1.
Cadillac
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Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
2.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
3.
V8 engine
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A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
4.
Northstar engine series
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The Northstar engine is a family of General Motors most technically complex 90° V engines. Displacing 4.6 L in its form, the double overhead cam design is most associated with Cadillacs Northstar V8. These went out of production in 2003, but the Northstar family expanded with longitudinal and 4.4 L supercharged versions, Northstar engines also were used in several top-end Pontiacs and Buicks in the 2000s. GM ceased production of the Northstar series in July 2010, with the cars to receive it, the Cadillac DTS, Buick Lucerne. Newer Cadillac V8 models like the CTS-V use the GM LS small-block OHV engine, GM initiated the Northstars design as a response to the advanced dual overhead cam V8 engines introduced by European and Japanese competitors of Cadillac in the late 1980s. At that time, Cadillac was using the aluminum HT Overhead Valve V8 which GM pushed hastily into production because the CAFE standards for 1982 would not allow for the use of the V8-6-4 of 1981. At the time it was GMs corporate policy not to pass the gas guzzler tax on to the consumer, GM developed a laundry list of items to be included in these new models, including sophisticated steering, braking, and suspension technologies. This became known as the Northstar System, one key element was a high-tech V8 engine with all of the features and performance of the competitors offerings. Capable of producing 300 hp out of its 4565 cc displacement, the lower crankcase assembly supported the crankshaft without conventional main bearing caps. An oil manifold plate with a silicone gasket forms the oil gallery under this. A typical oil change used 7. 5–8 quarts of oil, GM specified cast-iron cylinder liners and the cast aluminum pistons included valve clearance. Northstar is an engine, the valves will strike the pistons if they lose timing. It has bronze piston pin bushings and free-floating piston pins, GM used cast aluminum cylinder heads featuring 4 valves per cylinder. The heads used dual overhead cams driven through the maintenance-free cam-drive chain case, the cams act directly on hydraulic lifters on the ends of the valves and are fed with a lubrication passage drilled through the cylinder head lengthwise. The intake valves are inclined at 25°, while the exhaust valves are canted to 7° with center-mounted platinum-tipped spark plugs, the cam covers are magnesium for light weight and sound damping. Eight thermoplastic tubes were used in the system, providing for sequential fuel injection. The engine used a distributorless ignition system with a waste spark setup, the PCM controls spark and fuel injection timing as well as the shift points for the new 4T80-E transmission. One notable feature advertised at the time was the limp home fail-safe mode which allowed the engine to continue running for a time without any coolant
5.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
6.
Sidevalve
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A flathead engine is an internal combustion engine with valves placed in the engine block beside the piston, instead of in the cylinder head, as in an overhead valve engine. As the cylinder cross-section has the shape of an upside-down L, the sidevalves poppet valves are usually sited on one side of the cylinder. A recess in the head creates a corridor connecting the valves. The valve gear comprises a camshaft which operates the valves via simple tappets, indian, however, employs both rocker arms and pushrods to transmiit motion from the cam lobes to the valve stems. Flathead designs are commonly built new for many small engine applications of one. The main advantages of an engine are simplicity, reliability, low cost, compactness, responsive low-speed power, low mechanical engine noise. The absence of an overhead valve valvetrain allows a compact engine that is less expensive to manufacture. Even today, flatheads are common in lawnmowers and basic farm machinery, if a valve head breaks off, it may become lodged between the piston and the head causing severe damage. At top dead centre, the piston gets very close to the portion of the cylinder head above. The typical flathead engine has its valves adjacent, but the T-head variant acts as a cross-flow head, the main disadvantages of a sidevalve engine are poor gas flow, poor combustion chamber shape, and low compression ratio, all of which result in a low power output. The sidevalve configuration makes intake and exhaust gases follow a route, with low volumetric efficiency. Although a sidevalve engine can operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates. High volumetric efficiency was important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds. A compromise used by Willys, Rover and Rolls-Royce in the 1950s was the F-head, in there is one side valve. An advance in technology resulted from experimentation in the 1920s by Sir Harry Ricardo. Because the exhaust follows a path to leave the engine. In a T-head engine, the pairs have a crossflow configuration. American LaFrance powered their fire engines with T-head engines from the 1920s to the 1950s, the Cleveland Motorcycle Manufacturing Company produced a T-head four-cylinder in-line motorcycle engine in the 1920s, and early Stutz engines were T heads
7.
