1.
Cadillac Sixteen
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The Cadillac Sixteen is a concept car first developed and presented by Cadillac in 2003. The vehicle is equipped with a Cadillac proprietary-developed aluminum 32-valve V16 engine displacing 13.6 liters and it is mated to a four-speed, electronically controlled, automatic transmission driving the rear wheels. The engine features fuel-saving Active Fuel Management Displacement on Demand technology, the V16 was capable of 16.65 mpg under normal conditions. The engine was said to produce a minimum of 1,000 bhp, the car itself weighs about 2,270 kilograms. The car referenced the Cadillac V-16 of the 1930s, the actual design of the car was a combination of Cadillacs current Art and Science design theme and 1967 Cadillac Eldorado cues. Additional original design elements were provided by a design competition led by GM Vice President Bob Lutz. The Sixteen has the Cadillac logo carved out of crystal on the steering wheel. Although the Sixteen remained a car, its design language was implemented in Cadillacs subsequent vehicles. Since its unveiling there have been resurfacing rumors about a very limited production of an exclusive Cadillac halo model. It was on the episode of Ride with Funkmaster Flex at the 2003 New York International Auto Show, also in 2003, Top Gear reviewed the Cadillac 16 with its presenter James May in Series 2, Episode 10. In the 2006 comedy film Click starring Adam Sandler, Sandlers character is driving a Cadillac Sixteen when he visits his family in the year 2017
2.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
3.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
4.
Harley Earl
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Harley J. Earl was an American automotive designer and business executive. He was the designated head of design at General Motors, later becoming vice president. He was a designer and a pioneer of modern transportation design. A coachbuilder by trade, Earl pioneered the use of freeform sketching and he subsequently introduced the concept car as both a tool for the design process and a clever marketing device. Earls Buick Y-Job was the first concept car and he started Project Opel, which eventually became the Chevrolet Corvette, and he authorized the introduction of the tailfin to automotive styling. During World War II, he was a contributor to the Allies research. Harley Earl was born in Hollywood, California and his father, J. W. Earl, began work as a coachbuilder in 1889. The senior Earl eventually changed his practice from horse-drawn vehicles to custom bodies and customized parts and accessories for automobiles, Earl began studies at Stanford University, but left prematurely to work with, and learn from, his father at Earl Automotive Works. By this time, the shop was building custom bodies for Hollywood movie stars, including Roscoe Fatty Arbuckle, Earl Automotive Works was bought by Cadillac dealer Don Lee, who kept Harley Earl as director of its custom body shop. Lawrence P. Fisher, general manager of the Cadillac division, was visiting Cadillac dealers and distributors around the country, Fisher met Earl at Lees dealership and observed him at work. Fisher, whose career began with coachbuilder Fisher Body, was impressed with Earls designs and methods. Fisher commissioned Earl to design the 1927 LaSalle for Cadillacs companion marque, the success of the LaSalle convinced General Motors president Alfred P. Sloan to create the Art and Color Section of General Motors, and to name Earl as its first director. Prior to the establishment of the Art and Color Section, American automobile manufacturers did not assign any great importance to the appearance of automobile bodies, volume manufacturers built bodies designed by engineers, guided only by functionality and cost. Many luxury-car manufacturers, including GM, did not make bodies at all, the executives at General Motors at the time, including engineers, division heads, and sales executives, viewed Earls conceptual ideas as flamboyant and unfounded. Earl struggled to legitimize his design approach against the tradition- and production-oriented executives, as head of the newly formed Art and Color Section in 1927, he was initially referred to as one of the pretty picture boys, and his design studio as being the Beauty Parlor. In 1937, the Art and Color Section was renamed the Styling Section, Sloan eventually promoted Earl to vice president, making him, to Sloans knowledge, the first styling person to be a VP at a large corporation. Harley Earl and Sloan implemented Dynamic Obsolescence and the Annual Model Change, tying model identity to a specific year and these ideas are largely taken for granted today, but were unusual at the time. In 1939, the Styling Division, under Earls instruction, styled and built the Buick Y-Job, the motor industrys first concept car
5.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
6.
Full-size car
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A full-size car is a marketing term used in North America for an automobile larger than a mid-size car. Traditional U. S. full-size passenger cars were designed to be comfortable for six occupants, the United States Environmental Protection Agency currently uses the term large car to denote full-size cars based on their combined interior passenger and luggage volume. The traditional full-size passenger cars that were built by the U. S. Full-size cars were also denoted for their length, nearing 4,953 mm in basic low-priced, family sedans. The luxury models often tended to reach 5,350 mm. Previously, the term first appeared in the early 1960s to distinguish what also became known as standard-size cars from the new compact and intermediate models then being introduced. The U. S. EPA defines large size as 120 ft³ or more of combined passenger, a majority of U. S. automakers manufactured full size automobiles were constructed using a body-on-frame platform. This platform was phased out in 2011 when the Ford Panther vehicles ended production, use of the term in North America became popular after the introduction of compacts by the U. S. Detroit Big Three for the 1960 model year, and then a few years later the introduction of what became known as mid-size cars. The term was most correctly applied to close to the width limit carrying nameplates of The Low Priced Three, Chevrolet, Ford. Manufacturers contributed to the lack of distinction by marketing models of their brands into the lower price ranges with what had previously been considered medium-priced brands. For 1977, General Motors downsized its cars, with overall width cut from approximately 80 in to the mid-70 inch range. Chevrolet, Pontiac, and the less expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models had a 116-inch wheelbase, more expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models, plus the Cadillac had a 119 in wheelbase, but no more width. Ford and Chrysler downsized for 1979, the latter even building its Chrysler R platform, by this time, a huge increase in gasoline prices had made it difficult to sell any large cars, downsized or not. Chrysler had the misfortune of introducing two consecutive new designs of its largest cars, in 1974 and 1979, during times when gasoline prices suddenly increased. The EPA interior volumes for passenger and cargo for the most part resulted in mid-size, full-size, the 1980s Chrysler M platform, classified as large cars at the time, were derived from the Dodge Aspen/Plymouth Volare platform, originally marketed as large compacts. While many modern cars are referred to as full-size, they do not qualify for the term as used in the 1960s and 1970s. Consumer acceptance of large SUVs approaching 80 inches in width shows interest remains in vehicles capable of seating with reasonable comfort. Police cars in the United States are almost always full-size cars and this is usually due to the amount of interior space for an arrestee as well as trunk volume for computer and electrical equipment. Interior space and trunk volume also make such vehicles popular for taxi use, since the discontinuation of the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor the de facto replacement has been a variation of the Ford Taurus
7.
Luxury vehicle
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Luxury vehicle is a marketing term for a vehicle that provides luxury — pleasant or desirable features beyond strict necessity — at increased expense. The term is also broad, highly variable and relative and it is a perceptual, conditional and subjective attribute that may be comprehended differently by different people, What is a luxury car to some. Therefore, automakers differentiate among their product lines in collusion with the car-buying public, while a high price is the most frequent factor, it is styling, engineering, and even public opinion which cars had the highest and lowest status associated with them. Every era in history has had a group of car marques and models that have been expensive to purchase, due to their alleged superiority of their design. Aimed at wealthy buyers, such automobiles might be generically termed luxury cars and this term is also used for unique vehicles produced during an era when luxury was individualistic consideration, and coachwork could be tailored to an owner like a bespoke suit. Although there is literature about specific marques, there is a lack of systematic. Luxury vehicle makers may either be stand-alone companies in their own right, such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz, badge engineering is often used for cost savings, for example, the Lincoln vehicles that are based on Ford platforms or Acura models derived from Honda. Though widely used, the term luxury is broad and highly variable and it is a perceptual, conditional and subjective attribute and may be understood differently by different people, What is a luxury car to some. According to the European Commission, the luxury segment is classified as F-segment. However, the boundaries between the segments are increasingly becoming blurred and diluted as features once exclusive to luxury vehicles become standard equipment on even small cars. ACRISS is a system used by many car rental companies in the US for classifying vehicles. The system includes Luxury and Premium categories, Australia, In Australia, for taxation purposes a luxury car is defined as a passenger car whose value exceeds a certain threshold. France, In France the term voiture de luxe is used, Germany, In Germany the term Upper class is used. Russia, Russian markets use the term representative class vehicle, the classification varies, for instance Consumer Guide Automotive in the U. S. The premium compact segment is targeted at a market of consumers who found the existing entry-level luxury offerings to be too expensive. By offering a smaller, lighter, more fuel-efficient, and less expensive vehicle, premium compacts introduces younger buyers to the luxury marque, in hopes of retaining the coveted customer loyalty. This includes the Acura CSX, Audi A3, Buick Verano, BMW2 Series, BMW i3, Cadillac ELR, Chrysler 200, Lexus CT, Mercedes-Benz CLA-Class, Mercedes-Benz B-Class, Saab 9-2X, and the Volvo V40. Premium compacts compete with well-equipped midsize cars, and with options they overlap much with compact executive cars, Premium compacts may share components with mass market cars from the marques parent company, and/or have less sophisticated platforms compared to upmarket vehicles in the lineup
8.
