1.
Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
2.
Sugarcane
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It has stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in the sugar sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. The plant is two to six meters tall, all sugar cane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Sucrose, extracted and purified in specialized factories, is used as raw material in the food industry or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry, sugarcane is the worlds largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates it was cultivated on about 26×106 hectares, in more than 90 countries, Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, the world demand for sugar is the primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar produced, most of the rest is made from sugar beets, sugarcane predominantly grows in the tropical and subtropical regions. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça, bagasse, in some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded inflorescence of tebu telor is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture, merchants began to trade in sugar from India, which was considered a luxury and an expensive spice. Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, the stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, the average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea. It is theorized that sugarcane was first domesticated as a crop in New Guinea around 6000 BC, New Guinean farmers and other early cultivators of sugarcane chewed the plant for its sweet juice. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear, the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
3.
Aguardiente
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Aguardiente is a generic term for alcoholic beverages that contain between 29% and 60% alcohol by volume. The word is a compound of the Romance languages words for water and fiery, both aguardiente and brandy—from the Dutch expression for burnt wine—originated as terms for distilled spirits using whatever ingredients were available locally. Aguardientes are strong alcoholic beverages, obtained by fermentation and later distillation of sugared or sweet musts, vegetable macerations and this is the most generic level, by this definition, aguardientes may be made from a number of different sources. Fruit-based aguardientes include those made from oranges, grapes, bananas, under this definition, many other distinct liquors could be called aguardientes, including vodka, shochu, pisco, and certain forms of hard chicha. However, aguardiente and aguardente are not legal denominations on their own, instead, different categories of aguardientes are established according to raw materials. In the Spanish version, wine spirit is aguardiente de vino, fruit spirit is aguardiente de fruta, grain spirit is aguardiente de cereales, on 14 November 1996, an analysis concluded that cane aguardiente and cachaça are similar, but distinct, products. Cachaça, on the hand, is an alcoholic beverage of between 38% and 48% alcohol by volume, obtained by fermenting and distilling sugarcane juice. Some drinks named aguardiente or similar are of different origin, other drinks with the origin may have different names. In Brazil, a known as cachaça or pinga, considered distinct from traditional aguardiente, is made from sugar cane. Cachaça, like rum, has two varieties, unaged and aged, white cachaça is usually bottled immediately after distillation and tends to be cheaper. It is often used to prepare caipirinha and other beverages in which cachaça is an ingredient, dark cachaça, usually seen as the premium variety, is aged in wood barrels, and is meant to be drunk neat. Traditionally, no herbs are used to flavour the cachaça, and its flavour is influenced by the agent, time spent in the cask. In Colombia, aguardiente is an anise-flavoured liqueur derived from sugar cane, each department of Colombia holds the rights to produce it, but aguardiente produced in one region can be sold in another. By adding different amounts of aniseed, different flavours are obtained, leading to extensive marketing, other anise-flavoured liqueurs similar to aguardiente, but with a lower alcohol content, are also sold. In general, aguardiente is rarely drunk in cocktails, and usually drunk neat, in Costa Rica, aguardiente is known as guaro. In this form it has 30% alcohol and has a neutral flavour, guaro is tightly controlled by the Costa Rican government to help prevent clandestine production. In Chile, aguardiente is a beverage of 45% and higher alcohol content by volume. It is made, like Italian grappa, by distilling the grape residue, primarily the skins and pulp plus the stems and seeds and it is used to make several other flavored liquors, such as the murtado or enmurtillado, the enguindado and licor de oro
4.
Distillation
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Distillation is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation and condensation. Distillation may result in complete separation, or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture. In either case the process exploits differences in the volatility of the mixtures components, in industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. For example, In the fossil fuel industry distillation is a class of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil for fuels. Distillation permits separation of air into its components — notably oxygen, nitrogen, Distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates out other fermentation products of commercial value. An installation for distillation, especially of alcohol, is a distillery, the distillation equipment is a still. Distillation is an old method of artificial desalination. Aristotle wrote about the process in his Meteorologica and even that ordinary wine possesses a kind of exhalation, later evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Distilled water has been known since at least c,200, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process. Work on distilling other liquids continued in early Byzantine Egypt under the Greek-Egyptian Zosimus of Panopolis, Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han Dynasty, but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the Jin and Southern Song dynasties. A still was found in a site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were more common during the Yuan dynasty, arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments. Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century, fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi the first book dedicated to the subject of distillation. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice and this includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations, riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour. These alembics often featured a system around the beak, using cold water for instance. Today, the retorts and pot stills have largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes
5.
Alcoholic drink
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Long-term use can lead to alcohol abuse, physical dependence, and alcoholism. Drinking alcohol plays an important social role in many cultures, most countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption, some countries ban such activities entirely. However, alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world, the global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2014. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs in the world. For instance, in 2015, among Americans, 89% of adults had consumed alcohol at point, 70% had drunk it in the last year. Alcoholic drinks are divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically contain between 3% and 40% alcohol by volume. Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period, wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes. Wine involves a longer process than beer and also a long aging process. Sparkling wine can be made by means of a secondary fermentation, fruit wines are made from fruits other than grapes, such as plums, cherries, or apples. Sake is an example of rice wine. Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash and it is made from barley or a blend of several grains. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink is a spirit, beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world. Cider or cyder is an alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice, apple juice, peaches. Cider alcohol content varies from 1. 2% ABV to 8. 5% or more in traditional English ciders, in some regions, cider may be called apple wine. Mead is a drink created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains. The alcoholic content of mead may range from about 8% ABV to more than 20%, the defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drinks fermentable sugar is derived from honey. A distilled drink or liquor is a drink produced by distilling ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have a content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits
6.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
7.
Caipirinha
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Caipirinha is Brazils national cocktail, made with cachaça, sugar and lime. Cachaça, also known as pinga, caninha, or any one of a multitude of names, is Brazils most common distilled alcoholic beverage. The drink is prepared by muddling the fruit and the sugar together and this can be made into a single glass, usually large, that can be shared amongst people, or into a larger jar, from where it is served in individual glasses. Today it is still being used as a remedy for the common cold, as it was quite common to add some distilled spirits to home remedies, in order to expedite the therapeutic effect, rum was commonly used. Until one day decided to remove the garlic and honey. Then added a few tablespoons sugar to reduce the acidity of lime, the ice came next, to ward off the heat, explains Carlos Lima, executive director of IBRAC. The caipirinha is the strongest national cocktail of Brazil and is imbibed in restaurants, bars, the International Bartenders Association has designated it as one of their Official Cocktails. The word caipirinha is the diminutive of the word caipira, which in Brazilian Portuguese refers to someone from the countryside, the diminutive mostly refers to the drink in which case it is a feminine noun. Caipifruta is a very popular drink in Brazil, consisting of cachaça, crushed fresh fruits. The most popular fresh fruits used to create caipifrutas are tangerine, lime, kiwifruit, passion fruit, pineapple, lemon, grapes, mango, cajá, there are many derivations of caipirinha in which other spirits substitute for cachaça. Some include, Caipinheger is another variation made using Steinhäger, caipirão is another Portuguese variation made using Licor Beirão instead of cachaça. Beirão liquor is sweet, so no sugar is used. A variation from Italy is made using Campari instead of cachaça
8.
Brazilian cuisine
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Brazilian cuisine has European, African and Amerindian influences. It varies greatly by region, reflecting the mix of native and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences, ingredients first used by native peoples in Brazil include cassava, guaraná, açaí, cumaru, cashew and tucupi. From there, the waves of immigrants brought some of their typical dishes. For instance, the European immigrants were accustomed to a diet, and introduced wine, leafy vegetables. When potatoes were not available they discovered how to use the native sweet manioc as a replacement, enslaved Africans also had a role in developing Brazilian cuisine, especially in the coastal states. Root vegetables such as cassava, yams, and fruit like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, guava, orange, passion fruit, pineapple, and hog plum are among the local ingredients used in cooking. Some typical dishes are feijoada, considered the national dish. The national beverage is coffee, while cachaça is Brazils native liquor, cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, caipirinha. Cheese buns, and salgadinhos such as pastéis, coxinhas, risólis and kibbeh are common food items. There is not a single national Brazilian cuisine, but there is an assortment of various regional traditions. This diversity is linked to the origins of the people inhabiting each dam, for instance, the culinary in Bahia is heavily influenced by a mix of African, Indigenous and Portuguese cuisines. Chili and palm oil are very common, but in the Northern states, due to the abundance of forest and freshwater rivers, fish and cassava are staple foods. In Rio, São Paulo and Minas Gerais, the feijoada is popular especially as a Wednesday or Saturday lunch, also consumed frequently is picadinho or rice and beans. In Rio de Janeiro, besides the feijoada, a plate is any variation of grilled bovine fillet, rice and beans, farofa and French fries. Seafood is very popular in areas, as is roasted chicken. In São Paulo, a dish is virado à paulista, made with rice, tutu de feijão, sauteed kale. São Paulo is also the home of pastel, a food consisting of thin pastry envelopes wrapped around assorted fillings and it is a common belief that they originated when Japanese immigrants adapted the recipe of fried spring rolls to sell as snacks at weekly street markets
9.