Water cooling
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Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor, the main mechanism for water cooling is convective heat transfer. Cooling water is the water removing heat from a machine or system, cooling water may be recycled through a recirculating system or used in a single pass once-through cooling system. Recirculating systems may be if they rely upon cooling towers or cooling ponds to remove heat or closed if heat removal is accomplished with negligible evaporative loss of cooling water. Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water, the advantages of using water cooling over air cooling include waters higher specific heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity. This allows water to heat over greater distances with much less volumetric flow. The water jacket around an engine is very effective at deadening mechanical noises. Water accelerates corrosion of parts and is a favorable medium for biological growth. Dissolved minerals in water supplies are concentrated by evaporation to leave deposits called scale. Cooling water often requires addition of chemicals to minimize corrosion and insulating deposits of scale, an open water cooling system makes use of evaporative cooling, lowering the temperature of the remaining water. This method was common in internal combustion engines, until scale buildup was observed from dissolved salts. Modern open cooling systems continuously waste a fraction of recirculating water as blowdown to remove dissolved solids at low enough to prevent scale formation. Some open systems use inexpensive tap water, but this requires higher rates than deionized or distilled water. Purified water systems still require blowdown to remove accumulation of byproducts of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion, modern automotive cooling systems are slightly pressurized, often to 15 psi. This raises the boiling-point of the coolant and reduces evaporation, the use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require the use of a water, antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a cooling system. The heated coolant mixture can also be used to warm the air conditioning system inside the car by means of the heater core, other less common chemical additives are products to reduce surface tension
8.
Henry M. Leland
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Henry Martyn Leland was an American machinist, inventor, engineer and automotive entrepreneur. He founded the two premier American luxury automotive marques, Cadillac and Lincoln, Henry M. Leland was born to Leander and Zilpha, the youngest of 8, in Vermont in 1843. Sources differ on the town of his birth, he grew up in Barton and he learned engineering and precision machining in the Brown & Sharpe plant at Providence, Rhode Island. He subsequently worked in the industry, including at Colt. These experiences in toolmaking, metrology, and manufacturing steeped him in the 19th-century zeitgeist of interchangeability and he also invented the electric barber clippers, and for a short time produced a unique toy train, the Leland-Detroit Monorail. Leland created the Cadillac automobile, later bought out by General Motors, in 1902, William Murphy and his partners at the Henry Ford Company hired Leland to appraise the companys factory and tooling prior to liquidation. The directors lost no time in renaming the company Cadillac, at Cadillac, Leland applied many modern manufacturing principles to the fledgling automotive industry, including the use of interchangeable parts. The Cadillac won the Dewar Trophy for 1908, Leland sold Cadillac to General Motors on July 29,1909 for $4.5 million, but remained as an executive until 1917. With Charles Kettering, he developed a self-starter for the Cadillac and he prodded Kettering to design a workable electric starter after a Cadillac engineer was hit in the head and killed by a starting crank when the engine backfired. He left General Motors in a dispute with company founder William C. Durant over producing materiel during World War I, Cadillac had been asked to build Liberty aircraft engines but Durant was a pacifist. Leland founded Lincoln, later purchased by the Ford Motor Company, Leland formed the Lincoln Motor Company, got a $10,000,000 contract and started building the V12 Liberty engine. After the war, the company was reorganized, and the Lincoln Motor Company Plant was retooled to manufacture luxury automobiles, the V8 engine used in the first Lincoln automobiles is said to be influenced by the Liberty engines design. In 1922, Lincoln became insolvent and was out by Henry Fords Ford Motor Company. Fords bid of $8 million was the bid at a receivers sale. Ford had first offered $5 million, but the judge would not accept it for a company whose assets were conservatively estimated at $16 million. Ford deliberately low-balled his offer as revenge against Lelands role in the creation of Cadillac, after the sale, Leland and his son Wilfred continued to run the company, believing they would still have full control to run the company as they saw fit. Ford assigned a number of their people to Lincoln, they said to learn, however, it soon became clear they were there to streamline their production and stop the loss of money that had bankrupted Lincoln. Relations between the Henry Ford and Leland workers continued to deteriorate, on June 10,1922, Ford executive Ernest Liebold arrived at Lincoln to ask for the resignation of Wilfred Leland
9.