Convertible
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A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other
9.
Sedan (automobile)
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A sedan /sᵻˈdæn/ or saloon is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo. The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and it is one of the most common car body styles. A battery electric sedan such as the Tesla Model S has no engine compartment, but a front cargo compartment, the primary purpose of the sedan is to transport people and their baggage on ordinary roads. Sedan versions of the body style have a central pillar that supports the roof and come in two-. Sedans usually have a two-box or three-box body, popular in the U. S. from the 1950s through the 1970s, true hardtop body designs have become increasingly rare. For example,1962 Rambler Classic sedans feature identical windshield, A-pillar, roof, C-pillar, and rear window. A two- or four-door design built on a chassis, but with a shorter roof and interior space. Originating from the car on a Pullman passenger train that was well appointed. A notchback sedan is a sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle. The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the window at a sharp angle to the roof. A fastback sedan is a sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck and their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their ends are tall — sometimes in a Kammback style — to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages, automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form. In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, a true hardtop design also has no center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors). This pillarless body style offers greater visibility, however, it requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately, or it can be called a hardtop sedan, during the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were among the top selling body styles
10.
Coupe de Ville
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Coupe de Ville or coupé de ville is one of a large number of terms used to describe an automobile with an external or open-topped drivers position and an enclosed compartment for passengers. Among other names for this style are sedanca, town car, victoria. Most versions are variations on one of two main types, the unusual body dates to medieval Europe. In order to identify incoming guests at court as friendly, it was necessary for the host to be able to identify the livery of the visiting guests coachman from a distance, to enable the coachman to be identifiable, he was hence placed high up and in the open. The term coupé de ville is known to be in use in the 19th century before the invention of the automobile, as a carriage, the coupé de ville was a variant of the coupé carriage that was nearly indistinguishable from the British clarence. The term de ville is French for for town and indicates that the vehicle is for use in town or for short distances. When added to the end of a style, de Ville indicated that the top over the drivers compartment could be folded away, retracted. As a vehicle for use, the coupé de ville usually had no facilities for carrying luggage. In North America, manufacturers have used the term liberally to the point where the terms Sedanca, one style of coupé de ville has rear doors to access the enclosed passenger section and a partition, similar to that in a limousine between the enclosed passengers and the open driver. Another style of coupé de ville has a fixed or folding roof over the rear seats, also known as a sedanca or a sedanca coupé, this version may or may not have had sliding or detachable roof panel for covering the front seats. The French-derived term coupé de ville is used for this two-door version without a divider between the driver and the passengers. In the United States, the similar term coupe de ville is used for this version. A coupé de ville is alternatively defined in North America as a drophead coupé with a top which may be fully closed, fully open, or partially closed. Windshields were added to protect the driver from dirt from the roads and dung from draught animals. From the late 1920s onward designs used a metal roof which regressed into a void above the passenger compartment. The same material was also most often used to provide complete curtain coverage for the compartment, the drivers compartment had leather seats to be durable enough to endure the weather. The division between the two compartments often held jump seats for lighter passengers such as children, and it would often accommodate various compartments for drinks, cigars, make-up, or books. The two compartments were separated by a divide, often with a small glass window, or latterly completely made of glass with a manual or electric winding system
11.
Limousine
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A limousine is a luxury sedan or saloon car generally driven by a chauffeur and with a partition between the driver and the passenger compartment. Limousines often have a lengthened wheelbase, although usually associated with luxury vehicles, the word Limousine is also simply a generic term in some countries for a standard sedan bodystyle. It was originally an automobile with open drivers seat. In modern use, a limousine is a sedan or saloon car. The chassis of a limousine may have been extended by the manufacturer or by an independent coachbuilder and these are called stretch limousines and are traditionally black or white. Limousines are usually liveried vehicles, driven by professional chauffeurs, as the most expensive form of automobile ground transportation, limousines are culturally associated with wealth or power and are commonly cited as examples of conspicuous consumption. Among the less wealthy, limousines are often hired during special events, while some limousines are owned by individuals, many are owned by governments to transport senior politicians, by companies to transport executives and guests. Most stretch limousines, however, operate as livery vehicles, providing competition to taxicabs. Builders of stretch limousines purchase stock cars from manufacturers and modify them, few stretch limousines are sold new to private individuals. In addition to luxuries, security features such as armoring and bulletproof glass are available, the first automobile limousine, built in 1902, was designed so the driver sat outside under a covered compartment. The word limousine is derived from the name of the French region Limousin, an alternate etymology has the chauffeur wearing a Limousin-style cloak in the open drivers compartment, for protection from the weather. The first “stretch limousine” was created in Fort Smith, Arkansas and these cars were primarily used to transport famous “big band” leaders, such as Glenn Miller and Benny Goodman, and their bands and equipment. These early stretch limousines were often called “big band buses”, in 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers defined a limousine as, a closed car seating three to five inside, with drivers seat outside. A berline was defined as a limousine having the seat entirely inclosed. In German-speaking countries, a Limousine is simply a sedan, while a car is called Stretch-Limousine. The limousine body style has a partition separating the driver from the passenger compartment. This partition usually contains a glass window so that conversations between passengers in the rear compartment may be kept private. Communication with the driver is either by opening the window in the partition or by using an intercom system
12.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
13.
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FR, or front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one where the engine is located at the front of the vehicle and driven wheels are located at the rear. This was the automobile layout for most of the 20th century. Modern designs commonly use the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, the first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the Système Panhard in the early years. The layout has the advantage of minimizing mechanical complexity, as it allows the transmission to be placed in-line with the output shaft. In comparison, a vehicle with the engine over the driven wheels eliminates the need for the drive shaft, in order to reduce the relative weight of the drive shaft, the transmission was normally split into two parts, the gearbox and the final drive. The gearbox was produced with its highest gear being 1,1. The final drive, in the axle, would then reduce this to the most appropriate speed for the wheels. As power is the product of torque and angular velocity, spinning the shaft faster for any given power reduces the torque, in an era when gasoline was cheap and cars were heavy, the mechanical advantages of the FR drivetrain layout made up for any disadvantage in weight terms. It remained almost universal among car designs until the 1970s, after the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV-van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream, chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GMs American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Corvette, Firebird and Camaro. This configuration is referred to as a transaxle since the transmission. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf, upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s, toyotas first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR, luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subarus BRZ is an FR car, currently most cars are FF, including all front-engined economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles. In North America, GM returned to production of FR-based luxury vehicles with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, as of 2012, all but the SRX and XTS are FR-based vehicles. Chevrolet reintroduced the FR-based Camaro in 2009, and the Caprice PPV in 2011, Pontiac also had a short run with the FR-based G8 and Pontiac Solstice. A Chevrolet replacement for the G8 called the Chevrolet SS was released in 2013, chrysler and Dodge reintroduced the 300 and Charger on a FR platform
14.
Car platform
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It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias
15.