Etiquette in Latin America
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Etiquette in Latin America varies by country and by region within a given country. There are several definitions of Latin America, but all of them define a huge expanse of geography with an amount of different customs. It is common to known people by kissing him/her in the cheek. In addition, many Latin American people have a sense of personal space than people from English-speaking cultures. It may be rude to step away from someone when they are stepping closer, at some finer restaurants, it may be considered rude for the staff to bring a customer the check without the customer first requesting it. It is considered impolite to toss objects to people instead of handing it to them. The American come here gesture of palm upwards with the fingers curled back can be considered a romantic solicitation, the following points of etiquette apply most specifically to a certain region, Brazilians speak Portuguese, not Spanish. Addressing someone who speaks Portuguese in Spanish, although most Brazilians understand Spanish to a reasonable degree, in Brazil, a form of the American okay gesture is obscene when directed at someone with the symbol upside down, implying something like go f. yourself. However, the standard okay gesture is used, as is the thumbs up gesture. The gesture of flipping someone off by hitting the wrist against the inside of the elbow is considered playful, giving someone of the opposite gender a gift may be easily misinterpreted as a romantic overture, except for birthdays. In some parts of the country, most notably in rural or suburban areas in which homes may not have doorbells, the appropriate action is to stand in the yard and clap ones hands. If no one comes to the door, then the visitor may approach the door, knock and this is especially applicable in regards to small, thin-walled cottages that offer less privacy than homes in North America. Although tied more closely to France than to Spain or Portugal, entering a household and not greeting the elders or owners of the household is regarded as highly offensive. Say bonjou or bonswa when entering a room or passing by someone on the street, eating is considered a social event and so withdrawing from the center of activities during meals is considered slightly offensive. At restaurants, the one who extended the invitation pays the bill, unless another woman is present, a woman should not buy dinner for a man. Making arrangements for payment before the meal is considered especially polite, when summoning a server, make eye contact, waving or calling their names is very impolite. At the dining table, the European etiquette applies, ladies sit first, fork on the left, elbows off the table, etc. When utensils are not being used, a persons hands are expected to be visible above the table resting the wrists on top of the table, diners are expected to stay at the table for the entire meal, no bathroom breaks
10.
Madeira
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Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago situated in the north Atlantic Ocean, southwest of Portugal. Its total population was estimated in 2011 at 267,785, the capital of Madeira is Funchal, located on the main islands south coast. The archipelago is just under 400 kilometres north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, since 1976, the archipelago has been one of the two Autonomous regions of Portugal. It includes the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Desertas, the region has political and administrative autonomy through the Administrative Political Statue of the Autonomous Region of Madeira provided for in the Portuguese Constitution. Madeira was claimed by Portuguese sailors in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator in 1419, the archipelago is considered to be the first territorial discovery of the exploratory period of the Portuguese Age of Discovery, which extended from 1415 to 1542. Today, it is a popular resort, being visited every year by about one million tourists. The region is noted for its Madeira wine, gastronomy, historical and cultural value, its flora and fauna, landscapes which are classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and embroidery artisans. Its annual New Year celebrations feature the largest fireworks show in the world, Madeira is the second richest region of Portugal by GDP per capita, only surpassed by Lisbon. They are called the Isles of the Blessed, archeological evidence suggests that the islands may have been visited by the Vikings sometime between 900-1030. During the reign of King Edward III of England, lovers Robert Machim and they were driven off their course by a violent storm and their ship went aground along the coast of an island, that may have been Madeira. Later this legend was the basis of the naming of the city of Machico, knowledge of some Atlantic islands, such as Madeira, existed before their formal discovery and settlement, as the islands were shown on maps as early as 1339. The following year, an expedition, under the captaincy of Zarco, Vaz Teixeira. Subsequently, the new settlers observed a black cloud suspended to the southwest. Their investigation revealed it to be the island they called Madeira. The first Portuguese settlers began colonizing the islands around 1420 or 1425, grain production began to fall and the ensuing crisis forced Henry the Navigator to order other commercial crops to be planted so that the islands could be profitable. The planting of sugarcane, and later Sicilian sugar beet, allowed the introduction of the salt into Europe. These specialised plants, and their associated industrial technology, created one of the major revolutions on the islands, the expansion of sugar plantations in Madeira began in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and financed by Genoese capital. The accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders, who were keen to bypass Venetian monopolies, by 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp
11.
Alcohol by volume
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Alcohol by volume is a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in a given volume of an alcoholic beverage. It is defined as the number of millilitres of pure ethanol present in 100 millilitres of solution at 20 °C, the number of millilitres of pure ethanol is the mass of the ethanol divided by its density at 20 °C, which is 0.78924 g/ml. The ABV standard is used worldwide, the International Organization of Legal Metrology has tables of density of water–ethanol mixtures at different concentrations and temperatures. In some countries, such as the U. K and France, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac and this results in the slight difference in marked % noted later in this article. Mixing two solutions of alcohol of different strengths usually causes a change in volume, mixing pure water with a solution less than 24% by mass causes a slight increase in total volume, whereas the mixing of two solutions above 24% causes a decrease in volume. The phenomenon of volume due to mixing dissimilar solutions is called partial molar volume. Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them. Another way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol proof, for example, 40% abv is 80 proof in the US and 70 proof in the UK. However, since 1980, alcohol proof in the UK has been replaced by abv as a measure of alcohol content, in the United States, a few states regulate and tax alcoholic beverages according to alcohol by weight, expressed as a percentage of total mass. Some brewers print the ABW on beer containers, particularly on low-point versions of domestic beer brands. However, because of the miscibility of alcohol and water, the factor is not constant. 100% ABW, of course, is equivalent to 100% ABV, during the production of wine and beer, yeast is added to a sugary solution. During fermentation, the yeasts consume the sugars and produce alcohol, the density of sugar in water is greater than the density of alcohol in water. A hydrometer is used to measure the change in gravity of the solution before. The volume of alcohol in the solution can then be estimated, there are a number of empirical formulae which brewers and winemakers use to estimate the alcohol content of the liquor made. The simplest method for wine has been described by English author C. J. J, the number 0.7936 is the specific gravity of a 100% ethanol solution. The difference between the starting SG and the final SG measures the specific gravity lost to CO2 release
12.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
13.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
14.
Barrel
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A barrel, cask, or tun is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wooden staves bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons, wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres. Modern barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum, stainless steel, someone who makes barrels is called a barrel maker or cooper. Barrels are only one type of cooperage, other types include, but are not limited to, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, kegs, kilderkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins, and breakers. An aging barrel is used to age wine, distilled spirits such as whiskey, brandy, or rum, beer, tabasco sauce, when a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in. Oxygen enters a barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation, in an environment with 100% relative humidity, very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune, beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of the compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins. The presence of these depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried. After roughly three years, most of a barrels flavor compounds have been leached out and it is well on its way to becoming neutral, barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak, but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages use Japanese cedar, which imparts an unusual, in Peru and Chile, a grape distillate named pisco is either aged in oak or in earthenware. Some wines are fermented on barrel, as opposed to in a container like steel or wine-grade HDPE tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called open-tops. Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, the tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain the desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, some winemakers use 200% new oak, where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are more cheaply flavored by soaking oak chips in them instead of being aged in a barrel. Sherry is stored in 600-litre casks made of North American oak, the casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving the space of two fists empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. NOTE, This section uses both the U. S. –Irish typical spelling whiskey and the British–Canadian typical spelling whisky, laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels
15.
Rum
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Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels. The majority of the rum production occurs in the Caribbean. Rums are produced in various grades, light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas golden and dark rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and this beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery, organized crime. The origin of the rum is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the origin, Samuel Morewood. He wrote, As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility, that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning strong or potent. These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century, however, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a version of rumbullion or rumbustion. Both words surfaced in English about the time as rum did. This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses. Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for again, a second time, or arôme, French for aroma. A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc. In current usage, the used for a rum is often based on its place of origin
16.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
17.
Pot still
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A pot still is a type of distillation apparatus or still used to distill alcoholic spirits such as whisky or cognac. Pot stills operate on a batch distillation basis, traditionally constructed from copper, pot stills are made in a range of shapes and sizes depending on the quantity and style of spirit desired. By law, cognac, Irish and Scotch malt whiskies, during first distillation, the pot still is filled about two-thirds full of a fermented liquid with an alcohol content of about 7-12%. In the case of distillation, the liquid used is a beer, while in the case of brandy production. The pot still is then heated so that the liquid boils, the liquid being distilled is a mixture of mainly water and alcohol, along with smaller amounts of other by-products of fermentation, such as aldehydes and esters. Alcohol has a boiling point of 78.4 °C, compared with pure water. As alcohol has a boiling point, it is more volatile. Therefore, the concentration of alcohol in the vapour phase above the liquid, is higher than in the liquid itself and this distillate, called low wines has a concentration of about 25–35% alcohol by volume. These low wines can be distilled a second time in a pot still to yield a distillate with a higher concentration of alcohol. In the case of many Irish whiskeys, the spirit is further distilled a third time, however, Cognac and most single malt scotch whiskys are only distilled twice. During distillation, the initial and final portions of spirit which condense may be captured separately from that in the centre or heart of the distillation and this is because these portions of the distillate may contain high concentrations of methanol, or other congeners. The modern pot still is a descendant of the alembic, a distillation device. The largest pot still ever used was located in the Old Midleton Distillery, County Cork, constructed in 1825, it had a capacity of 31,618 imperial gallons and is no longer in use. The largest pot stills currently in use are located in the neighbouring New Midleton Distillery, County Cork, Ireland
18.