D. Napier & Son
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D. Napier & Son Limited was a British engineering company best known for its luxury motor cars in the Edwardian era and for its aero engines throughout the early to mid-20th century. Napier was founded as an engineering company in 1808 and for nearly a century produced machinery for the financial, print. In the early 20th century it moved for a time into internal combustion engines and its powerful Lion dominated the UK market in the 1920s and the World War Two era Sabre produced 3500 hp in its later versions. Many world speed records on land and water, as well as the Hawker Typhoon, during World War Two the company was taken over by English Electric and engine manufacture eventually ceased. Today, Napier Turbochargers is a subsidiary of the American company Wabtec, david Napier, second son of the blacksmith to the Duke of Argyll, was born in 1785. While cousins became shipbuilders, he took engineering training in Scotland before coming to London, there in 1808 he founded the firm that was to become D. Napier & Son in Lloyds Court, St Giles, London. He designed a printing press, some of which went to Hansard. The company moved to Lambeth, South London in 1830, between 1840 and 1860, Napier was prosperous, with a well-outfitted factory and between 200 and 300 workers. Napier made a variety of products, including a centrifuge for sugar manufacturing, lathes and drills, ammunition-making equipment for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Davids younger son James Murdoch, born 1823, joined the firm in 1837 and became a partner in 1847, James proved an excellent engineer, but a poor businessman, considering salesmanship undignified. It became so bad that there were as few as seven employees in 1895, and James attempted to sell the business, James son Montague, born 1870, inherited the business in 1895, along with his fathers engineering talents. Montague was a racing cyclist, and at the Bath Road Club. Edge Edge persuaded Napier to improve his Panhard, converting from a tiller to a steering wheel, dissatisfied, Napier offered to fit an engine of his own design, an 8 hp vertical twin, with electric ignition, superior to the Panhards hot tube type. By June 1900, eight 16 hps had been ordered, and Edge entered one in the 837 mi Paris-Toulouse-Paris race, the 301.6 cu in sidevalve suffered problems with its ignition coils and cooling system, and failed to finish. For 1901, Montague designed a car not to lack speed, having a 16. 3-liter sidevalve four capable of 103 bhp at 800 rpm, on a wheelbase of 115 inches with four-speed gearbox. Called the 50 hp, only two or three were completed, including one for Rolls, in the concurrent Paris-Bordeaux rally, it retired with clutch trouble. For the 1902 Gordon Bennett, three entrants contested for France, with Edge in a Napier and two Wolseleys, the Napier was a three-speed, shaft-drive 6. 44-litre four of 44.5 hp. Piloted by Edge and his cousin, Cecil, it wore what would become known as British racing green and it was the first British victory in international motorsport, and would not be repeated until Henry Segrave took the French Grand Prix in 1923
10.
Daimler Company
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The company bought the right to the use of the Daimler name simultaneously from Gottlieb Daimler and Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft of Cannstatt, Germany. In 1933, BSA bought the Lanchester Motor Company and made it a subsidiary of Daimler, the company was awarded a Royal Warrant to provide cars to the British Monarch in 1902, it lost this privilege in the 1950s after being supplanted by Rolls-Royce. In 1960, BSA sold Daimler to Jaguar Cars, which continued Daimlers line, Jaguar was then merged into the British Motor Corporation in 1966 and British Leyland in 1968. Under these companies, Daimler became a trim level for Jaguar cars except for the 1968-1992 Daimler DS420 limousine. Jaguar was split off from British Leyland in 1984 and bought by the Ford Motor Company in 1989, Ford stopped using the Daimler name on Jaguars in 2007 selling Jaguar to Tata Motors in 2008. Tata bought the Daimler and Lanchester brands with Jaguar, but has not used them so far, engineer Frederick Richard Simms was supervising construction of an aerial cableway of his own design for the Bremen Exhibition in 1889 when he saw tiny railcars powered by Gottlieb Daimlers motors. Simms introduced Daimler’s motors to England in 1890 to power launches, in an agreement dated 18 February 1891, he obtained British and Empire rights for the Daimler patents. That month, Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft lent Simms a motorboat with a 2 hp