GM D platform
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The D platform, or D-body was an automobile platform designation, used from at least 1936 until 1996, and exclusive to GMs most luxurious brands, Cadillac and Buick. It was closely related to the GM B platform and C platform, for the majority of its existence the D-Body represented the largest Cadillac. During most of the 20th century the D-Body represented GMs largest and most exclusive car platform, early designation D-bodies, with the exception of the Buick Limited, which was produced in Flint, Michigan, were all produced at Detroit Assembly, Detroit, Michigan. Since all Fleetwood Broughams were being produced in Detroit prior to the name change, during the 1988 model year production of D-bodies was shifted to Arlington Assembly, Arlington, Texas where it remained until last D-bodied car was built in 1996. Production ended in 1996, leaving GM without a rear drive luxury sedan. Later Cadillac introduced smaller cars on the Sigma platform, the spiritual successor of the D-Body Fleetwood is the Sedan de Ville dElegance which was later replaced by the Sedan de Ville High Luxury
16.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
17.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
18.
Cadillac
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Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
19.
V16 engine
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A V16 engine is a V engine with 16 cylinders. Engines of this number of cylinders are uncommon in automotive use, in addition V angles of 45° and 135° give an impulse every 45°, so are optimal solutions, for even-firing and non-split bearing crankshaft journals. V16 engines are used in automobiles because V8s or V12s of the same displacement typically produce just as much power. The few V16s that have produced were used in high-end luxury. Today, the most common applications for V16 engines are railroad locomotives, marine craft, howard Marmon had begun working on the worlds first automotive V16 engine in 1927, but was unable to complete the production Sixteen model until 1931. By that time, Cadillac had already introduced their V16, designed by ex-Marmon engineer Owen Nacker, peerless, too, was developing a V16 with help from another ex-Marmon engineer, James Bohannon. The Cadillac Series 452 was the most exclusive model of the marque from January 1930 until 1940, from 1930 to 1937, Cadillac used a 452 CID, OHV motor with a 45° V. For 1938, a new 431 CID design was introduced for the Series 90, with a flathead valvetrain and an angle of 135°, however, it was never as popular or highly regarded as its 452 CID predecessor. By contrast, the Marmon Sixteen was a 45° engine made almost entirely of aluminium, like modern engines, it used pressed steel cylinder liners. Just 400 Marmon Sixteens were produced between 1931 and 1933 and it began production in 1991 but only a few cars were produced before the company closed its doors for good. Cadillac revived the V16 concept in 2003 with a General Motors concept car and this car used a 1,000 hp OHV V16. BMW also experimented with a V16, eventually showing a 9-litre version in the Rolls-Royce 100EX concept car, however, one of the Rolls-Royce Phantom Coupés which featured in the film Johnny English Reborn is powered by this V16 engine. That was not BMWs first foray into V16, BMW had conceived the Project Goldfish, the BMW Goldfish V16 motor had the displacement of 6. 7-litre, putting out about 408 hp and 637 N·m. That motor was also trialled in the new Bentley Mulsanne in the early 1990s, the first known use of a V16 in auto racing was by Maserati with their 1929 Tipo V4. Harry Miller installed a custom-built V16 that he had built for a Cord supercar he had working on into a chassis that he had built for the 1931 Indianapolis 500 driven by Shorty Cantlon. The car was competitive, charging from 26th on the grid to 3rd, bryan Saulpaugh qualified the car third for the 1932 Indianapolis 500, but the car suffered a broken oil line on lap 55 and their race was over. Shortly after the race the V16 was removed and replaced with a conventional Miller four-cylinder, the car was re-assembled and rebuilt with an exact replica V16 in 1993. The V16 was used in Grand Prix by the mid-engined Auto Union racing cars that rivalled the Mercedes from 1933 to 1938, alfa Romeo made two cars with V16 engine the Tipo 162 and Tipo 316
20.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
Coachbuilder
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A coachbuilder is a manufacturer of bodies for automobiles or a manufacturer of complete horse-drawn vehicles. Coachwork is the body of a vehicle, a horse-drawn coach or carriage, or, by extension. The term is reserved for bodies built on a separate chassis. With reference to motor vehicles, auto body is the term in North American English. Coachbuilders are, carrossiers in French, carrozzeria in Italian, karosseriebauer in German, a British trade association the Worshipful Company of Coachmakers and Coach Harness Makers, was incorporated in 1630. Some British coachmaking firms operating in the 20th century were established even earlier, rippon was active in the time of Queen Elizabeth I, Barker founded in 1710 by an officer in Queen Annes Guards, Brewster a relative newcomer, formed in 1810. This chassis would be delivered by the manufacturer to the coachbuilder of the buyers choice, the chassis would be a rolling chassis which included the chassis frame, drivetrain, brakes, suspension, complete steering system including the wheel, radiator, scuttle and dashboard. The manufacturer delivered the chassis with lighting system, spare wheel, front and rear mudguards, the very easily damaged honeycomb radiator, later enclosed and protected by a shell, became the main visual element identifying the chassis brand. The manufacturer retained an element of control over bodies, bodies not approved by the chassis manufacturer would lose the chassis manufacturers chassis warranties. Until the second World War it would not have been unusual to order the most popular cars as only a chassis and have a local coachbuilder put a body on it for you, the Austin 7s of the 1920s and 1930s were favourite subjects. For example, Fisher Body built all of Cadillacs closed bodies in the 1910s, though automobile manufacturers brought body building skills in-house, the practice of bespoke or custom coachbuilding remained in favour among the wealthy, who continued the habit of centuries past. All ultra-luxury vehicles sold as chassis only, for instance, when Duesenberg introduced their Model J, it was offered as chassis only, for $8,500. Other examples include the Bugatti Type 57, Cadillac V-16, Ferrari 250, Isotta Fraschini Tipo 8, delahaye had no in-house coachworks, so all its chassis were bodied by independents, who created some of their most attractive designs on the Type 135. Most of the Delahayes were bodied by Chapron, Labourdette, Franay, Saoutchik, Figoni & Falaschi, Pennock, the advent of unibody construction, where the car body is unified with, and structurally integral to the chassis, made custom coachbuilding practically impossible. Hermann Graber Ramsauer & Cie, also known as Worblaufen after the place they were built, mulliner Park Ward Mulliners Nu-Track Park Ward Harold Radford Salmons Swallow Tickford Tilbury, originators of the Tilbury carriage. Thrupp & Maberly Vanden Plas Vincent of Reading Windover Wingham Martin Walter Walter Alexander & Sons, now Alexander Dennis Ltd Wrightbus James Young Brewster & Co. Brunn Budd Company Derham Earl Automobile Works Fisher Fleetwood KEM Motorworks LeBaron Locke N2A motors Inc. a Langmesser Co. Murphy Rollston Willoughby
23.
Fleetwood Metal Body
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Fleetwood Metal Body was an automobile coachbuilder. The name derives from Fleetwood, Pennsylvania, home of the company at the start, the company was formed on April 1,1909. It was a producer of metal and wood automobile bodies. Fleetwood bodies graced cars owned by Royalty of India and Japan, American presidents, Fleetwood produced bodies on chassis from Bentley, Cadillac, Daniels, Duesenberg, Fiat, Isotta Fraschini, Lincoln, Mercedes-Benz, Packard, Pierce-Arrow, Rolls Royce, SGV, and Stutz. Bodies were manufactured according to the specifications, then sent by rail to the chassis manufacturer where assembly was completed. Most of the bodywork crafted in Pennsylvania was used by Packard, Fleetwood was purchased by Fisher Body in 1925, and was a OEM provider of bodies for Detroit Assembly on Clark Street, and integrated into General Motors in 1931. The factory later became to be known as Fisher Plant #18 in Delray, Michigan, approximately 2 miles east of the Ford River Rouge Complex, Fisher Freeway is named for the original factory location. The location was closed in 1987 when manufacturing was transferred to the Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly factory, similar to LeBaron, Fleetwood continued to build bespoke bodies for several years, mainly for Cadillac. In the early 1930s Fleetwood bodied Cadillacs often wore a sweep panel across cowl, after 1934 and before Fleetwood was made a model name of Cadillac, it was responsible for elaborate detailing on expensive Cadillac with standard bodies
24.