Pernambuco
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Pernambuco is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. The state of Pernambuco also includes the archipelago Fernando de Noronha and its capital and largest city, Recife, is one of the most important economic and urban hubs in the country. As of 2013 estimates, Recifes metropolitan area is the fifth most populous in the country, in 1982 the city of Olinda, the second oldest city in Brazil, was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Recife, the capital and Olinda have one of the most traditional Brazilian Carnivals. Both have architecture of Portugal, with centuries-old casarões and churches, kilometers of beaches, the proximity of the equator guarantees sunshine throughout the year, with average temperatures of 26 °C. Pernambuco comprises a narrow coastal zone, a high inland plateau. Ranges of these form the boundary lines with three states–the Serra dos Irmãos and Serra Vermelha with Piauí, the Serra do Araripe with Ceará. The coastal area is fertile, and was covered by the humid Pernambuco coastal forests. It is now place to extensive sugar cane plantations and it has a hot, humid climate, relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds. The middle zone, called the region, has a drier climate and lighter vegetation, including the semi-deciduous Pernambuco interior forests. The inland region, called the sertão is high, stony, and dry, the climate is characterized by hot days and cool nights. There are two defined seasons, a rainy season from March to June, and a dry season for the remaining months. The interior of the state is covered mostly by the dry thorny scrub vegetation called caatinga, the Rio São Francisco is the main water source for this area. The climate is mild in the countryside of the state because of the Borborema Plateau. Some towns are located more than 1000 meters above sea level, the island of Fernando de Noronha in the Atlantic Ocean,535 km northeast of Recife, has been part of Pernambuco since 1988. The rivers of the include a number of small plateau streams flowing southward to the São Francisco River. The former are the Moxotó, Ema, Pajeú, Terra Nova, Brigida, Boa Vista and Pontai, a large tributary of the Uná, the Rio Jacuhipe, forms part of the boundary line with Alagoas. Originally inhabited by tribes of Tupi-Guarani speaking indigenous peoples, Pernambuco was first settled by the Portuguese in the 16th century
19.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching
20.
Paraty
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Paraty is a preserved Portuguese colonial and Brazilian Imperial municipality with a population of about 36,000. It is located on the Costa Verde, a lush, green corridor that runs along the coastline of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Paraty has become a popular tourist destination in recent years, renowned for the historic town and the coast and mountains in the region. The town is located on the Bay of Ilha Grande, which is dotted with many tropical islands, rising up as high as 1,300 meters behind the town are tropical forests, mountains, and waterfalls. It is the southernmost and westernmost city in Rio de Janeiro state, Paraty has great tourist appeal due to its natural beauty, and is listed by IPHAN a National Historic Landmark. Nearby is the Serra do Mar State Park of São Paulo, the municipality also includes an indigenous village and an Afro-Brazilian quilombo settelement. The temperature in Paraty ranges from 16 °C to 37C, however, sea breezes temper the heat and afternoon rains are common in the summer. The flag of Paraty was adopted on August 12,1967, the overall colors of the flag represent the following traits, gold signifies strength, silver represents innocence, red is bravery, blue serenity, and green is the color of abundance. Red, white, and blue are the three colors that have traditionally used to decorate the historic houses of the city. The colors are displayed in three stripes, with a coat of arms on the center. The large white star on the red symbolizes the first district. The three stars are placed in a form, in homage to the strong presence of Freemasonry in the architecture of the city. The coat of arms shown on the flag was adopted on November 30,1960. The third quarter, which is white, blue and yellow is an outline of the city, finally the fourth quarter of blue shows the corner of a colonial house and a wrought-iron rail which is representative of the colonial-style houses that exemplify Paraty. The flora which supports the red scroll are a branch of coffee tree, the scroll itself bears the inscription “1660 Paraty 1844” These are the dates that Paraty initially achieved status as a town and then later city status. The village of Paraty was founded in 1597 and it was established formally as a town by Portuguese colonizers in 1667, in a region populated by the Guaianás Indians. The Guaianás people who lived where the city now called the entire area “Paraty”. In the Tupi language “Paraty” means “river of fish”, even today the Brazilian Mullet still come back to spawn in the rivers that spill into the Bay of Paraty. When the region was colonized by the Portuguese, they adopted the Guaianás name for their new town
21.
Rio de Janeiro (state)
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Rio de Janeiro is one of the 27 states of Brazil. It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo, the state of Rio de Janeiro is located within the Brazilian geopolitical region classified as the Southeast. Rio de Janeiro shares borders with all the states in the same Southeast macroregion, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo. It is bounded on the east and south by the Atlantic Ocean, Rio de Janeiro has an area of 43,653 km². The archaic demonym meaning for the Rio de Janeiro State is fluminense, taken from the Latin word flumen, from 1783 and during all the Imperial Regime, carioca remained only as a nickname by which other Brazilians called the inhabitants of Rio. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, carioca was the given to those who lived in the slums or a pejorative way to refer the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the City of Rio lost its status as Federal District and became a Brazilian State when the capital was moved to Brasilia, carioca was made a co-official demonym with guanabarino. In 1975, the Guanabara State was extinct by President Geisel becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro, nowadays, social movements like Somos Todos Cariocas try to achieve the official recognition of carioca as a co-official demonym of Rio de Janeiro State. Rio de Janeiro is the smallest state in the Southeast macroregion, in the Brazilian flag, the state is represented by the Beta star in the Southern Cross. European presence in Rio de Janeiro is as old as Brazil itself, Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565, the city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil, with the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808, the region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico and the Academia Real Militar, during this same time, the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios was founded as well. In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a city, remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the city became the federal district. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, with the relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State. Niterói remained the capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara. In 1975, the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro were merged under the name of Rio de Janeiro, the symbols of the former State of Rio de Janeiro were preserved, while the symbols of Guanabara were kept by the city of Rio de Janeiro
22.
Bahia
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Bahia is one of the 26 states of Brazil and is located in the northeastern part of the country on the Atlantic coast. It is the 4th-largest Brazilian state by population and the 5th-largest by area, Bahias capital is the city of Salvador, located on a spit of land separating the Bay of All Saints from the Atlantic. Once a monarchial stronghold dominated by agricultural, slaving, and ranching interests, the name of the state derives from the earlier captaincy of Bahia de Todos os Santos, named for Bay of All Saints, a major feature of its coastline. The bay itself was named by the explorer Amerigo Vespucci during his second voyage and he named it after his parish church in Florence, San Salvatore di Ognissanti. Over time, the bay became distinguished as the Bay of All Saints, the state as Bahia, Bahia is bordered on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, with its Bay of All Saints the largest in Brazil. In the north, it is now bordered by Sergipe, Alagoas, Pernambuco, in the northwest, it is bordered by Tocantins. In the southwest, it borders Goiás, and in the south it is bordered by Espírito Santo, the state is crossed from north to south by the Diamantina Tableland, which divides it into two distinct geographical zones. To the east, the soil is fertile and the rain falls regularly, the western area is more arid and its predominate vegetation the cerrado. The natural aridity was greatly worsened over the 19th century by the habit of starting wildfires each year to improve the quality of the grass. The Green Road, a road that connects Mangue Seco in the far north to Praia do Forte, for this reason, the route is sometimes more than 10 km from the beach. At Praia do Forte, the road meets the Coconut Road leading to Salvador, passing through spots, in this region is located Deputado Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport. The largest bay on the Brazilian coast, the Bay of All Saints has a number of islands with tropical beaches. It is the largest navigable bay in Brazil and one of the most favorite spots for sports, due to its regular breezes, medium annual temperature of 26 °C. Major popular events and sport activities occur throughout the year, beginning on January 1, the islands of the bay are a separate attraction. Some are privately owned, others were declared a state heritage, other islands are the patrimony of 12 municipalities located around the bay. Only a few are uninhabited and many have small communities where the live on fishing. All have common characteristics, such a sea, dense vegetation, especially coconuts. Of the 56 islands, the most important are Itaparica, Madre de Deus, Maré, Frades, Medo, the Dendê Coast, south of Salvador, is surrounded by verdant vegetation, clear waters, islands, bays, coral reefs and a very diversified fauna
23.