engine, in June 1891 Simms had set up a London office at 49 Leadenhall Street and founded Simms & Co consulting engineers. In May 1892, the motorboat, which Simms had named Cannstatt, hendriks severed his connections with Simms & Co. in February 1893. Simms Daimler-related work was moved into a new company, The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited. Following the success of Daimler-powered Peugeots and Panhards at the 1894 Paris–Rouen competition, Simms decided to open a car factory. That month, he arranged for the syndicate to receive a ten percent commission on all British sales of Daimler-powered Panhard & Levassor cars, at the same meeting, Simms produced the first licence to operate a car under the Daimler patents. It was for a 3½ hp Panhard & Levassor that had bought in France by The Honourable Evelyn Ellis. On 3 July, after Ellis bought the licence, the car was landed at Southampton and driven by Ellis to Micheldever near Winchester where Ellis met Simms, Ellis later drove it on to Malvern. This was the first long journey by motorcar in Britain, Simms later referred to the car as a Daimler Motor Carriage. Simms asked his friend Daimler to be consulting engineer to the new enterprise, investor Harry John Lawson had set out to use The British Motor Syndicate Limited to monopolise motor car production in Britain by taking over every patent he could. Welcomed by Simms, the negotiations proceeded on the basis that new company should acquire The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited as a going concern, including the name. In order that the Daimler licences could be transferred from Simms to the new company, by this time, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach had withdrawn from Daimler Motoren Gesellschafts business to concentrate on cars and engines for them
11.
Nash Motors
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Nash Motors Company was an American automobile manufacturer based in Kenosha, Wisconsin, in the United States from 1916 to 1937. From 1937 to 1954, Nash Motors was the division of the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation. Nash production continued from 1954 to 1957 after the creation of American Motors Corporation, Nash Motors was founded in 1916 by former General Motors president Charles W. Nash who acquired the Thomas B. Jefferys best-known automobile was the Rambler whose mass production from a plant in Kenosha, the 1917 Nash Model 671 was the first vehicle produced to bear the name of the new companys founder. Nash enjoyed decades of success by focusing its efforts to build cars embodying honest worth, a price level which held out possibilities of a very wide market. The four-wheel drive Jeffery Quad truck became an important product for Nash, approximately 11,500 Quads were built between 1913 and 1919. They served to move material during World War I under severe conditions, the Quad used Meuhl differentials with half-shafts mounted above the load-bearing dead axles to drive the hubs through hub-reduction gearing. In addition, it featured four-wheel steering, the Quad achieved the reputation of being the best four-wheel drive truck produced in the country. The newly formed Nash Motors became the largest producer of four-wheel drives, by 1918, capacity constraints at Nash meant the Paige-Detroit Motor Car Company began to assemble the Nash Quad under license and Nash patents. Nash became the producer of military trucks by the end of World War I. After the war ended, surplus Quads were used as work trucks in fields such as construction. Charles Nash convinced the chief engineer of GMs Oakland Division, Finnish-born Nils Eric Wahlberg, the first Nash engine introduced in 1917 by Wahlberg had overhead valves. Wahlberg is also credited with helping to design flow-through ventilation that is used today in nearly every motor vehicle. Introduced in 1938, Nashs Weather Eye directed fresh, outside air into the cars fan-boosted, filtered ventilation system, where it was warmed, the process also helped to reduce humidity and equalize the slight pressure differential between the outside and inside of a moving vehicle. Another unique feature of Nash cars was the unequal wheel tracks, the front wheels were set slightly narrower than the rear, thus adding stability and improving cornering. Wahlberg was also a proponent of wind tunnel testing for vehicles. Nashs slogan from the late 1920s and 1930s was Give the customer more than he has paid for, innovations included a straight-eight engine with overhead valves, twin spark plugs, and nine crankshaft bearings in 1930. The 1932 Ambassador Eight had synchromesh transmissions and free wheeling, automatic centralized chassis lubrication, a rear end
12.