Fisher Body
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Fisher & Company continues to use the name. The name and its iconic Body by Fisher logo were well known to the public, Fisher Bodys beginnings trace back to a horse-drawn carriage shop in Norwalk, Ohio, in the late 1800s. Lawrence P. Fisher and his wife Margaret Theisen had a family of eleven children, seven were sons who would become part of the Fisher Body Company in Detroit. Lawrence and Margaret were married in Sandusky, Ohio, on May 11,1876, Margaret Theisen Fisher resided at 101 Longfellow St. Detroit after her husband died. The Fisher brothers were, Frederick John -54 Arden Park, Detroit William Andrew -111 Edison Ave. Detroit Lawrence Peter -383 Lenox St. Detroit Edward F. -892 W. Boston Blvd, Detroit Alfred J. -1556 Chicago Blvd, Detroit. In 1904 and 1905, the two eldest brothers, Fred and Charles, came to Detroit where their uncle Albert Fisher had established Standard Wagon Works during the part of the 1880s. The brothers found work at the C. R. Wilson Company, with financing from their uncle, on July 22,1908 Fred and Charles Fisher established the Fisher Body Company. Their uncle soon wanted out and the brothers obtained the funds from Detroit businessman Louis Mendelssohn who became a shareholder. Within a short period of time, Charles and Fred Fisher brought their five brothers into the business. Prior to forming the company, Fred Fisher had built the body of the Cadillac Osceola at the C. R. Wilson Company, starting in 1910, Fisher became the supplier of all closed bodies for Cadillac, and also built for Buick. In the early years of the company, the Fisher Brothers had to develop new body designs because the horseless carriage bodies did not have the strength to withstand the vibration of the new motorcars. By 1913, the Fisher Body Company had the capacity to produce 100,000 cars per year and customers included, Ford, Krit, Chalmers, Cadillac, and Studebaker. Highly successful, they expanded into Canada, setting up a plant in Walkerville, Ontario, one reason for their success was the development of interchangeable wooden body parts that did not require hand-fitting, as was the case in the construction of carriages. This required the design of new precision woodworking tools, the Fisher Body and Buick Chassis were built in Saint John New Brunswick Canada in the 1920s. In 1916, the became the Fisher Body Corporation. The company constructed the now-abandoned Albert Kahn-designed Fisher Body Plant 21, on Piquette Street, in Detroit, the building is now part of the Piquette Avenue Industrial Historic District. At the time, the company had more than 40 buildings encompassing 3,700,000 square feet of floor space
25.
Vanden Plas
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Vanden Plas is the name of coachbuilders who produced bodies for specialist and up-market automobile manufacturers. The business began in 1870 in Brussels, Belgium, as Carrosserie Van den Plas initially making axles later producing horse-drawn carriages. It was founded by Guillaume van den Plas, a blacksmith, in 1884 they moved from Brussels to Antwerp. With increased business they opened a branch in Brussels again in 1890, by 1900, they worked with De Dion Bouton, Berlier, Germain, Packard. By 1908 Vanden Plas had a workforce of 400 men producing 300 special bodies a year, the Belgian business ceased production in 1934 and its French branch with it. The coachbuilders name first appeared in the United Kingdom in 1906 when Métallurgique cars were imported with Vanden Plas coachwork, the first Vanden Plas company in England was established by Warwick Wright in 1913, building bodies under license from Vanden Plas Belgium. During World War I UK activities were switched to aircraft production, in 1917 a company, Vanden Plas Ltd. was incorporated. After the war it seems to have been a struggle to get back into coachbuilding, the exclusive UK naming rights seem to have been lost as in the early 1920s the Belgian firm was exhibiting at the London Motor Show alongside the British business. In 1923 the rights to the name and the goodwill were purchased by the Fox brothers who incorporated Vanden Plas 1923 Limited and they moved the business from Hendon to Kingsbury and built on the contacts that had been made with Bentley. Between 1924 and 1931, when Bentley failed, Vanden Plas built the bodies for over 700 of their chassis. In the 1930s the company became dependent on one car maker and supplied coachwork to such as Alvis, Armstrong Siddeley, Bentley, Daimler, Lagonda, Rolls-Royce. The company also updated its production methods and took to making small batches of similar bodies, with the outbreak of war in 1939 the company returned to aircraft work, and coachbuilding stopped. During the War the company manufactured the framework for the De Havilland Mosquito. After the war the company continued its association with De Havilland, with peace in 1945 the company looked to restart its old business when a new customer came along. Austin wanted to market a version of its in-house-built large 4-litre Rolls-Royce-size A110 Sheerline luxury car. Vanden Plas became a subsidiary of the Austin Motor Company in 1946, in 1960 the Princess became the Vanden Plas Princess. Austin was joined in BMC by Jaguar with its new subsidiary Daimler, production of Princess limousines ended in 1968 when they were replaced with Daimler DS420 limousines built by Vanden Plas on a lengthened Jaguar Mark X platform. The DS420 was produced at the Kingsbury Lane Vanden Plas factory until it closed in November 1979 and this decision was later changed but Vanden Plas is used in North America instead of Daimler on Jaguars top luxury models
26.
Bahawalpur (princely state)
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Bahawalpur was a princely state of British India and later, Pakistan, that existed from 1802 to 1955. It was a part of Punjab States Agency, the state covered an area of 45,911 km² and had a population of 1,341,209 in 1941. The capital of the state was the town of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur state was founded in 1802 by Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan Abbasi after the breakup of the Durrani Empire. His successor was Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan Abbasi III, on 22 February 1833, Abbasi III entered into subsidiary alliance with the British by which Bahawalpur was admitted as a princely state of British India. When India became independent of British rule in 1947 and partitioned into two states, India and Pakistan, Bahawalpur joined the Dominion of Pakistan, Bahawalpur remained an autonomous entity till 14 October 1955 when it was merged with the province of West Pakistan. The Abbasi tribe from whom the family of Bahawalpur belong. The tribe came from Sindh to Bahawalpur and assumed independence during the decline of the Durrani Empire, as part of the 1809 Treaty of Lahore, Ranjit Singh was confined to the right bank of the Sutlej. The first treaty with Bahawalpur was negotiated in 1833, the year after the treaty with Ranjit Singh for regulating traffic on the Indus and it secured the independence of the Nawab within his own territories, and opened up the traffic on the Indus and Sutlej. During the First Anglo-Afghan War, the Nawab assisted the British with supplies and allowing passage, for these services he was rewarded by the grant of the districts of Sabzalkot and Bhung, together with a life-pension of a lakh. On his death a dispute regarding succession. He was succeeded by his son, whom he had nominated in place of his eldest son. In 1879, the Nawab was invested with powers, with the advice and assistance of a council of six members. On his death in 1899 he was succeeded by Muhammad Bahawal Khan V, who attained his majority in 1900, the Nawab of Bahawalpur was entitled to a salute of 17 guns. Bahawalpur House in Delhi is now home to the National School of Drama, the predominantly Muslim population supported Muslim League and Pakistan Movement. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the minority Hindus, after independence of Pakistan, Nawab of Bahawalpur Sadeq Mohammad Khan V proved to be very helpful and generous to the government of Pakistan. He gave seventy million rupees to the government and the salaries of all the government departments for one month were also drawn from the treasury of Bahawalpur state. He donated his property to the University of the Punjab, King Edward Medical College. At the time of all the princely states of the British India were given a choice to join either Pakistan or India
27.