Grappa
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Grappa is an alcoholic beverage, a fragrant, grape-based pomace brandy of Italian origin that contains 35 to 60 percent alcohol by volume. The flavour of grappa, like that of wine, depends on the type and quality of the grapes used, Grappa is made by distilling the skins, pulp, seeds, and stems left over from winemaking after pressing the grapes. It was originally made to prevent waste by using these leftovers, a similar drink, known as acquavite duva, is made by distilling whole must. Grappa is now a name in the European Union. Criterion 3 has two important implications, first, the distillation must occur on solids. Thus, it is carried out not with a flame but with a bain-marie or steam distillation, otherwise. Second, the parts of the grapes are co-fermented with the sugar-rich juice, this produces a very small amount of methanol. Unlike in the process of making red wine, in grappa the methanol must be carefully removed during distillation. That is why there is an Italian law requiring winemakers to sell their pomace to grappa makers, this is a measure that was taken against moonshine operations, in Italy, grappa is primarily served as a digestivo or after-dinner drink. Its main purpose is to aid in the digestion of heavy meals, Grappa may also be added to espresso coffee to create a caffè corretto, meaning corrected coffee. Another variation of this is the ammazzacaffè, the espresso is drunk first, in Veneto, there is resentin, after finishing a cup of espresso with sugar, a few drops of grappa are poured into the nearly empty cup, swirled, and drunk down in one sip. Among the best-known producers of grappa are Nonino, Bocchino, Berta, Sibona, Nardini, Jacopo Poli, Brotto, Villa de Varda, Domenis, Bepi Tosolini and these grappas are produced in significant quantities and are exported, there are also many small local or regional grappas. Most grappa is clear, indicating it is an unaged distillate, lately, aged grappas have become more common, and these take on a yellow, or red-brown hue from the barrels in which they are stored. Grappa is also known in South America, particularly in Uruguay. It is served as in Italy, after the main meals, in Uruguay, a local version called grappamiel has also been created, which sees honey added to the traditional grappa. It is widely served and mostly drunk in winter because it warms the throat, distillation is an ancient practice that can be traced back to the first century AD. While the distillation of alcohol may have carried out reliably by the School of Salerno in the 12th century. There is a legend tells of a Roman soldier who first distilled grappa in the northern Italian town of Bassano del Grappa using distilling equipment stolen in Egypt
24.
Molasses
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Molasses, or black treacle, is a viscous by-product of refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar. Molasses varies by amount of sugar, method of extraction, sugarcane molasses is agreeable in taste and aroma, and is primarily used for sweetening and flavoring foods in U. S. Canada and elsewhere, while sugar beet molasses is foul-smelling and unpalatable, so it is used as an animal feed additive in Europe and Russia. It is a component of fine commercial brown sugar. Sweet sorghum syrup may be colloquially called sorghum molasses in the southern United States, similar products include treacle, honey, maple syrup, corn syrup, and invert syrup. Most of these alternative syrups have milder flavors, cane molasses is a common ingredient in baking and cooking. To make molasses, sugar cane is harvested and stripped of leaves and its juice is extracted, usually by cutting, crushing, or mashing. The juice is boiled to concentrate it, promoting sugar crystallization, the result of this first boiling is called first syrup, and it has the highest sugar content. First syrup is usually referred to in the Southern states of the U. S. as cane syrup, second molasses is created from a second boiling and sugar extraction, and has a slightly bitter taste. The third boiling of the sugar syrup yields dark, viscous blackstrap molasses, the majority of sucrose from the original juice has crystallized and been removed. The caloric content of blackstrap molasses is mostly due to the remaining sugar content. Blackstrap is also a source of potassium. Blackstrap molasses has long been sold as a dietary supplement, blackstrap molasses is significantly more bitter than regular molasses. It is sometimes used in baking or for producing ethanol, as an ingredient in cattle feed, the term black-strap or blackstrap is an Americanism dating from 1875 or before. Its first known use is in a book by detective Allan Pinkerton in 1877, Molasses made from sugar beets differs from sugarcane molasses. Only the syrup left from the final stage is called molasses. Intermediate syrups are called high green and low green, and these are recycled within the plant to maximize extraction. Beet molasses is 50% sugar by dry weight, predominantly sucrose, beet molasses is limited in biotin for cell growth, hence, it may be supplemented with a biotin source
25.
French West Indies
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Pierre Belain dEsnambuc was a French trader and adventurer in the Caribbean, who established the first permanent French colony, Saint-Pierre, on the island of Martinique in 1635. Belain sailed to the Caribbean in 1625, hoping to establish a French settlement on the island of St. Christopher, in 1626 he returned to France, where he won the support of Cardinal Richelieu to establish French colonies in the region. Richelieu became a shareholder in the Compagnie de Saint-Christophe, created to accomplish this with dEsnambuc at its head, the company was not particularly successful and Richelieu had it reorganized as the Compagnie des Îles de lAmérique. In 1635 dEsnambuc sailed to Martinique with one hundred French settlers to land for sugarcane plantations. After six months on Martinique, dEsnambuc returned to St. Christopher and his nephew, Jacques Dyel du Parquet, inherited dEsnambucs authority over the French settlements in the Caribbean, in 1637 becoming governor of Martinique. He remained in Martinique and did not concern himself with the other islands, the French permanently settled on Martinique and Guadeloupe after being driven off Saint Kitts and Nevis by the British. Fort Royal on Martinique was a port for French battle ships in the region from which the French were able to explore the region. In 1638, Jacques Dyel du Parquet, nephew of Pierre Belain dEsnambuc and first governor of Martinique, the King would name the Governor General of the company, and the company the Governors of the various islands. However, by the late 1640s, in France Mazarin had little interest in colonial affairs, in 1651 it dissolved itself, selling its exploitation rights to various parties. The du Paquet family bought Martinique, Grenada, and Saint Lucia for 60,000 livres, the sieur dHouël bought Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, La Desirade and the Saintes. The Knights of Malta bought Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin, which were made dependencies of Guadeloupe, in 1665, the Knights sold the islands they had acquired to the newly formed Compagnie des Indes occidentales. Dominica is a former French and British colony in the Eastern Caribbean, Christopher Columbus named the island after the day of the week on which he spotted it, a Sunday,3 November 1493. In the hundred years after Columbuss landing, Dominica remained isolated, at the time it was inhabited by the Island Caribs, or Kalinago people, and over time more settled there after being driven from surrounding islands, as European powers entered the region. In 1690, French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe begin to set up camps to supply the French islands with wood. France had a colony for years, they imported slaves from West Africa, Martinique. In this period, the Antillean Creole language developed, France formally ceded possession of Dominica to Great Britain in 1763. Great Britain established a colony on the island in 1805. In Trinidad, the occupying Spanish had contributed little towards advancements, because it was considered underpopulated, Roume de St
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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History of alcoholic drinks
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Purposeful production of alcoholic drinks is common and often reflects cultural and religious peculiarities as much as geographical and sociological conditions. Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented beverages existed at least as early as the Neolithic period, chemical analysis of jars from the neolithic village Jiahu in the Henan province of northern China revealed traces of alcohol that were absorbed and preserved. The results of analysis were published in December 2004. This is approximately the time when barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the Middle East, wines first appearance is thought to date from 6000 BC in Georgia. The earliest firm evidence of production dates back to 5400 BC in Iran. Evidence of alcoholic beverages has also found dating from 3150 BC in ancient Egypt,3000 BC in Babylon,2000 BC in pre-Hispanic Mexico. The medicinal use of alcohol was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dating from about 2100 BC, the Hebrew Bible recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery. Wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, both the Greeks and the Romans generally drank diluted wine. In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer, often of very low strength, was a drink for all classes and ages of people. A document from that time mentions nuns having an allowance of six pints of ale each day, cider and pomace wine were also widely available, grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes. By the time the Europeans reached the Americas in the 15th century, according to a post-conquest Aztec document, consumption of the local wine was generally restricted to religious ceremonies but was freely allowed to those who were older than 70 years. The natives of South America produced a beer-like beverage from cassava or maize and this chewing technique was also used in ancient Japan to make sake from rice and other starchy crops. The ability to metabolize alcohol likely predates humanity with primates eating fermenting fruit, beer was the major beverage among the Babylonians, and as early as 2700 BC they worshiped a wine goddess and other wine deities. Babylonians regularly used both beer and wine as offerings to their gods, around 1750 BC, the famous Code of Hammurabi devoted attention to alcohol. However, there were no penalties for drunkenness, in fact, the concern was fair commerce in alcohol. Although it was not a crime, the Babylonians were critical of drunkenness, the earliest evidence of alcohol in what is now China are jars from Jiahu which date to about 7000 BC. This early rice mead was produced by fermenting rice, honey, what later developed into Chinese civilization grew up along the more northerly Yellow River and fermented a kind of huangjiu from millet. The Zhou attached great importance to alcohol and ascribed the loss of the mandate of Heaven by the earlier Xia and Shang as largely due to their dissolute and alcoholic emperors
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History of beer