LaFayette Motors
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The LaFayette Motors Corporation was a United States-based automobile manufacturer. Founded in 1919, LaFayette Motors was named in honor of the Marquis de la Fayette, LaFayette was originally headquartered in Mars Hill, Indianapolis, Indiana and made luxury motor cars, beginning in 1920. LaFayette innovations include the first electric clock in an auto, in 1921, Charles W. Nash became president of LaFayette. Nash was already president of Nash Motors, but for a time the two remained separate companies, although Nash Motors was the principal LaFayette Motors stock holder. In the 20s rumors circulated about Pierce-Arrow merging with LaFayette, Rolls-Royce or General Motors, in 1922, LaFayettes facilities were moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 1924, Nash Motors became full owner of LaFayette Motors, and its factories were quickly put to a new, more profitable use, the manufacture of Ajax motor cars. In 1934, Nash re-introduced the LaFayette name, this time for a line of smaller, in 1935, Nash introduced a series known as the Nash 400 to fill the perceived price gap between the LaFayette and the Nash. By 1937, it was determined that this perceived gap wasnt so important after all, the LaFayette and the Nash 400 were combined into a single model called the Nash LaFayette 400 for 1937, and the LaFayette ceased to be regarded as a separate make of car. For 1938, this simply the Nash LaFayette, and the LaFayette line continued as Nashs lowest-priced offering through 1940. For 1941, the LaFayette was replaced by the all-new unibody Nash 600
13.
Liberty L-12
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The Liberty L-12 was an American 27-litre water-cooled 45° V-12 aircraft engine of 400 hp designed for a high power-to-weight ratio and ease of mass production. It was succeeded by the Packard 1A-2500, the two left their positions at the Fageol Motors Co. putting an end to the short production of the most luxurious automobile of the period. They were given the task of designing as rapidly as possible an aircraft engine that would rival if not surpass those of Great Britain, France, the Board specified that the engine would have a high power-to-weight ratio and be adaptable to mass production. The Board brought Vincent and Hall together on 29 May 1917 at the Willard Hotel in Washington, in July 1917, an eight-cylinder prototype assembled by Packards Detroit plant arrived in Washington for testing, and in August, the 12-cylinder version was tested and approved. Hall-Scott in California was considered too small to receive a production order, manufacturing by multiple factories was facilitated by its modular design. Lincoln constructed a new plant in record time, devoted entirely to Liberty engine production, by the time of the Armistice with Germany, the various companies had produced 13,574 Liberty engines, attaining a production rate of 150 engines per day. Production continued after the war, for a total of 20,478 engines built between July 4,1917 and 1919, although it is widely reported otherwise, a few Liberty engines did see action in France as power for the American version of the Airco DH.4. This led to Henry Leland leaving Cadillac to form the Lincoln Motor Company to make Liberty engines and he quickly gained a $10,000,000 government contract to build 6,000 engines. Subsequently the order was increased to 9,000 units, with the option to produce 8,000 more if the government needed them, more than 16,000 Liberty engines were produced during the calendar year 1918. To November 11,1918, more than 14,000 Liberty engines were produced, Lincoln had delivered 6,500 of the 400 hp, V-12, overhead camshaft engines when production ceased in January 1919. Durant later changed his mind and both Cadillac and Buick produced the engines, the Liberty engine was a modular design where four or six cylinders could be used in one or two banks, with the cylinders designed as individual units, each with their own water jacket. A pair of the 52 engines produced were destroyed by William Christmas testing his so-called Christmas Bullet fighter, an inverted Liberty 12-A referred to as the V-1650 was produced up to 1926 by Packard. The same designation was applied to the Packard V-1650 Merlin. This was a World War II Packard produced version of the Rolls-Royce Merlin, the Allison VG-1410 was an air-cooled inverted Liberty L-12, with a geared super-charger and Allison epicyclic propeller reduction gear and reduced displacement. An 8-cylinder V engine using Liberty cylinders in banks of four at 90°, the Nuffield Liberty tank engine was licensed and produced in World War II by the UK car manufacturer Nuffield. It was used in early Cruiser tanks, the Crusader, the Cavalier, the Nuffield Liberty ran through multiple versions, Mark I, US built engines modified in Britain. Modification incorporated new carburettors and a new system from Solex, revision of the crankcase breather, new timing gear. This produced 340 hp when governed to 1,500 rpm with the new carburettors, the air compressor wasnt used, and was removed on later engines Mark III, IIIA and IIIB, made for the Crusader tank
14.
Crankshaft
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A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
15.