Orchha State
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Orchha State was a princely state of the Bundelkhand region of British India. It was located within what is now the state of Madhya Pradesh, the Chaturbhuj Temple was built, during the time of Akbar, by the Queen of Orchha, while the Raj Mandir was built by Madhukar Shah during his reign,1554 to 1591. Orchha State was founded in 1501 AD by the Bundela chief, Rudra Pratap Singh and he reigned between 1501-1531, during which time he built the fort at what is now the town of Orchha, on the banks of the river Betwa. He moved his capital from Garhkundar to that town in 1531, Rudra Pratap Singh was succeeded by his son, Bharatichand, who died without leaving an heir in 1554 and was in turn succeeded by his younger brother, Madhukar Shah. Both Bharatichand and Madhukar had to deal with attacks, organised under the Afghan Islam Shah Suri, events involving the former were noted by the court poet Keshavdas and those involving Madhukar, who had to relinquish lands to Akbar in 1577 and 1588, were recorded in the Akbarnama. During the rule of the Mughal emperor Jahangir, his vassal, in the early-17th century, Raja Jhujhar Singh rebelled against the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, whose armies devastated the state and occupied Orchha from 1635 to 1641. In that latter year, the conquerors installed the former rajas brother on the throne, Orchha was the only Bundela state not entirely subjugated by the Marathas in the 18th century. Hamir Singh, who ruled from 1848 to 1874, was elevated to the style of Maharaja in 1865, during his reign the allied forces of Orchha and Datia invaded Jhansi in 1857 intending to divide the Jhansi territory between them. However they were defeated by Rani Lakshmibais army and her allies in August 1857, in 1908, the boundaries of the state lay between 24° 26′ and 25° 40′ North and 78° 26′ and 79° 21′ East. It formed a part of the Bundelkhand Agency and had an area of 2,080 square miles, the 1901 Census of India recorded a population of 321,634. It was the oldest and highest in rank of all the Bundela states, with a 15-gun salute, Vir Singh, Pratap Singhs successor, merged his state with the Union of India on 1 January 1950. The district became part of Vindhya Pradesh state, which was merged into the state of Madhya Pradesh in 1956, prior to Company Rule, the rulers of Orchha all held the title of Raja. The first Orchha State stamps were issued in 1913, in 1914 there was another issue of four stamps, the third issue was in 1939 when a range of stamps bearing the maharajahs portrait were issued which included denominations from half-anna to eight annas and one rupee to ten rupees. Separate stamps were discontinued on 30 April 1950 after the state was merged with the Union of India early that year, Orchha minted coins in copper and silver. The currency was known as Gaja Shahi because it most commonly bore the symbol of a mace on the reverse, the mace symbol was imitated on coins issued by Datia State. The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol.19, the Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol.9. The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol.9, media related to Orchha State at Wikimedia Commons Genealogy of the ruling chiefs of Orchha Orchha Journal, See the Ruins. Orchha - Indian Princely State - CRW Flags Inc
28.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
29.
Cadillac V-12
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The Cadillac V-12 is a top-of-the-line car that was manufactured by Cadillac from the 1931 through the 1937 model years. All were furnished with custom bodies, and the car was built in small numbers. A total of 10,903 were made in the seven years that the automobile was built. It was Cadillacs first, and is to date, Cadillacs only standard production V-12 powered car, in the mid to late 1920s a number of luxury car manufacturers began work developing multicylinder engines. Not to be outdone, Cadillac began work on two different multicylinder engines, a V-12 and a V-16, larry Fisher, Cadillac General Manager, leaked to the press information about the V-12, hoping to keep the V-16 a secret. Owen Nacker, who designed the Cadillac V-16 engine, also designed the Cadillac V-12 engine, the V-12 was essentially a truncated V-16, with a bore of 3.125 instead of 3, giving it a displacement of 368 cubic inches. It shared the V-16s 45 degree bank angle, rather than the 60 degree angle that would have been ideal. The V-12 was less powerful than the V-16, generating 135 versus 175 horsepower, both engines featured overhead valves in the first generation. The 1931 Model 370A V-12 was introduced in October 1930, a V-12 roadster was used as the pace car at the Indianapolis 500. More significantly, the V-12 cost about $2,000 less for each bodystyle, moreover, thanks to its lower price, it immediately outsold the Cadillac V-16 with 5,733 sold in the 1931 model year, versus a mere 363 for the V-16. The appearance of the 1932 Series 370B benefited from a shell that flared on the top, more flaring fenders. Mechanical changes included a frame, and a Cuno self-cleaning oil filter mounted at the right hand side of the clutch housing. Dual Detroit Lubricator carburetors were used in place of the Cadillac/Johnson carburetors that had been standard equipment on Cadillacs for 20 years, largely thanks to the deepening Great Depression sales plunged to 1740 units. Fisher no-draft individually controlled vent windows were a new standard feature, sales fell further to 953 cars. The 1934 Series 370D was restyled yet again but this time was mounted on a new chassis. Significant mechanical advancements included dual X-frame chassis construction, Knee-Action front coil spring suspension that greatly reduced unsprung weight, the 1935 Series 370E saw the addition of the Fisher Turret Top on Fisher bodied cars and an increase in horsepower to 150. Sales over the two years combined totaled only 1098, the Cadillac V-12 was renamed the Series 80 and 85 in 1936. The Series 80 and 85 featured a 131 and 138 wheelbase respectively, all V-12s were now Fleetwood bodied and had Turret Tops
30.
Cadillac Series 355
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The Cadillac Series 355 was manufactured by Cadillac from 1931 to 1935. They were 8-cylinder cars, sold in several models, a 2-door club coupe, a 2-door convertible, 4-door convertible, a 4-door sedan a 4-door town car and a 4-door limousine. The 1931 Series 355A was very similar to the Series 353 except it was longer and lower, had a hood with five hood ports. There was a modified coach sill with no compartments in the splash pan, the battery and tool compartment were now under the front seat. Floor boards were made of metal for the first time, the instrument panel was oval with the same gauge groupings as in the Series 353. The Series 355 featured a screen, a single bar bumper. The headlight diameter was reduced by one inch, there was a new frame with divergent side rails. The suspension springs now had metal covers, the radiator was mounted lower in the frame and there was now a condenser tank for cooling operation. The engine was the same 353 cu in L-Head V8 as on the Series 353, a five point engine suspension, similar to the V-16 was used. An intake muffler was added and the distributor was mounted 1.5 in higher, the fan was mounted lower to match the lower radiator. The 1932 Series 355B was even longer and lower, with a restyled front assembly. The roof line was lowered 1–3 in, the longer hood now had six hood ports. The new front end styling included a grille built into the radiator shell, head and side lights of streamlined bullet shape. The trumpets of the dual horns projected through the headlight stanchions, the headlight lenses were 9.5 in in diameter. The dual taillights matched the headlights, super safe lighting featured three filament bulbs and four contour positions for degree and angle of illumination. The front license plate was mounted on the bumper, runningboards curved to match the sweep of the front fenders and blended into the rear fenders. The tail of the rear fenders blended into the fuel tank valence, the trunk on the town sedan, town coupe and five-passenger convertible coupe was integral with the body. The vision of the driver was improved by 30 percent as a result of the elimination of the outside visor, there was a large ventilator on top of the cowl and none on the sides
31.
Cadillac Series 70
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The Cadillac Series 70 is a full-size V8-powered series of cars that were produced by Cadillac from the 1930s through the 1980s. It replaced the 1935 355E as the mainstream car just as the much less expensive Series 60 was introduced. The Series 72 and 67 were similar to the Series 75, the Series 72 was only produced in 1940 and the Series 67 was only produced in 1941 and 1942. The 1936 Series 70 and 75 both had v-shaped windshield styles by Fleetwood, a narrower radiator shell was supported by the new louver style Convex vee grill. Headlights were mounted on the radiator shell, parking lights were inside the headlights. Front fenders were new with a crease along the center line, the cowl vent was changed back to opening forward. There were built-in trunks on touring styles, town cars and 4-door convertibles, coupes and 2-door convertibles had rumble seats plus a separate door for the spare tire at the extreme rear of the deck. All bodies now utilized the Fisher Turret Top, however, the high price limited their appeal in the Great Depression era. Only 5,248 were sold for 1936, a die-cast eggcrate grille was used, but the hood louver treatment differed from that used in Fisher bodied cars. Chrome die cast strips were used at the rear of the side panels. A seven-passenger Fisher-bodied Special touring sedan, without a window was offered on the 138.0 in wheelbase. These two body styles had the hood louvers typical of all Fisher bodied Cadillacs for 1937. The Business car line included eight-passenger versions of these Special sedans plus eight-passenger versions of Fleetwood body styles, the eighth passenger was seated with two others on auxiliary seats. A commercial chassis on a 156.0 in wheelbase was offered, engine changes included a lighter flywheel, a generator relocated in the vee, an oil filter, a new carburetor with full automatic electric choke, an oil bath cleaner, and a relocated distributor. For 1938 the Series 70 and Fisher-bodied Series 75 Specials were dropped, the Series 75 used a 141 in wheelbase and now only offered bodies by Fleetwood. Optional sidemount covers were hinged to the fenders, quarter windows were of sliding rather than hinged construction. The rear of the body had rounder corners and more smoothly blended lines, trunks had more of an appearance of being an integral part of the body. Bodies were all steel except for wooden main sills, for 1939, all Cadillac V8s had new grille styling, similar in appearance but different in detail dimensions on each series
32.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
33.
