed in two directions, one was of a permanent institution with a fixed clubhouse. g. These still exist today as the famous gentlemens clubs, the peripatetic lifestyle of the 18th and 19th century middle classes also drove the development of more residential clubs, which had bedrooms and other facilities. Clubbing with a number of like-minded friends to secure a large shared house with a manager was therefore a convenient solution, the other sort of club meets occasionally or periodically and often has no clubhouse, but exists primarily for some specific object. Such are the many athletic, sports and pastimes clubs. The institution of the club has spread all over the English-speaking world
31.
Collusion
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It is an agreement among firms or individuals to divide a market, set prices, limit production or limit opportunities. It can involve wage fixing, kickbacks, or misrepresenting the independence of the relationship between the colluding parties, in legal terms, all acts effected by collusion are considered void. In the study of economics and market competition, collusion takes place within an industry when rival companies cooperate for their mutual benefit. Collusion most often takes place within the structure of oligopoly. Cartels are a case of explicit collusion. Collusion which is overt, on the hand, is known as tacit collusion. However, if firms collude to all prices, loss of sales is minimized. This benefits the colluding firms at the cost of efficiency to society, one variation of this traditional theory is the theory of kinked demand. Several examples of collusion in the United States include, Market division and price-fixing among manufacturers of electrical equipment in the 1960s. An attempt by Major League Baseball owners to restrict players salaries in the mid-1980s, Market division and output determination of livestock feed additive, called lysine, by companies in the US, Japan and South Korea in 1996, Archer Daniels Midland being the most notable of these. Chip dumping in poker or any other high stake card game and this allows each firm to see how and why every other firm is pricing their products. If the practice of the industry causes more complicated pricing, which is hard for the consumer to understand and this causes industries to have essentially the same prices and compete on advertising and image, something theoretically as damaging to consumers as normal price fixing. There can be significant barriers to collusion, in any given industry, these may include, The number of firms, As the number of firms in an industry increases, it is more difficult to successfully organize, collude and communicate. Cost and demand differences between firms, If costs vary significantly between firms, it may be impossible to establish a price at which to fix output. Cheating, There is considerable incentive to cheat on collusion agreements, although lowering prices might trigger price wars and this phenomenon is frequently referred to as chiseling. Potential entry, New firms may enter the industry, establishing a new baseline price, Economic recession, An increase in average total cost or a decrease in revenue provides incentive to compete with rival firms in order to secure a larger market share and increased demand. Anticollusion legal framework and collusive lawsuit, collusive lawsuit Conscious parallelism Corporate crime Baseball collusion Cartel Vives, X. Oligopoly pricing, MIT Press, Cambridge MA Tirole, J. The Theory of Industrial Organization, MIT Press, Cambridge MA Tirole, J. Hierarchies and Bureaucracies, Journal of Law Economics and Organization, vol
32.
Cult
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The Committee on Culture and Education is a committee of the European Parliament. This committee has focused on the well-being of all members of the human race, looking at the Unions education policy, Both in the school education systems, and in lifelong-learning programmes, such as museums and libraries. Developing an audiovisual policy and connecting this with educational information systems, looking at the development of a sports and leisure policy with an additional youth policy. Looking to connect information with a media policy, cooperation with third countries in the areas of culture and education and relations with the relevant international organisations and institutions. In this current term, the Committee on Culture and Education has looked at three issues, the first issue is the protection of members of circuses in the European Union. The Committee has declared these members of society as a culture in the EU. This resolution passed on July 12,2005 with a vote of 29 in favor,1 against, the second dealt with the standardization of higher education systems through thorough internal assessments in accordance with the European Higher Education Area. Education also must promote diversity in its students and in the programs offered by the various institutions and it was adopted on August 30,2005 with a vote of 24 in favor,1 against, and 1 abstained. The third issue has regarded the protection of minors, the committee has brought forth a resolution for the protection of minors in all areas of media, including magazines, newspapers, and the Internet. Among numerous other provisions, it will offer classes in safe usage of the Internet and this committee, however, does not desire to diminish freedom of speech. This resolution was adopted on September 22,2005 with a vote of 21 in favor and 1 against, the Parliament has made a point of trying to promote culture. It has hosted cultural events,150 took place in 2005, including art. Some exhibitions have been on the topics of breast cancer, the Srebrenica massacre, as of 2007, is also gives the Lux Prize for European Cinema. There are also three members that are not attached to any particular party