Cadillac Type 51
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The Cadillac Type 51 is a large, luxurious automobile that was introduced in September 1914 by Cadillac as a 1915 model. It was Cadillacs first V8 automobile, replacing the four-cylinder Model 30, the similar Types 53,55,57,59, and 61 lasted through 1923, when the design was substantially updated as the Type V-63. It used the GM A platform for the entire series and it was built at the Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue factory in Detroit, with the body provided by a number of coachbuilders, including Fleetwood Metal Body in Fleetwood, Pennsylvania. All of these used a new L-head V8 engine, one of the first V8 engines ever mass-produced. All bodies were built by Fisher, the Type 51 was also the first left-hand drive Cadillac—all previous models had been right-hand drive, which was continued as an option. Wheelbases varied in those years, with 122 in at the low end and 145 in as the longest, in May 1916, Erwin Cannonball Baker and William Sturm drove a Cadillac from Los Angeles to New York in 7 days,11 hours, and 52 minutes
16.
Cadillac Type 53
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This Cadillac was driven by a 77 horse power V8 engine. The Type 53 remained in production for one only, in 1916. When this car debuted in 1916 it succeeded the Cadillac Type 51, the following year the Cadillac Type 55 replaced the Type 53. It was built at the Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue factory in Detroit, with the body provided by a number of coachbuilders, including Fleetwood Metal Body in Fleetwood, Pennsylvania. Although this car did not gain popularity, it created the modern layout of an automobile that is still used today. This layout became popular with the Austin 7, which copied the layout from the Cadillac Type 53
17.
Cadillac Type V-63
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The Cadillac Type V-63 is a large luxury automobile that was introduced in September 1923 by Cadillac as a 1924 model, replacing the previous Type 61. It used the GM C platform and was replaced by the Cadillac Series 355, the V-63 used an improved version of the L-head V8 engine that made Cadillac famous. The main innovation was a cross-plane crankshaft which improved balance and smoothness and this design required complex mathematical analysis, and was simultaneously patented by Peerless. Both companies agreed to share the innovation, which has now become common, another innovation in the V-63 was front-wheel brakes. A line of Custom bodies was added for 1925, but the vehicle was largely unchanged. The line was refreshed for 1926 as the Series 314 and it was built at the Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue factory in Detroit, with the body provided by a number of coachbuilders, including Fleetwood Metal Body in Fleetwood, Pennsylvania. V-63 Cadillac Claimed Nearest to Perfection
18.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
19.
Cadillac Series 355
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The Cadillac Series 355 was manufactured by Cadillac from 1931 to 1935. They were 8-cylinder cars, sold in several models, a 2-door club coupe, a 2-door convertible, 4-door convertible, a 4-door sedan a 4-door town car and a 4-door limousine. The 1931 Series 355A was very similar to the Series 353 except it was longer and lower, had a hood with five hood ports. There was a modified coach sill with no compartments in the splash pan, the battery and tool compartment were now under the front seat. Floor boards were made of metal for the first time, the instrument panel was oval with the same gauge groupings as in the Series 353. The Series 355 featured a screen, a single bar bumper. The headlight diameter was reduced by one inch, there was a new frame with divergent side rails. The suspension springs now had metal covers, the radiator was mounted lower in the frame and there was now a condenser tank for cooling operation. The engine was the same 353 cu in L-Head V8 as on the Series 353, a five point engine suspension, similar to the V-16 was used. An intake muffler was added and the distributor was mounted 1.5 in higher, the fan was mounted lower to match the lower radiator. The 1932 Series 355B was even longer and lower, with a restyled front assembly. The roof line was lowered 1–3 in, the longer hood now had six hood ports. The new front end styling included a grille built into the radiator shell, head and side lights of streamlined bullet shape. The trumpets of the dual horns projected through the headlight stanchions, the headlight lenses were 9.5 in in diameter. The dual taillights matched the headlights, super safe lighting featured three filament bulbs and four contour positions for degree and angle of illumination. The front license plate was mounted on the bumper, runningboards curved to match the sweep of the front fenders and blended into the rear fenders. The tail of the rear fenders blended into the fuel tank valence, the trunk on the town sedan, town coupe and five-passenger convertible coupe was integral with the body. The vision of the driver was improved by 30 percent as a result of the elimination of the outside visor, there was a large ventilator on top of the cowl and none on the sides
20.