Cadillac V16 engine
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The Cadillac V16 engine was a type of automobile engine produced in the 1930s. Cadillac produced two of three production, gasoline-fueled V16 engine models in history. Both were used in the Cadillac V-16 automobile, the first from 1930 until 1937, the company has twice attempted to build a new V16 engine, once in the 1980s and again in 2003, but these have yet to be put into production. The only other 16-cylinder automotive engines ever attempted were Bugattis 1915 U16, Marmons V16, a modern, quad-turbocharged W16 engine was used in the EB 16/4 Veyron built by the new Volkswagen-owned Bugatti in the 2000s. With its chief competitor, Packard, already having sold a V12 engine against Cadillacs eight-cylinder cars, lawrence Fisher, Cadillac General Manager, leaked to the press that the company would also build a V12, hoping to keep the real engine secret. It sported a narrow 45° bank angle for use in the new Cadillac chassis, the engine was well engineered, with a counterweighted crankshaft, overhead valves, and hydraulic tappets. It also had two single barrel carburetors, one for each bank. The 452 V16 had a 3 in bore and a 4 in stroke and it was therefore known as the Series 452. Cadillac initially rated the engine at 165 bhp and it was capable of powering the heavier models to speeds in excess of 80 mph, and 100 mph for some of the lighter examples. In all,3878 Series 452s were built, the two carburetors, one on each bank, and air cleaners were mounted on top of the engine block in this design. These engines had square proportions, bore and stroke were both 3 1⁄4 in, giving a displacement of 431 cubic inches. Cadillac rated these engines at the same 185 bhp as the previous series and these engines were known as the Series 90, as were the cars that used them. The Series 90 V16 was produced from 1938 through 1940 and this engine was used in the 1938-1940 Series 90. The 431-cubic-inch displacement 1938-40 Cadillac V16 was one of the last new American auto engine designs prior to World War Two, as such, it incorporated some of the latest thinking. Nine main bearings provided a main bearing support between each 135 degree opposing pair of cylinders. The square bore and stroke lowered piston speed and promoted crankshaft rigidity, luxury car drivers presumably valued smoothness and silence more than high speed power. Hydraulic valve lifters promoted silent running and an absence of periodic adjustment, unlike most cars of the era, an external oil filter safeguarded the precision valve lifters. Despite the use of valves, the engine produced as much power as the prior 45 degree V16
34.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
35.
Overhead valve engine
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An overhead valve engine is an engine in which the valves are placed in the cylinder head. This was an improvement over the flathead engine, where the valves were placed in the block next to the piston. Overhead camshaft engines, while overhead valve by definition, are usually categorized apart from other OHV engines. Lifters or tappets are located in the block between the camshaft and pushrods. By contrast, overhead camshaft design avoids the use of pushrods by putting the camshaft directly above the valves in the cylinder head, in 1900, Marr was hired as chief engineer at the Buick Auto-Vim and Power Company in Detroit, where he worked until 1902. Marr said he got the idea of overhead valves when making the small tricycle engine, marrs engine employed pushrod-actuated rocker arms, which in turn pushed valves parallel to the pistons, and this is still in use today. This contrasts with previous designs which use of side valves. Marr left Buick briefly to start his own company in 1902, the Marr Auto-Car. The OHV engine was patented in 1902 by Buicks second chief engineer Eugene Richard, at the Buick Manufacturing Company, precursor to the Buick Motor Company. The worlds first production overhead valve engine was put into the first production Buick automobile, the 1904 Model B, the engine was designed by Marr and David Buick. Eugene Richard of the Buick Manufacturing Company was awarded US Patent #771,095 in 1904 for the valve in head engine. Arthur Chevrolet was awarded US Patent #1,744,526 for an adapter that could be applied to an existing engine, in 1949, Oldsmobile introduced the Rocket V8. It was the first high-compression I-head design, and is the archetype for most modern pushrod engines, general Motors is the worlds largest pushrod engine producer, producing both I4, V6 and V8 pushrod engines. Nowadays, automotive use of side-valves has virtually disappeared, and valves are almost all overhead, however, most are now driven more directly by the overhead camshaft system. Few pushrod-type engines remain in production outside of the United States market and this is in part a result of some countries passing laws to tax engines based on displacement, because displacement is somewhat related to the emissions and fuel efficiency of an automobile. This has given OHC engines a regulatory advantage in those countries, however, in 2002, Chrysler introduced a new pushrod engine, a 5. 7-litre Hemi engine. The new Chrysler Hemi engine presents advanced features such as variable displacement technology and has been an option with buyers. The Hemi was on the Wards 10 Best Engines list for 2003 through 2007, Chrysler also produced the worlds first production variable-valve OHV engine with independent intake and exhaust phasing
36.
Douglas MacArthur
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Douglas MacArthur was an American five-star general and field marshal of the Philippine Army. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and he received the Medal of Honor for his service in the Philippines Campaign, which made him and his father Arthur MacArthur, Jr. the first father and son to be awarded the medal. He was one of five men ever to rise to the rank of General of the Army in the US Army. During the 1914 United States occupation of Veracruz, he conducted a reconnaissance mission, in 1917, he was promoted from major to colonel and became chief of staff of the 42nd Division. From 1919 to 1922, MacArthur served as Superintendent of the U. S, Military Academy at West Point, where he attempted a series of reforms. His next assignment was in the Philippines, where in 1924 he was instrumental in quelling the Philippine Scout Mutiny, in 1925, he became the Armys youngest major general. He served on the martial of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell and was president of the American Olympic Committee during the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1930, he became Chief of Staff of the United States Army, as such, he was involved in the expulsion of the Bonus Army protesters from Washington, D. C. in 1932, and the establishment and organization of the Civilian Conservation Corps. He retired from the US Army in 1937 to become Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines, MacArthur was recalled to active duty in 1941 as commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East. A series of disasters followed, starting with the destruction of his air forces on 8 December 1941, MacArthurs forces were soon compelled to withdraw to Bataan, where they held out until May 1942. In March 1942, MacArthur, his family and his staff left nearby Corregidor Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia, upon his arrival in Australia, MacArthur gave a speech in which he famously promised I shall return to the Philippines. For his defense of the Philippines, MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor, after more than two years of fighting in the Pacific, he fulfilled a promise to return to the Philippines. He officially accepted Japans surrender on 2 September 1945, aboard USS Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay, as the effective ruler of Japan, he oversaw sweeping economic, political and social changes. He led the United Nations Command in the Korean War until he was removed from command by President Harry S. Truman on 11 April 1951 and he later became Chairman of the Board of Remington Rand. A military brat, Douglas MacArthur was born 26 January 1880, at Little Rock Barracks, Little Rock, Arkansas, to Arthur MacArthur, Jr. a U. S. Army captain, Pinkney came from a prominent Norfolk, Virginia, family. Two of her brothers had fought for the South in the Civil War, Arthur and Pinky had three sons, of whom Douglas was the youngest, following Arthur III, born on 1 August 1876, and Malcolm, born on 17 October 1878. The family lived on a succession of Army posts in the American Old West, conditions were primitive, and Malcolm died of measles in 1883. In his memoir, Reminiscences, MacArthur wrote I learned to ride and shoot even before I could read or write—indeed and this time on the frontier ended in July 1889 when the family moved to Washington, D. C. where Douglas attended the Force Public School
37.