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Gang
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Some criminal gang members are jumped in or have to prove their loyalty by committing acts such as theft or violence. A member of a gang may be called a gangster or a thug, in early usage, the word gang referred to a group of workmen. In the United Kingdom, the word is often used in this sense. In current usage, it denotes a criminal organization or else a criminal affiliation. The word gang often carries a connotation, however, within a gang which defines itself in opposition to mainstream norms. The word gang derives from the past participle of Old English gan and it is cognate with Old Norse gangster, meaning journey. In discussing banditry in American history Barrington Moore, Jr, according to some estimates the Thuggee gangs in India murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. The 17th century saw London terrorized by a series of organized gangs, some of known as the Mims, Hectors, Bugles. These gangs often came into conflict with each other, the members dressed with colored ribbons to distinguish the different factions. Chicago had over 1,000 gangs in the 1920s, Gang involvement in drug trafficking increased during the 1970s and 1980s, but some gangs continue to have minimal involvement in the trade. In the United States, the history of gangs began on the East Coast in 1783 following the American Revolution, the emergence of the gangs was largely attributed to the vast rural population immigration to the urban areas. The first street-gang in the United States, the 40 Thieves, the gangs in Washington D. C. had control of what is now Federal Triangle, in a region then known as Murder Bay. In 2007, there were approximately 785,000 active street gang members in the United States, approximately 230,000 gang members were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2011. According to the Chicago Crime Commission publication, The Gang Book 2012, traditionally Los Angeles County has been considered the Gang Capital of America, with an estimated 120,000 gang members. There were at least 30,000 gangs and 800,000 gang members active across the USA in 2007, about 900,000 gang members lived within local communities across the country, and about 147,000 were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2009. By 1999, Hispanics accounted for 47% of all members, Blacks 31%, Whites 13%. A December 13,2009 The New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone. There are between 25,000 and 50,000 gang members in Central Americas El Salvador, more than 1,800 gangs were known to be operating in the UK in 2011
34.
Social group
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In the social sciences, a social group has been defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Other theorists disagree however, and are wary of definitions which stress the importance of interdependence or objective similarity, instead, researchers within the social identity tradition generally define it as a group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as members of the group. Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties, for example, a society can be viewed as a large social group. A social group exhibits some degree of cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, kinship ties being a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. In a similar vein, some consider the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction. According to Dunbars number, on average, people cannot maintain stable relationships with more than 150 individuals. Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif proposed to define a unit as a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to, Common motives and goals An accepted division of labor. It succeeds at providing the researcher with the required to answer three important questions, How is a group formed. How does one describe those social interactions occur on the way to forming a group. The attention of those who use, participate in, or study groups has focused on functioning groups, on larger organizations, or on the decisions made in these organizations. Much less attention has been paid to the ubiquitous and universal social behaviors that do not clearly demonstrate one or more of the five necessary elements described by Sherif. The primary goal of members was to defend gang territory. There remains in the media and urban law enforcement agencies an avid interest in gangs. However, these studies and the continued interest have not improved the capacity to influence behavior or to reduce gang related violence. The relevant literature on animal social behaviors, such as work on territory, also, they have been largely neglected by policy makers, sociologists and anthropologists. Of course, while this is true, it is likely that the study of the social behaviors of other animals might shed light on the evolutionary roots of social behavior in people. Territorial and dominance behaviors in humans are so universal and commonplace that they are taken for granted
35.