Monobloc engine
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A monobloc or en bloc engine is an internal-combustion piston engine where some of the major components are formed, usually by casting, as a single integral unit, rather than being assembled later. This has the advantages of improving mechanical stiffness, and also improving the reliability of the sealing between them, monobloc techniques date back to the beginnings of the internal combustion engine. Use of the term has changed over time, usually to address the most pressing mechanical problem affecting the engines of its day, where the monobloc technique has later become the norm, the specific term falls from favour. It is now usual and un-noteworthy practice to use monobloc cylinders and crankcases, the head gasket is the most highly stressed static seal in an engine and was a source of considerable trouble in early years. The monobloc cylinder head forms both cylinder and head in one unit, thus avoiding the need for a seal, along with head gasket failure, one of the least reliable parts of the early petrol engine was the exhaust valve, which tended to fail by overheating and burning. A monobloc head could provide water cooling, thus reduced valve wear. Engines with gaskets required a metal-to-metal contact face here, disrupting water flow, the drawback to the monobloc head is that access to the inside of the combustion chamber becomes difficult. Access through the bore is restricted for machining the valve seats. An even more serious restriction is that for the task of de-coking and re-grinding the valve seats. Rather than removing the head from above, the mechanic must now remove pistons, connecting rods. One solution to this for side-valve engines was to place a screwed plug directly above each valve, the tapered threads of the screwed plug provided a reliable seal. For low-powered engines this was a solution for some years. It was difficult to cool this plug, as the water jacket didnt extend into the plug, as performance increased, it also became important to have better combustion chamber designs with less dead space. One solution was to place the spark plug in the centre of this plug, however this also placed the spark plug further away from the main combustion chamber, leading to long flame paths and slower ignition. During World War I, development of the combustion engine progressed enormously. After the war, as civilian car production recommenced, the cylinder head was required less frequently. Only high-performance cars such as the Leyland Eight of 1920 persisted with it, aircraft engines at this time were beginning to use high supercharging pressures, increasing the stress on their head gaskets. Engines such as the Rolls-Royce Buzzard used monobloc heads for reliability, the last engines to make widespread use of monobloc cylinder heads were large air-cooled aircraft radial engines, such as the Wasp Major
21.
Cadillac Series 60
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The Cadillac Series 60 was Cadillacs mid-priced entry in the luxury vehicle market when it appeared in 1936. It was replaced by the Series 61 in 1939, but a model that was derived from it, the Series 60 was the brainchild of new Cadillac manager, Nicholas Dreystadt. Debuting in 1936, it filled a gaping price gap between the LaSalles and Series 70 Cadillac models, initially it rode on a 121.0 in wheelbase and shared the B body with cars from LaSalle, Buick, and Oldsmobile. This went up to 124.0 in in 1937-38, the exterior featured a new Harley Earl-designed look with a tall, slender grille and split vee-shaped windshield. This body used Fisher Bodys new Turret Top one-piece roof and Bendix dual-servo brakes, knee-Action independent suspension, first introduced by Cadillac in 1934, was a welcome novelty for the mid-price market at the time. Under the hood was the new Monobloc V8 and this 322 cu in engine produced 125 hp, just 10 less than that in the larger Cadillacs. The Series 60 immediately became the companys best-selling model, making up half of all Cadillacs sold the first year, the next year, displacement on all Monobloc Cadillacs was 346 cu in. This new engine produced 135 hp, more than all V8 Cadillacs of just a few years earlier, the Series 60 was superseded by the Series 61 and disappeared after 1938
22.