Buick Limited
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The Buick Limited was an automobile built by Buick between 1936 and 1942 and during model year 1958. Since 1959 Buick has used the Limited name to denote those models which featured a level of trim. The Series 90 had an 344.8 cu in in-line eight-cylinder engine, also due to its size, it was the top model of the Buick range, using the GM C-body platform shared with Cadillac. The next year the pace grew and was introduced a new high engine power unit developing 113 hp. In 1933 the model was completely revised, in 1931, however, the running board was shortened and the engine output increased again, reaching 116 hp. The appearance was updated, while the mechanics remained unchanged, in 1936 the model changed its name to 90 Limited. The origins of the Limited name date to 1936 when Buick added names to its model lineup to celebrate the engineering improvements. It shared its chassis with the top-level Cadillac D body vehicles, the engine was a 320 cu in 120 hp I8 Limiteds were the most expensive Buicks in production, riding on the companys longest wheelbase of 138 in, and the best appointed cars that Buick built. All Limiteds were built at the Buick factory in Flint, Michigan, in 1939 Buick products underwent a substantial redesign, however, the Limiteds limited production merited it to continue using its 1938 body. Behind the scenes, Cadillac executives lobbied to get the Limited out of production because it infringed on their market, production of the Limited continued until the eve of World War II. Following World War II, Buick dropped its extended wheelbase models, the Buick Limited series was revived in 1958 as the ultimate Buick for the model year, using the GM C platform. Buick also added quad headlights and three emblems bearing a stylized V, one a medallion on the hood and the two as gun-sight fender-toppers. The Buick Sweepspear side trim, a styling hallmark since 1949, was joined by broad chrome panels attached to the quarter panels. Tail lights were housed in massive chrome housings, each trunk lid received a chrome grip in the center, in comparison to the junior models in the Buick lineup, the Limited was slightly more restrained. Each Limited traded its chromed side panel trim for a body color-keyed insert decorated with fifteen slanted hash marks, the Limited also received its own rear tail treatment that traded the heavy chrome tail light housings for a wraparound tail light lens broken up by four chrome bands. Rear bumper Dagmars housed Dual Jet back-up lights, available only as a four-door hardtop, two-door hardtop coupe or convertible, the Limited rode Buicks 127.5 wheelbase, with its body stretched 227.1, just shy of nineteen feet in length. Inside, buyers were treated to high quality fabrics in sedans and coupes, however Buick sold only 7,438 Limiteds, due in part to their price. The Limiteds four-door hardtop sedan started at a price of $5,112
38.
Flathead engine
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A flathead engine is an internal combustion engine with valves placed in the engine block beside the piston, instead of in the cylinder head, as in an overhead valve engine. As the cylinder cross-section has the shape of an upside-down L, the sidevalves poppet valves are usually sited on one side of the cylinder. A recess in the head creates a corridor connecting the valves. The valve gear comprises a camshaft which operates the valves via simple tappets, indian, however, employs both rocker arms and pushrods to transmiit motion from the cam lobes to the valve stems. Flathead designs are commonly built new for many small engine applications of one. The main advantages of an engine are simplicity, reliability, low cost, compactness, responsive low-speed power, low mechanical engine noise. The absence of an overhead valve valvetrain allows a compact engine that is less expensive to manufacture. Even today, flatheads are common in lawnmowers and basic farm machinery, if a valve head breaks off, it may become lodged between the piston and the head causing severe damage. At top dead centre, the piston gets very close to the portion of the cylinder head above. The typical flathead engine has its valves adjacent, but the T-head variant acts as a cross-flow head, the main disadvantages of a sidevalve engine are poor gas flow, poor combustion chamber shape, and low compression ratio, all of which result in a low power output. The sidevalve configuration makes intake and exhaust gases follow a route, with low volumetric efficiency. Although a sidevalve engine can operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates. High volumetric efficiency was important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds. A compromise used by Willys, Rover and Rolls-Royce in the 1950s was the F-head, in there is one side valve. An advance in technology resulted from experimentation in the 1920s by Sir Harry Ricardo. Because the exhaust follows a path to leave the engine. In a T-head engine, the pairs have a crossflow configuration. American LaFrance powered their fire engines with T-head engines from the 1920s to the 1950s, the Cleveland Motorcycle Manufacturing Company produced a T-head four-cylinder in-line motorcycle engine in the 1920s, and early Stutz engines were T heads
39.
Bulgari
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Bulgari is an Italian jewelry and luxury goods brand that produces and markets several product lines including jewelry, watches, fragrances, accessories, and hotels. The name Voulgaris itself contains the root word Βούλγαρ Greek for Bulgarian, furthermore in the companys native Italy the word Bulgari means Bulgarians or people of Bulgarian descent. Sotirios Boulgaris, born in an Aromanian village known as Kalarites began his career as a jeweller in his home village Paramythia, in 1877, he left for Corfu and then Naples. In 1881 he finally moved to Rome, where in 1884 he founded his company, the store in Via Sistina was then replaced by the current flagship store in Via dei Condotti opened in 1905 by Bulgari with the help of his two sons, Costantino and Giorgio. During the Second World War, Costantino Bulgari and his wife Laura hid three Jewish women in their own Roman home and they were strangers to them, the Bulgaris opened their doors out of outrage for the raid of the Roman ghetto in October 1943. For their generous action, on 31 December 2003, they were awarded the title of Righteous among the Nations at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, after Giorgios death in 1966, his son Gianni led the company as co-chief executive with his cousin Marina. As chairman and CEO of Bulgari in the early 1970s, Gianni initiated the internationalization of the company by opening shops in New York, Geneva, Monte-Carlo, for many years the company maintained a showroom in New Yorks The Pierre Hotel. In the late 1970s, Gianni led a complete overhaul of the company, establishing a new watch business, in 1985, Gianni resigned as CEO and in 1987, he left the family business after selling his one-third stake in the company to his brothers Nicola and Paolo. In 1984, Sotirios grandsons Paolo and Nicola Bulgari were named Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the company, trapanis goal to diversify the company was started in the early 1990s with the release of the Bulgari perfume line. Under his tenure the company has established itself as a luxury goods brand recognized throughout the world, in 1995, the company was listed on the Borsa Italiana. The company has seen 150% revenue growth between 1997 and 2003, under the deal, the Bulgari family sold their 50.4 per cent controlling stake in exchange for 3 per cent of LVMH, thereby becoming the second-biggest family shareholder behind the Arnaults in LVMH. The takeover doubled the size of LVMH’s watches and jewellery unit, the acquisition concluded on 4 October 2011 as Bulgari was delisted from the Borsa Italiana. Bulgari opened its first hotel in Milan in 2004, a resort in Bali in 2006, followed by a hotel in London in 2012, in 2011, Bulgari Bali has been chosen by the readers of Smart Travel Asia magazine as number-2 of top places to stay in Asia. Current locations include Milan, London, and Bali with restaurants in Osaka, future locations will include Shanghai, Beijing, Dubai, and Moscow. Bulgari jewelry design is distinctive and often imitated, in the 1970s, many of the more expensive Bulgari pieces were characterized by instantly recognizable, bold, architectural designs combining large and weighty gold links with interlocking steel. Bulgari is also famous for colored stones, especially sapphires mixed in unique formats, genuine Bulgari watches have a unique serial number that is registered with the company. Bulgari relies on a network of about 300 stores, located in the most exclusive shopping areas in the world. The largest Bulgari store in the world is the 10-story Bulgari Ginza Tower in Tokyo,940 square meters of floor space, including a restaurant
40.