The Establishment
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The Establishment generally denotes a dominant group or elite that holds power or authority in a nation or organization. The Establishment may be a social group which selects its own members or specific entrenched elite structures. The American Sociological Association states that the term is used by those protesting a small group that dominates a larger organization. The positions against it are antiestablishmentarianism, and populism, for example, candidates for political office are often said to have to impress the party establishment in order to win endorsement. The exercise of power in the United Kingdom cannot be understood unless it is recognized that it is exercised socially, following that, the term, the Establishment, was quickly picked up in newspapers and magazines all over London, making Fairlie famous. However, the term The Establishment, had used by Ralph Waldo Emerson in a similar fashion. Nevertheless, the Oxford English Dictionary would cite Fairlies column as its locus classicus, however, author and professor Carroll Quigley of Georgetown University, in his book The Anglo-American Establishment, used the term much more specifically than did Fairlie. In that book, Quigley exposes the secret societys established in London in 1891, Quigley explains how these men worked in union to begin their society to control the world. He explains how all the wars from that time were deliberately created to control the economies of all the nations, much more generally, this use of the word, Establishment, may have been influenced by the British term, established church, for the official church of England. The term was found useful in discussing the power elites in many other countries. The English word is now used as a loanword in other languages. The term, establishment is often used in Australia to refer both to the political parties and also to the powers behind those parties. In the book, Anti-political Establishment Parties, A Comparative Analysis by Amir Abedi, Amir Abedi refers to the Labor Party and it is communally thought that the Coalition parties are more closely aligned to the American and particularly the British political establishment than is the Labor Party. This would seem to be out by the fact that many more former members of the Coalition parties have been honoured by the monarchy for services to the Commonwealth. The original Canadian Establishment began as a mix between the British and U. S. models, combining political appointments and business acumen, the Family Compact is the first identifiable Canadian Establishment in Anglophone Canada. In francophone Canada, the leaders of the Catholic Church also played a major role. Newman defined the modern Canadian Establishment in his 1975 book The Canadian Establishment and it catalogued the richest individuals and families living in Canada at the time. All of the people he identified were prominent business leaders, especially in the media
36.
The Atlantic
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The Atlantic is an American magazine, founded in 1857 as The Atlantic Monthly in Boston, Massachusetts. Since 2006, the magazine is based in Washington, D. C, created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine, it has grown to achieve a national reputation as a high-quality review organ with a moderate worldview. The magazine has recognized and published new writers and poets. It has published leading writers commentary on abolition, education, the periodical has won more National Magazine Awards than any other monthly magazine. The first issue of the magazine was published on November 1,1857, the magazines initiator and founder was Francis H. Underwood, an assistant to the publisher, who received less recognition than his partners because he was neither a humbug nor a Harvard man. After experiencing financial hardship and a series of changes, the magazine was reformatted as a general editorial magazine. Focusing on foreign affairs, politics, and the cultural trends, it is now primarily aimed at a target audience of serious national readers. In 2010, The Atlantic posted its first profit in a decade, in profiling the publication at the time, The New York Times noted the accomplishment was the result of a cultural transfusion, a dose of counterintuition and a lot of digital advertising revenue. The magazine, subscribed to by over 425,000 readers, the Atlantic features articles in the fields of the arts, the economy, foreign affairs, political science, and technology. The Atlantics president is Bob Cohn, in April 2005, The Atlantics editors decided to cease publishing fiction in regular issues in favor of a newsstand-only annual fiction issue edited by longtime staffer C. Michael Curtis. They have since re-instituted the practice, on January 22,2008, TheAtlantic. com dropped its subscriber wall and allowed users to freely browse its site, including all past archives. TheAtlantic. com covers politics, business, entertainment, technology, health, international affairs, and more. In December 2011, a new Health Channel launched on TheAtlantic. com, incorporating coverage of food, as well as related to the mind, body, sex, family. TheAtlantic. com has expanded to visual storytelling with the addition of the In Focus photo blog, curated by Alan Taylor. A leading literary magazine, The Atlantic has published significant works. It was the first to publish pieces by the abolitionists Julia Ward Howe, for example, Emily Dickinson, after reading an article in The Atlantic by Thomas Wentworth Higginson, asked him to become her mentor. In 2005, the magazine won a National Magazine Award for fiction, the magazine also published many of the works of Mark Twain, including one that was lost until 2001. Editors have recognized major cultural changes and movements, for example, the magazine has also published speculative articles that inspired the development of new technologies
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