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Chemical tests of ancient pottery jars reveal that beer was produced as far back as about 7,000 years ago in what is today Iran. This discovery reveals one of the earliest known uses of fermentation and is the earliest evidence of brewing to date, in Mesopotamia, the oldest evidence of beer is believed to be a 6, 000-year-old Sumerian tablet depicting people drinking a beverage through reed straws from a communal bowl. A 3900-year-old Sumerian poem honouring Ninkasi, the goddess of brewing, contains the oldest surviving beer recipe. In China, residue on pottery dating from between 5400 and 4900 years ago shows beer was brewed using barley and other grains, the invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology and build civilization. Beer may have known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 5,000 years ago. Women brewers dominated alcohol production on every occupied continent until commercialization and industrialization of brewing occurred, Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. More than 133 billion liters are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion in 2006, approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer. Ninkasi, you are the one who pours out the beer of the collector vat It is the onrush of Tigris. Beer is also mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which the wild man Enkidu is given beer to drink and he ate until he was full, drank seven pitchers of beer, his heart grew light, his face glowed and he sang out with joy. These beers were often thick, more of a gruel than a beverage, though beer was drunk in Ancient Rome, it was replaced in popularity by wine. Tacitus wrote disparagingly of the beer brewed by the Germanic peoples of his day, thracians were also known to consume beer made from rye, even since the 5th century BC, as the ancient Greek logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos says. Their name for beer was brutos, or brytos, the Romans called their brew cerevisia, from the Celtic word for it. Beer was apparently enjoyed by some Roman legionaries, for instance, among the Vindolanda tablets, the cavalry decurion Masculus wrote a letter to prefect Flavius Cerialis inquiring about the exact instructions for his men for the following day. This included a polite request for beer to be sent to the garrison, Ancient Nubians had used beer as an antibiotic medicine. Mesopotamian brewing appears to have incorporated the usage of a twice-baked barley bread called bappir and it was discovered early that reusing the same container for fermenting the mash would produce more reliable results, brewers on the move carried their tubs with them. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, early traces of beer and the brewing process have been found in ancient Babylonia as well
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History of wine
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The earliest archaeological evidence of wine consumption yet found has been at sites in China, Georgia, Iran, and Greece. The oldest evidence of production has been found in Armenia. The altered consciousness produced by wine has been considered religious since its origin, the Greeks worshiped Dionysus or Bacchus and the Romans carried on his cult. Consumption of ritual wine was part of Jewish practice since Biblical times and, as part of the eucharist commemorating Jesuss Last Supper, Wine production and consumption increased, burgeoning from the 15th century onwards as part of European expansion. Despite the devastating 1887 phylloxera louse infestation, modern science and technology adapted and industrial wine production, the origins of wine predate written records, and modern archaeology is still uncertain about the details of the first cultivation of wild grapevines. It has been hypothesized that early humans climbed trees to pick berries, liked their sugary flavor, after a few days with fermentation setting in, juice at the bottom of any container would begin producing low-alcohol wine. According to this theory, things changed around 10. 000-8000 BC with the transition from a nomadic to a style of living. Wild grapes grow in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, the northern Levant, coastal and southeastern Turkey, the fermenting of strains of this wild Vitis vinifera subsp. Sylvestris would have become easier following the development of pottery during the later Neolithic, however, the earliest evidence so far discovered dates from millennia afterwards. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in China, Georgia, Iran, Greece, the Iranian jars contained a form of retsina, using turpentine pine resin to more effectively seal and preserve the wine. Production spread to sites in Greater Iran and Grecian Macedonia by c. 4500 BC. The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site of the remnants of crushed grapes, the oldest-known winery was discovered in the Areni-1 cave in Vayots Dzor, Armenia. Dated to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a press, fermentation vats, jars. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines, commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier. The seeds were from Vitis vinifera vinifera, a still used to make wine. The cave remains date to about 4000 BC -900 years before the earliest comparable wine remains and this is what CNN wrote, Forget France. It turns out, the birthplace of wine may be in a cave in Armenia. Wine found in Armenia is considered to be at least 6100 years old, the fame of Persian wine has been well known in Ancient times
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History of Bordeaux wine
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The history of Bordeaux wine spans almost 2000 years to Roman times when the first vineyards were planted. In the Middle Ages, the marriage of Henry Plantagenet and Eleanor of Aquitaine opened the Bordeaux region to the English market and eventually to the worlds stage. Bordeaux wine production seems to have begun sometime after 43 AD, during the Roman occupation of Gaul, however, it is only in 71 AD that Pliny the Elder recorded the first real evidence of vineyards in Bordeaux. The areas location along the Gironde estuary provided a trade route with the British Isles. Wine historian, Roger Dion, has theorized that the first vine cuttings that the Romans brought to Bordeaux originated in the Rioja region of Spain, the early budding of the Bordeaux wine industry suffered a number of disruptions following the fall of Rome. The area was occupied by Vandals in AD408, Goths in 406, the area was also subjected to repeated encounters with Saxon longboats along the coast. These disruptions continued into the 5th century to the period of Frankish rule, although domestically popular, French wine was seldom exported, as the areas covered by vineyards and the volume of wine produced was low. In the 12th century however, the popularity of Bordeaux wines increased dramatically following the marriage of Henry Plantagenet, the marriage made the province of Aquitaine English territory, and thenceforth the majority of Bordeaux claret was exported in exchange for other goods. Upon the ascension of their son, Richard, to the English throne Bordeaux became the base for Richards French operations, as the popularity of Bordeaux wine increased, the vineyards expanded to accommodate the demands from abroad. Henry and Aliénor youngest son, John was in favor of promoting the wine industry, in the 13th and 14th century, a code of business practices called the police des vins emerged to give Bordeaux wine a distinct trade advantage over its neighboring regions. The citizenry of Bordeaux worked diligently to promote and foster their relationship with the English market, in 1205, King Alfonso VIII of Castile laid claim to Aquitaine and put Bordeaux under siege. The village was able to withstand the attack and King John rewarded the Bourgeois with orders for wine in excess of 120 tons, in 1224, King Louis VIII of France attempted to purge the English from French soil and was halted in his advance in the town of Bordeaux. In the aftermath Bordeaux received an access to the English market through London. During the 13th century, the Graves was the wine region of Bordeaux. While there were some vines growing in the Entre-Deux-Mers, Saint-Émilion and Blaye, at the turn of the 14th century, the town of Libourne was vying for dominance in the area, exporting 11,000 tons of wine to London from the 1308 vintage. A year earlier, this fulfilled a order for 1,152,000 bottles to be used for the celebration of Edward IIs wedding. The wine of this period was highly alcoholic and fruity but did not age well. The export of Bordeaux was effectively halted by the outbreak of The Hundred Years War between France and England in 1337 followed by the outbreak of the Black Death which ravaged the area
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History of Champagne
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The history of Champagne has seen the wine evolve from being a pale, pinkish still wine to the sparkling wine now associated with the region. The Romans were the first to plant vineyards in this area of northeast France, with the region being cultivated by at least the 5th century, the early wine of the Champagne region was a pale, pinkish wine made from Pinot noir. The Champenois were envious of the reputation of the wines made from their Burgundian neighbours to the south, however the northerly climate of the region gave the Champenois a unique set of challenges in making red wine. At the far extremes of sustainable viticulture, the grapes would struggle to fully and often would have bracing levels of acidity. The wines were lighter bodied and thinner than the Burgundies, furthermore, the cold winter temperatures prematurely halted fermentation in the cellars, leaving dormant yeast cells that would awaken in the warmth of spring and start fermenting again. One of the byproducts of fermentation is the release of carbon dioxide gas, the pressure inside the weak, early French wine bottles often caused the bottles to explode, creating havoc in the cellars. If the bottle survived, the wine was found to contain bubbles, something that the early Champenois were horrified to see, considering it a fault. As late as the 17th century, Champenois wine makers, most notably the Benedictine monk Dom Pérignon, were trying to rid their wines of the bubbles. While the Champenois and their French clients preferred their Champagne to be pale and still, the sparkling version of Champagne continued to grow in popularity, especially among the wealthy and royal. Following the death of Louis XIV of France in 1715, the court of Philippe II, in the 19th century these obstacles were overcome, and the modern Champagne wine industry took form. The fortunes of the Champenois and the popularity of Champagne grew until a series of setbacks in the early 20th century. The modern era, however, has seen a resurgence of the popularity of Champagne, the Romans were the first known inhabitants to plant vineyards in the Champagne region. The name Champagne comes from the Latin campania and referred to the similarities between the hills of the province and the Italian countryside of Campania located south of Rome. While vineyards were planted earlier, the first recorded vineyard belonged to St. Remi in the 5th century. For most of the early history, the wines from Champagne were not known as Champagne or even vin de Champagne. Rather they were known as vins de Reims and vins de la rivère in reference to the Marne river which provided a trade route via the Seine with Paris. In 987, Hugh Capet was crowned King of France at the cathedral Reims, at the coronation banquet, the local wines of the regions were served. The city became known as the capital of France and for the next eight centuries, monarchs would follow the tradition of Capet
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History of Chianti