Opel Regent
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The Opel Regent is a luxury car from the German carmaker Opel introduced in November 1928 and available as a four-door limousine and two-door coupe. The official name was Opel 24/110, the 5,400 mm long Regent was available from 25,000 Reichsmark, and had an eight-cylinder engine with 6 litre capacity that allowed a top speed of 130 km/h. In March 1929, General Motors bought 80% of the capital of Adam Opel AG. Since GM feared too much competition with the top models of its own brands Cadillac and Buick, all 25 previously sold Regent models had to be bought back, due to the scrapping of all Opel 24/110, there is no car preserved. The name Regent was later used for the versions of some models such as the 1932 Opel Regent 1.8 Litre. Edition XXL, Fränkisch-Crumbach 2005, ISBN 3-89736-327-5, S.274 Opel Specials Carsablanca
41.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Mid-size car
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A mid-size car is the North American/Australian standard for an automobile with a size equal to or greater than that of a compact. In Europe mid-sizers are referred to as D-segment or large family cars, the automobile that defined this size in the United States was the Rambler Six that was introduced in 1956, although it was called compact car at that time. The mid-size class then grew out of the compacts of the early-1960s, for example, the Ford Fairlane was referred to at its introduction in 1962 as a compact intermediate because it was barely bigger than its close relative, the Falcon. General Motors first entries in the class, such as the Oldsmobile F-85, Pontiac Tempest, and Buick Special were not mechanically related to the compact Chevrolet Corvair, at that time vehicle classes were defined more by their wheelbase than interior passenger space and cargo capacity. The class began to rapidly, and for the next ten years each expansion in size in the full-size field was followed by a proportionate growth in the mid-size models. By the mid-1960s, they were as big as the cars of the mid-1950s. By the mid-1970s, they were nearly as big as the cars of the mid-1960s. During the 1970s, the class was generally defined as vehicles with wheelbases between 112 inches and 118 inches. A turning point occurred in the late 1970s, when rising costs and government fuel economy regulations caused all car classes to shrink. Automakers moved previously full-size nameplates to smaller platforms, new official size designations in the U. S. were introduced by the EPA, which defined market segments by passenger and cargo space. Formerly mid-sized cars that were built on the platform, like the AMC Matador sedan, had a combined passenger and cargo volume of 130 cubic feet. The situation was complicated when General Motors began to downsize its models about two years before everybody else, in 1978, the Chevrolet Malibu nameplate had been redesigned on a 108-inch wheelbase, while the Ford Granada moved to the 105-inch wheelbase of the Ford Fairmonts Fox platform in 1981. Both competed with the Chrysler standard and extended K-cars, often classified as compact, former mid-size platforms such as the Plymouth Satellite would be rebranded as full-size, rebodied, or dropped in the face of the downsized Chevrolet Caprice. Some were subsequently replaced by used to be large compacts. The Granada would be badged with the LTD moniker before being replaced by the class-defining Ford Taurus, similarly, import models such as the Honda Accord and Toyota Camry that had been classified by the EPA as compact in 1985 grew to the mid-size class by the 1990s. The Accord later grew even larger, its eighth North American sedan version was classified by the EPA as a full-size car, the current ninth generation North American sedan was slightly smaller than its immediate predecessor, putting it once again in the mid-size class. Mid-size vehicles today usually have wheelbases between 105 inches and 110 inches, another widely used definition is that of the EPA, which classifies cars between 110 cubic feet and 119 cubic feet of interior volume as mid-size. Mid-size cars are the most popular category of cars sold in the United States, in Japan, the term mid-size car probably does not have the intermediate sense that it does in other markets
43.
Cadillac Seville
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The Cadillac Seville is a luxury car that was manufactured by Cadillac from 1975 to 2004, as a smaller-sized premium Cadillac. Despite its smaller size, the Seville typically carried the highest price tag among Cadillacs sedan models and it was replaced by the Cadillac STS in 2005. After painstaking research, LaSalle was the top pick, with St. Moritz a distant second, a troubled past and difficult pronunciation, respectively, cleared the way for Sevilles use. Seville is a Spanish province and the city of that province, renowned for its history and its treasures of art. The Spanish master painters Diego Velázquez and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo were from Seville, the Seville name first entered use by Cadillac as the designation for the two-door hardtop version of the 1956 Cadillac Eldorado. 1960 was the last model year for the Eldorado Seville, the Seville, introduced in May 1975, was Cadillacs answer to the rising popularity of such European luxury imports as Mercedes-Benz and BMW. GM planners were becoming concerned that the divisions once-vaunted image as The standard of the world was fading as the 1970s unfolded, especially among the younger generation of car buyers. Seeking to counter Cadillacs heavy slant towards the age group. Over time European luxury cars had become quite luxurious and even more expensive than the much larger Cadillacs, as the market share of these imports continued to climb, it became obvious that the traditional American automotive paradigm of bigger equals better had begun to falter. The Seville became the smallest and most expensive model in the lineup, Full size design prototypes were created as early as winter of 1972-73. Subsequent design prototypes looked more edgy, styling took strong cues from the Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow. Substantial re-engineering and upgrades from these humble origins earned it the unique designation K-body, also shared with the corporate X platform was part of the roof stamping and trunk floor pan. Cadillac stylists added a crisp, angular body that set the tone for GM styling for the decade, along with a wide-track stance giving car a substantial. The wrap-around taillights might have come from a sketch of a rejected Coupe DeVille concept. Another proposal during the development of the Seville was a front-wheel drive layout similar to the Cadillac Eldorado and this proposal also met with budget concerns since the transaxle used for the Eldorado was produced on a limited basis solely for E-body production, alongside the GMC motorhome of the mid-1970s. This was the first time Cadillac began engineering one of its vehicles based on previously used in a Chevrolet model. Introduced in mid-1975 and billed as the new internationally-sized Cadillac, the Seville was almost 1,000 pounds lighter than the full-sized Deville, the Seville was thus more nimble and easier to park, as well as remaining attractive to customers with the full complement of Cadillac features. More expensive than every other Cadillac model at US$12,479 and it spawned several imitators including models like the Lincoln Versailles, and later the Chrysler LeBaron
44.
Compact executive car
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Compact executive car is a car classification term applied to premium cars smaller than executive cars. In European classification, compact cars are part of the D-segment. In North American terms, close equivalents are compact premium car, compact car, entry-level luxury car. Compact executive cars are available in saloon, estate, coupé. During the late-1960s, buyer preferences fragmented the market, moving to intermediates, personal/specialty, increasing fuel prices and competition pushed AMC to exploit special market segments left untended by the giants. In 1978, AMC introduced its new Concord luxury compact represent an upgraded, more luxurious, more comfortable, more silent, more opulent automobile. On March 31st,2016, Tesla revealed a prototype of the Model 3, an electric compact premium car. Cadillac continued its sales leadership in the market by making changes with the market and introduced the 1982 Cadillac Cimarron. Today, automakers are responding to changes in the marketplace and in the mind-set of consumers looking for status on a budget. Traditional luxury car makers are gearing up to small models that will test whether affluent U. S. car buyers are ready to concede that bigger isnt always better. Facing higher fuel costs and traffic, changes are sweeping through the car market. Two of the earliest European compact executives were created by the Nuffield Organization and introduced in 1952 under the MG, the badge engineered Magnette and 4/44 twins had monocoque construction. Another monocoque compact executive was the Austin Cambridge which was brought to the market in 1954, BMC offered larger Battista Farina designed saloons in 1959, which included the all-new Austin Cambridge Mk. III, Morris Oxford Series V, Riley 4/68-4/72 and Wolseley 15/60-16/60 derivatives, other British compact executive contenders included the 1955 Hillman Minx, Singer Gazelle and sportier Sunbeam Rapier triplets from the Rootes Group. After Leyland bought the Standard-Triumph company, the Standard name was discontinued in 1963 in favour of the more saleable Triumph brand, in 1965 Leyland introduced the Triumph 1300 which was their first front-wheel drive vehicle. This evolved into the Triumph 1500 before being re-engineered for rear-wheel drive for the 1970 Triumph Toledo, the latter was fitted with a 16v, SOHC engine and is considered the worlds first mass-produced multi-valve car. By the time the Austin-Rover group formed in 1983, the Austin Montego - which was available in sporting MG Montego guise - was about to be launched. Like the later Rover 600, Austin marketed the Montego as both a family and a car and correspondingly made it available with luxurious Vanden Plas trim
45.
Cadillac Series 60
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The Cadillac Series 60 was Cadillacs mid-priced entry in the luxury vehicle market when it appeared in 1936. It was replaced by the Series 61 in 1939, but a model that was derived from it, the Series 60 was the brainchild of new Cadillac manager, Nicholas Dreystadt. Debuting in 1936, it filled a gaping price gap between the LaSalles and Series 70 Cadillac models, initially it rode on a 121.0 in wheelbase and shared the B body with cars from LaSalle, Buick, and Oldsmobile. This went up to 124.0 in in 1937-38, the exterior featured a new Harley Earl-designed look with a tall, slender grille and split vee-shaped windshield. This body used Fisher Bodys new Turret Top one-piece roof and Bendix dual-servo brakes, knee-Action independent suspension, first introduced by Cadillac in 1934, was a welcome novelty for the mid-price market at the time. Under the hood was the new Monobloc V8 and this 322 cu in engine produced 125 hp, just 10 less than that in the larger Cadillacs. The Series 60 immediately became the companys best-selling model, making up half of all Cadillacs sold the first year, the next year, displacement on all Monobloc Cadillacs was 346 cu in. This new engine produced 135 hp, more than all V8 Cadillacs of just a few years earlier, the Series 60 was superseded by the Series 61 and disappeared after 1938
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