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The history of Chianti dates back to at least the 13th century with the earliest incarnations of Chianti as a white wine. Today this Tuscan wine is one of Italys most well known, as the wines of Chianti grew in popularity other villages in Tuscany wanted their lands to be called Chianti. The boundaries of the region have seen many expansions and sub-divisions over the centuries, in addition to changing boundaries, the grape composition for Chianti has changed dramatically over the years. The earliest examples of Chianti were a white wine but gradually evolved into a red, baron Bettino Ricasoli, the future Prime Minister in the Kingdom of Italy created the first known Chianti recipe in 1872, recommending 70% Sangiovese, 15% Canaiolo and 15% Malvasia bianca. In 1967, the Denominazione di origine controllata regulation set by the Italian government firmly established the Ricasoli formula of a Sangiovese-based blend with 10-30% Malvasia and Trebbiano. A few producers went ahead and made their chianti as they desired but, prohibited from labeling, despite their low level classifications, these super Chiantis became internationally recognized by critics and consumers and were coined as Super Tuscans. The success of these wines encouraged government officials to reconsider the DOCG regulations with many changes made to some of these vino da tavola to be labeled as Chiantis. In the early Middle Ages, the area between Baliaccia and Monte Luco in the hills between the cities of Florence and Siena was known as the Chianti Mountain and this area was noted for its winemaking with the villages of Castellina, Gaiole and Radda gaining particular renown. These three villages formed a Lega del Chianti that the Florentine merchants would market as wines of distinction, some of these areas, such as Robbiano, included large swaths of hillside near Florence that produced lighter bodied wines that were not suitable for aging or improving in quality. The 1932 expansion was canonized into DOC regulations in 1966, in 1984 the Chianti Classico and the greater Chianti region were separated and each given their own DOCG ranking. The boundaries were to cover an area of approximate 100 square miles between Florence to the north and Siena to the south, the early history of Chianti is very much intertwined with the history of the entire Tuscany region. The history of viticulture in the dates back to its settlements by the Etruscans in the eighth century BC. From the fall of the Roman Empire and throughout the Middle Ages, monasteries were the main purveyors of wines in the region, as the aristocratic and merchant classes emerged, they inherited the sharecropping system of agriculture known as mezzadria. This system took its name from the arrangement whereby the landowner provides the land, many landowners in the Chianti region would turn their half of the grape harvest into wine that would be sold to merchants in Florence. The earliest reference of Florentine wine retailers dates to 1079 with a guild for wine merchants being created in 1282, unlike France or Spain, Italy did not have a robust export market for its wines during the Middle Ages. Its closest trading partners, France and Austria, were separated from Italy by the massive Alps Mountains, the English had little interest in Italian wines at this point, finding plenty of sources in France, Spain and later Portugal to quench their thirst. While the sweet Lacryma Christi from Campania had some presence on the international market, even then this market was mostly limited to the aristocracy since outside of the major cities of Rome and Naples, there was not yet a strong middle class. During the Renaissance, the city of Florence experienced a period of growth that brought with it a middle class of guilded craftsman
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History of French wine
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The history of French wine, spans a period of at least 2600 years dating to the founding of Massalia in the 6th century BC by Phocaeans with the possibility that viticulture existed much earlier. Over the course of its history, the French wine industry would be influenced and driven by the interests of the lucrative English market. There is archaeological evidence to suggest that the Celts first cultivated the vine, Vitis vinifera. Grape pips have been found throughout France, pre-dating Greek and Roman cultural influences, a major turning-point in the wine history of Gaul came with the founding of Massalia in the 6th century BC by Greek immigrants from Phocae in Asia Minor. By the 2nd century BC, Massalia came under Roman influence as a port on the trade route linking Rome to Roman settlements at Saguntum. Roman presence and influence in Massilia grew as the settlement came under attack from a succession of forces including the Ligurians, Allobroges, eventually the area became a Roman province first known as Provincia and later Gallia Narbonensis. The early Greek settlers brought a distinctly Mediterranean outlook to viticulture in Gaul. In 7 BC, the Greek geographer Strabo noted that the areas around Massilia and Narbo could produce the same fruits as Italy but the rest of Gaul further north could not support the olive, fig or vine. It wasnt till the first century AD that there was record of Gauls wine being of any note or renown. In his Natural History, Pliny the Elder noted that in the region near Vienna, the high demand for wine and the cost of transport from Rome or Massilia were likely motivators for this spread. Archaeological evidence dating to the reign of Augustus suggests that large numbers of amphorae were being produced near Bézier in the Narbonensis and in the Gaillac region of Southwest France. But even with the risk of an occasional lost harvest, the demand for wine among the Roman. By the 6th century AD, vines were planted throughout Gaul including the Loire Valley, the invaders set up kingdoms in Aquitaine, Burgundy and Île-de-France. During the Carolingian era, a new system of development emerged that was intimately tied with the spread of viticulture in Medieval France. Under this system of complant, a farmer could approach a land owner with uncultivated land with an offer to plant, under this system, many areas of France were enthusiastically and efficiently planted with little cost to the land owner, such as the Poitou region near La Rochelle. In the Middle Ages, transportation of heavy wooden barrels of wine over land was a costly, port cities like Bordeaux, La Rochelle and Rouen emerged as formidable centers of commerce with the wines of Gascony, Haut Pays, Poitou and the Île-de-France. During this period, political climates and alliances played a role in the trade of French wines to other European countries. The 1152 marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry Plantagenet, the future Henry II of England, was the beginning of a long, the 1295 Auld Alliance between France and Scotland against England gave the Scots ample access to French wines for themselves
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History of Portuguese wine
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The history of Portuguese wine has been influenced by Portugals relative isolationism in the worlds wine market, with the one notable exception of its relationship with the British. Wine has been made in Portugal since at least 2000 BC when the Tartessians planted vines in the Sado, by the 10th century BC, the Phoenicians had arrived and introduced new grape varieties and winemaking techniques to the area. Up until this point, viticulture was mostly centered on the coastal areas of Portugal. In later centuries, the Ancient Greeks, Celts and Romans would do much to spread viticulture, Portuguese wines were first shipped to England in the 12th century from the Entre Douro e Minho region. In 1386, Portugal and England signed the Treaty of Windsor which fostered close relations between the two countries and opened the door for extensive trade opportunities. The 1703 Methuen Treaty furthered advanced English economic interest in Portugal by reducing tariffs, around this time, the fortified wine known as Port was increasing in popularity in Britain. In the mid-1980s, Portugals introduction to the European Union brought a flood of financing and these new investments paved the way for upgrades in winemaking technology and facilities. Viticulture has existed on the Iberian Peninsula for thousands of years, the Tartessians are believed to have cultivated the first vineyards in the Tagus vineyards around 2000 BC. When the Phoenicians reached the area in the 10th century BC, they brought with them grape varieties and winemaking techniques from the Middle East, the Ancient Greeks settlers of the 7th century BC, furthered the advance of viticulture in Portugal and left evidence of their influence. When the Romans reached Portugal, they named the area Lusitania after Lusus, as they did before in Italy, France, Germany and Spain, the Romans did much to expand and promote viticulture in their settlements in Portugal. Wines were produced across the territory for both local consumption as well as export to Rome, vineyards extended further north and inland, being firmly established in places such as Douro by the end of Roman rule. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, local barbarian tribes sustained the tradition, in the mid-9th century AD, Ordoño the Gothic king of Asturias granted vineyards and landowning privileges around Coimbra to a monastic Christian order in the area. At times the supply was threatened by political and military conflicts between the English and French crowns, New sources had to be found such as the wines of Portugal. Documents exist detailing Portuguese wine shipments from the Minho region to England occurring as early as the 12th century and these wines, including those from the wet northern region of modern-day Vinho Verde, were often light and astringent with noticeable acidity. Despite the new source, the variety of French wines for English wine drinkers prevailed, in 1386, the Portuguese and English signed the Treaty of Windsor. The pact of mutual support fostered a strong alliance between the two countries. Over the ensuing centuries, whenever England was in conflict with other European powers, Portugal, Portuguese wine also served as a bargaining chip in English politics. In 1679, the English Parliament banned all imports of French wine as a means of limiting the tariff income of Charles II and forcing him to come to Parliament and ask them directly for funds
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History of Rioja wine
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The history of Rioja wine reflects a long and varied winemaking tradition in the Spanish region of La Rioja, starting with the first Phoenician settlers in 11th century BC. As with many of Europes most well known regions, the Ancient Romans founded many of the Rioja vineyards. Throughout the Middle Ages, pilgrims to the shrine of St. James at Santiago de Compostela passed through the region, today, together with Sherry, Rioja is the most internationally recognized of all Spanish wines. The earliest vine-growing people to reach the Rioja were the Phoenicians, the Rioja region was conquered by the Ancient Romans in the early 2nd century BC and probably came under Roman rule through treaties with the local Celtiberian and Vascon tribes. Vineyards were established at settlements near modern-day Calahorra and Logroño and bodegas soon sprang up in order to supply the Roman troops, archaeological exploration has uncovered evidence of a local cistern from that period with the capacity to hold 75,000 liters of wine. From the 15th century on, the Rioja Alta specialized in wine growing, the popular pilgrimage route el Camino de Santiago took thousands of Christian pilgrims right through the heart of the Rioja throughout the Middle Ages, just as it does today. Whereas many visitors sampled the local wine and the reputation of the region became widespread, following the Reconquista, Rioja wine merchants began to look for outside markets for their wine. Looking north, some bodegas brought their wines to the ports of Bilbao and Santander where it became available to Dutch. This developing trade with its Basque Country neighbors served as an impetus for the bodegas to expand their wine production, as the regions reputation grew, the local authorities tried to implement safeguards to protect the quality and reputation of the wine. In the 1780s, Don Manuel Quintano of nearby Burgos traveled to Bordeaux to learn their winemaking techniques, on his return, he introduced the use of Oak aging barrels to the Rioja bodegas, which dramatically improved the longevity of Rioja wines. This opened up their export potential, and markets developed in places as far-flung as Cuba. This significant economic disadvantage caused the use of oak to fall out of favor for almost a century, the Duke de la Victoria owned a bodega in Logroño and spent considerable time in London during a period of exile following the defeat of the Carlists. It was there that he and an aide, Colonel Luciano Murrieta, discussed ways in which to modernize the Rioja wine industry, Murrieta was dispatched to Bordeaux to learn the latest advances in the Bordeaux wine industry, much like Quintano had been several decades before. Murrieta also reintroduced the use of oak for aging, in the 1850s, the fungal disease powdery mildew began to ravage vineyards in nearby Galicia, opening up the market up for Rioja bodegas, which had been only slightly affected. The completion of a system linking Logroño to Bilbao, Madrid. The French were the first and hardest hit by the louse and this ushered in a period of unprecedented growth and prosperity for the Rioja wine industry. The subsequent boom in the Rioja wine industry lasted until phylloxera finally reached the region itself in the 1890s, in the meantime, regional authorities stepped in to sharply curb all wine imports, so that the local wine supply would take priority. Laws were passed prohibiting the export of wines from any bodega producing less 750,000 liters of wine per annum, at the turn of the 20th century, Rioja had established itself as the most recognizable name for Spanish wine outside of Spain
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History of Sherry
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The triangular region between the towns of Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, and Sanlúcar de Barrameda still marks the limits of the modern denominación. Today, while Sherry does not enjoy the level of popularity it once did, the city of Cádiz was first founded sometime between 1104 BC and the 9th century BC as a trading post by the Canaanite tribe of the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians shared in the traditions of the Ancient Middle East. The Greeks soon followed and brought them the tradition of making arrope. The area was thoroughly entrenched in winemaking by the time the Romans conquered the area in 206 BC after more than three centuries of rule by Carthage, under the Carthaginians, the work of the early viticulturist Mago was widely followed in the area. The early Roman agriculturalist Columella was a native of Cádiz and was influenced by the areas winemaking tradition. Soon wine from the region was being spread throughout the Roman Empire where it came to be known as Ceretanum or wine from Ceret which was a name for the Sherry namesake of Jerez. The Roman poet Martial was one of the earliest writers to describe this primitive Sherry, during the Roman times, the practice of boiling grape must in order to concentrate the sugar as another means of sweetening the wine was starting to become widely used in the area. Under the Islamic rule of the Moors, the consumption of alcohol was forbidden but some winemaking continued to exist in the region as part of trade and commerce with the non-Muslim neighbors. The Moors also introduced the process of distillation known as alembic to the region created a crude form of grape liqueur. On many of these voyages, stocking up on supplies of the areas wine was considered a necessity. Christopher Columbus almost certainly had Sherry with him when he made some of his voyages to America which makes Sherry, in all likelihood, for Magellans voyage 594,790 maravedis were spent on wine compared to 566,684 maravedis on all the shipss armaments and mens weapons. At the turn of the 15th century, several factors came into play that had a impact on the global wine market. The Venetian traders were losing their supply of wine from the lands of Cyprus, Greece, Romania. War with France had lost the English their access to the wines of Bordeaux, seeing an opportunity to capitalize on this, the Spanish Duke of Medina Sidonia made several moves to put Sherry into the forefront of the worlds wine market. In 1491, the tax on wine was abolished for both Spanish and foreign vessels coming into Sanlúcar. In 1517, English merchants were given preferential merchant status-including the right to arms in the region. In addition to triggering the English Reformation and the break from the Roman Catholic Church, many merchants closed up shop and fled while others were jailed for failing to repent or denounce their King
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History of South African wine
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The early history of South African wine can be traced to the founding of a supply station at the Cape of Good Hope by the Dutch East India Company. In 1685, another Cape Governor, Simon van der Stel, purchased a large 1,850 acre estate, in the 19th century, South Africa fell under British rule which proved lucrative for the wine industry as South African wine flowed into the British market. Following the devastation from the epidemic in the late 19th century. By the early 1900s there was a glut of wine, creating a wine lake effect which led some producers to pour their unsaleable wine into local rivers. Initially started as a co-operative, the KWV soon grew in power and prominence, to deal with the wine glut the KWV restricted yields and set minimum prices, encouraging the production of brandy and fortified wines. For much of the 20th century, the industry of South Africa received very little attention on the worldwide stage. Its isolation was further deepened by boycotts of South African products in protest at the system of Apartheid. It wasnt until the late 1980s and 1990s when Apartheid was ended, with a steep learning curve, many producers in South Africa quickly adopted new viticultural and winemaking technologies. The presence of flying winemakers from abroad brought international influences and focus on well known such as Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon. The reorganization of the powerful KWV co-operative into a business further sparked innovation. Vineyard owners had previously relied on KWVs price-fixing structure, that bought their excess grapes for distillation, now they had to shift their focus to quality wine production in order to compete. In 1990, less than 30% of all the grapes harvested were used for wine aimed at the market, with the remaining 70% being discarded, distilled into brandy or sold as table grapes. By 2003 these proportions had reversed, with more than 70% of the grapes harvested that year reaching the market as wine. When Bartolomeu Dias and other Portuguese explorers first encountered the Cape of Good Hope in the 15th century, they found little motivation to colonize the sparse and empty land around the Cape. The managers of the Dutch East India Company began looking for a logical midway point on the voyage to build a station that would serve the sailors making the voyage to. In 1652, a Dutch surgeon named Jan van Riebeeck was commissioned with the task of building both a fort and farming community in the Cape. One of van Riebeecks tasks include planting a vineyard, falsely believing the consumption of grapes, in 1654, the Dutch East India Company sent van Riebeeck grapevine cuttings from the Rheingau. These vines were packaged in damp pieces of sailcloth which negatively affected their ability to root in the Capes vineyards
39.
Alcohol industry
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The alcohol industry is the commercial industry involved in the manufacturing, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages. The industry has been criticised in the 1990s for deflecting attention away from the associated with alcohol use. The alcohol industry has also criticised for being unhelpful in reducing the harm of alcohol. The World Bank works with and invests in alcohol industry projects when positive effects with regard to health concerns. Alcohol industry sponsored education to reduce the harm of alcohol results in an increase in the harm of alcohol. As a result, it has recommended that the alcohol industry does not become involved in alcohol policy or educational programs. In the UK the New Labour government took the view that working with the industry to reduce harm was the most effective strategy. However, alcohol-related harm and alcohol abuse increased, alcoholism Alcohol advertising Alcohol and health Long-term effects of alcohol Short-term effects of alcohol
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Brewing
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Brewing is the production of beer by steeping a starch source in water and fermenting the resulting sweet liquid with yeast. It may be done in a brewery by a brewer, at home by a homebrewer. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests that emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, since the nineteenth century the brewing industry has been part of most western economies. The basic ingredients of beer are water and a starch source such as malted barley. Most beer is fermented with a brewers yeast and flavoured with hops, less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum and cassava. Secondary sources, such as maize, rice, or sugar, may also be used, sometimes to reduce cost, or to add a feature, the proportion of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Steps in the process include malting, milling, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering. There are three main methods, warm, cool and spontaneous. Fermentation may take place in an open or closed fermenting vessel, there are several additional brewing methods, such as barrel aging, double dropping, and Yorkshire Square. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in cuneiform from ancient Mesopotamia. Ethnographic studies and archaeological records indicate that brewing alcohol was primary an activity engaged in by women, chemical tests of ancient pottery jars reveal that beer was produced as far back as about 7,000 years ago in what is today Iran. This discovery reveals one of the earliest known uses of fermentation and is the earliest evidence of brewing to date, in Mesopotamia, the oldest evidence of beer is believed to be a 6, 000-year-old Sumerian tablet depicting people drinking a beverage through reed straws from a communal bowl. A 3900-year-old Sumerian poem honouring Ninkasi, the goddess of brewing, contains the oldest surviving beer recipe. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 5,000 years ago, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. Ale produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. More than 133 billion litres are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion in 2006
41.
Drinking establishment
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A drinking establishment is a business whose primary function is the serving of alcoholic beverages for consumption on the premises. Some establishments may also serve food, or have entertainment, there are different types of drinking establishment ranging from seedy bars or nightclubs, sometimes termed dive bars, to 5,000 seat beer halls and elegant places of entertainment for the elite. A public house, informally known as a pub, is an establishment licensed to serve alcoholic drinks for consumption on the premises in countries and regions of British influence. Although the terms are used to refer to the same thing. A tavern or pot-house is, loosely, a place of business where people gather to drink beverages and, more than likely, also be served food. The word derives from the Latin taberna and the Greek ταβέρνα/taverna, a brewpub is a pub or restaurant that brews beer on the premises. A beer hall is a pub that specializes in beer. An Izakaya is a type of Japanese drinking establishment which serves food to accompany the drinks. A speakeasy is an establishment that sells alcoholic beverages. Types of bars range from seedy bars or nightclubs, sometimes termed dive bars, many bars have a happy hour to encourage off-peak patronage. Bars that fill to capacity sometimes implement a cover charge during their peak hours, such bars often feature entertainment, which may be a live band or a popular disc jockey. Bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons, some bars have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go dancers, or strippers. The term bar is derived from the counter on which drinks are served. The back bar is a set of shelves of glasses and bottles behind that counter, in some establishments, the back bar is elaborately decorated with woodwork, etched glass, mirrors, and lights. A public house, informally known as a pub, is an establishment licensed to serve alcoholic drinks for consumption on the premises in countries and regions of British influence. Although the terms are used to refer to the same thing. A pub that offers lodging may be called an inn or hotel in the United Kingdom, today, many pubs in the UK, Canada and Australia with the word inn or hotel in their names no longer offer accommodation, and in some cases have never done so. Some pubs bear the name of hotel because they are in countries where stringent anti-drinking laws were once in force, in Scotland until 1976, only hotels could serve alcohol on Sundays
42.
Ethanol fermentation
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Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in some species of fish where it provides energy when oxygen is scarce, ethanol fermentation has many uses, including the production of alcoholic beverages, the production of ethanol fuel, and bread baking. The chemical equations below summarize the fermentation of sucrose into ethanol, alcoholic fermentation converts one mole of glucose into two moles of ethanol and two moles of carbon dioxide, producing two moles of ATP in the process. The overall chemical formula for alcoholic fermentation is, C6H12O6 →2 C2H5OH +2 CO2 Sucrose is a dimer of glucose and fructose molecules, in the first step of alcoholic fermentation, the enzyme invertase cleaves the glycosidic linkage between the glucose and fructose molecules. C12H22O11 + H2O + invertase →2 C6H12O6 Next, each molecule is broken down into two pyruvate molecules in a process known as glycolysis. Glycolysis is summarized by the equation, C6H12O6 +2 ADP +2 Pi +2 NAD+ →2 CH3COCOO− +2 ATP +2 NADH +2 H2O +2 H+ The chemical formula of pyruvate is CH3COCOO−, Pi stands for the inorganic phosphate. Finally, pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO2 in two steps, regenerating oxidized NAD+ needed for glycolysis,1, CH3COCOO− + H+ → CH3CHO + CO2 catalyzed by pyruvate decarboxylase 2. CH3CHO + NADH+H+ → C2H5OH + NAD+ This reaction is catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase, as shown by the reaction equation, glycolysis causes the reduction of two molecules of NAD+ to NADH. Two ADP molecules are converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation. Other microorganisms can produce ethanol from sugars by fermentation but often only as a side product, however, many yeasts such as the commonly used bakers yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, prefer fermentation to respiration. These yeasts will produce ethanol even under conditions, if they are provided with the right kind of nutrition. Several potential causes for the decline in activity have been investigated. Viability remained at or above 90%, internal pH remained near neutrality, none of these factors appears to be causally related to the fall in fermentative activity during batch fermentation. Ethanol fermentation causes bread dough to rise, yeast organisms consume sugars in the dough and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the dough, expanding it into something of a foam, less than 2% ethanol remains after baking. All ethanol contained in alcoholic beverages is produced by means of fermentation induced by yeast, brandy and eaux de vie are produced by distillation of these fruit-fermented beverages. Mead is produced by fermentation of the sugars present in honey. Beer, whiskey, and vodka are produced by fermentation of grain starches that have converted to sugar by the enzyme amylase
43.
Winemaking
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Winemaking or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from fruits or plants. Mead is a wine that is made with honey being the primary ingredient after water, Winemaking can be divided into two general categories, still wine production and sparkling wine production. The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology, a person who makes wine is traditionally called a winemaker or vintner. After the harvest, the grapes are taken into a winery, at this stage red wine making diverges from white wine making. Red wine is made from the must of red or black grapes and fermentation occurs together with the grape skins, white wine is made by fermenting juice which is made by pressing crushed grapes to extract a juice, the skins are removed and play no further role. Occasionally white wine is made from red grapes, this is done by extracting their juice with minimal contact with the grapes skins. Rosé wines are made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color or by blending red wine with white wine. White and rosé wines extract little of the contained in the skins. To start primary fermentation yeast may be added to the must for red wine or may occur naturally as ambient yeast on the grapes or in the air, yeast may be added to the juice for white wine. During this fermentation, which takes between one and two weeks, the yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol. The carbon dioxide is lost to the atmosphere, after the primary fermentation of red grapes the free run wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. The press wine is blended with the free run wine at the winemakers discretion, the wine is kept warm and the remaining sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The next process in the making of red wine is malo-lactic conversion and this is a bacterial process which converts crisp, green apple malic acid to soft, creamy lactic acid softening the taste of the wine. Red wine is transferred to oak barrels to mature for a period of weeks or months. The wine must be settled or clarified and adjustments made prior to bottling, the time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for wine of good structure with high levels of acid, tannin or sugar. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one year. Depending on the quality of grape and the wine style
44.
Fermentation in food processing
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Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired, the science of fermentation is known as zymology or zymurgy. The term fermentation sometimes refers specifically to the conversion of sugars into ethanol, producing alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer. However, similar processes take place in the leavening of bread, other widely consumed fermented foods include vinegar, olives, and cheese. More localised foods prepared by fermentation may also be based on beans, grain, vegetables, fruit, honey, dairy products, fish, meat, since ancient times, humans have exploited the fermentation process. Seven-thousand-year-old jars containing the remains of wine, now on display at the University of Pennsylvania, were excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting alcoholic drinks in Babylon c.3000 BC, ancient Egypt c.3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico c.2000 BC, the French chemist Louis Pasteur founded zymology, when in 1856 he connected yeast to fermentation. When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a force, called ferments. The ferments were thought to only within living organisms. Alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells, nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts can ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research, one year earlier, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+. Food fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or preservative organic acids, all three products have found human uses. The production of carbon dioxide is used to leaven bread, the production of organic acids is exploited to preserve and flavor vegetables and dairy products. It has more cases of botulism than any state in the United States of America. The World Health Organization has classified pickled foods as possibly carcinogenic, other research found that fermented food contains a carcinogenic by-product, ethyl carbamate. A2009 review of the studies conducted across Asia concluded that regularly eating pickled vegetables roughly doubles a persons risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Science aid, Fermentation - Process and uses of fermentation Fermented cereals, a global perspective - FAO1999
45.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
46.
Cider
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Cider is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of apples. The juice of any variety of apple can be used to make cider, the addition of sugar or extra fruit before a second fermentation increases the alcoholic content of the resulting beverage. Cider is popular in the United Kingdom, especially in the West Country, the UK has the worlds highest per capita consumption, as well as its largest cider-producing companies. Cider is also popular in other European countries including Ireland, Portugal, France, northern Italy, central Europe also has its own types of cider with Rhineland-Palatinate and Hesse producing a particularly tart version known as Apfelwein. Cider alcohol content varies from 1. 2% ABV to 8. 5% or more in traditional English ciders, in UK law, it must contain at least 35% apple juice, although CAMRA says that real cider must be at least 90% fresh apple juice. In the US, there is a 50% minimum, in France, cider must be made solely from apples. Perry is a product made from fermented pear juice. Ciders can be classified from dry to sweet and their appearance ranges from cloudy with sediment to completely clear, and their colour ranges from almost clear to amber to brown. The variations in clarity and colour are mostly due to filtering between pressing and fermentation, some apple varieties will produce a clear cider without any need for filtration. Both sparkling and still ciders are made, the variety is the more common. Modern, mass-produced ciders closely resemble sparkling wine in appearance, more traditional brands tend to be darker and cloudier. They are often stronger than the varieties and taste more strongly of apples. Almost colourless, white cider has the apple juice content as conventional cider but is harder to create because the cider maker has to blend various apples to create a clearer liquid. White ciders tend to be sweeter and more refreshing and they are typically 7-8 % ABV in strength. Black cider, by contrast, is dry amber premium cider which has an content of 7-8 % ABV. The descriptor black usually comes after the name such as Union Black. Apples grown for consumption are suitable for making, though some regional cider-makers prefer to use a mix of eating and cider apples. There are many hundreds of varieties of cultivars developed specifically for cider making, once the apples are gathered from trees in orchards they are scratted into what is called pomace or pommage
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