Cadillac V16 engine
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The Cadillac V16 engine was a type of automobile engine produced in the 1930s. Cadillac produced two of three production, gasoline-fueled V16 engine models in history. Both were used in the Cadillac V-16 automobile, the first from 1930 until 1937, the company has twice attempted to build a new V16 engine, once in the 1980s and again in 2003, but these have yet to be put into production. The only other 16-cylinder automotive engines ever attempted were Bugattis 1915 U16, Marmons V16, a modern, quad-turbocharged W16 engine was used in the EB 16/4 Veyron built by the new Volkswagen-owned Bugatti in the 2000s. With its chief competitor, Packard, already having sold a V12 engine against Cadillacs eight-cylinder cars, lawrence Fisher, Cadillac General Manager, leaked to the press that the company would also build a V12, hoping to keep the real engine secret. It sported a narrow 45° bank angle for use in the new Cadillac chassis, the engine was well engineered, with a counterweighted crankshaft, overhead valves, and hydraulic tappets. It also had two single barrel carburetors, one for each bank. The 452 V16 had a 3 in bore and a 4 in stroke and it was therefore known as the Series 452. Cadillac initially rated the engine at 165 bhp and it was capable of powering the heavier models to speeds in excess of 80 mph, and 100 mph for some of the lighter examples. In all,3878 Series 452s were built, the two carburetors, one on each bank, and air cleaners were mounted on top of the engine block in this design. These engines had square proportions, bore and stroke were both 3 1⁄4 in, giving a displacement of 431 cubic inches. Cadillac rated these engines at the same 185 bhp as the previous series and these engines were known as the Series 90, as were the cars that used them. The Series 90 V16 was produced from 1938 through 1940 and this engine was used in the 1938-1940 Series 90. The 431-cubic-inch displacement 1938-40 Cadillac V16 was one of the last new American auto engine designs prior to World War Two, as such, it incorporated some of the latest thinking. Nine main bearings provided a main bearing support between each 135 degree opposing pair of cylinders. The square bore and stroke lowered piston speed and promoted crankshaft rigidity, luxury car drivers presumably valued smoothness and silence more than high speed power. Hydraulic valve lifters promoted silent running and an absence of periodic adjustment, unlike most cars of the era, an external oil filter safeguarded the precision valve lifters. Despite the use of valves, the engine produced as much power as the prior 45 degree V16
23.
Cadillac Series 70
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The Cadillac Series 70 is a full-size V8-powered series of cars that were produced by Cadillac from the 1930s through the 1980s. It replaced the 1935 355E as the mainstream car just as the much less expensive Series 60 was introduced. The Series 72 and 67 were similar to the Series 75, the Series 72 was only produced in 1940 and the Series 67 was only produced in 1941 and 1942. The 1936 Series 70 and 75 both had v-shaped windshield styles by Fleetwood, a narrower radiator shell was supported by the new louver style Convex vee grill. Headlights were mounted on the radiator shell, parking lights were inside the headlights. Front fenders were new with a crease along the center line, the cowl vent was changed back to opening forward. There were built-in trunks on touring styles, town cars and 4-door convertibles, coupes and 2-door convertibles had rumble seats plus a separate door for the spare tire at the extreme rear of the deck. All bodies now utilized the Fisher Turret Top, however, the high price limited their appeal in the Great Depression era. Only 5,248 were sold for 1936, a die-cast eggcrate grille was used, but the hood louver treatment differed from that used in Fisher bodied cars. Chrome die cast strips were used at the rear of the side panels. A seven-passenger Fisher-bodied Special touring sedan, without a window was offered on the 138.0 in wheelbase. These two body styles had the hood louvers typical of all Fisher bodied Cadillacs for 1937. The Business car line included eight-passenger versions of these Special sedans plus eight-passenger versions of Fleetwood body styles, the eighth passenger was seated with two others on auxiliary seats. A commercial chassis on a 156.0 in wheelbase was offered, engine changes included a lighter flywheel, a generator relocated in the vee, an oil filter, a new carburetor with full automatic electric choke, an oil bath cleaner, and a relocated distributor. For 1938 the Series 70 and Fisher-bodied Series 75 Specials were dropped, the Series 75 used a 141 in wheelbase and now only offered bodies by Fleetwood. Optional sidemount covers were hinged to the fenders, quarter windows were of sliding rather than hinged construction. The rear of the body had rounder corners and more smoothly blended lines, trunks had more of an appearance of being an integral part of the body. Bodies were all steel except for wooden main sills, for 1939, all Cadillac V8s had new grille styling, similar in appearance but different in detail dimensions on each series
24.
Tank
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A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle designed for front-line combat, with heavy firepower, strong armour, and tracks providing good battlefield maneuverability. The first tanks were designed to overcome the deadlock of trench warfare, now they are a mainstay of ground forces. Modern tanks are versatile mobile land weapon platforms, mounting a large-calibre cannon in a rotating gun turret. In both offensive and defensive roles, they are units that are capable of performing tasks which are required of armoured units on the battlefield. As a result of advances, tanks underwent tremendous shifts in capability in the years since their first appearance. Tanks in World War I were developed separately and simultaneously by Great Britain and this was a prototype of a new design that would become the British Armys Mark I tank, the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. The name tank was adopted by the British during the stages of their development. While the British and French built thousands of tanks in World War I, Germany was unconvinced of the tanks potential, Tanks of the interwar period evolved into the much larger and more powerful designs of World War II. Tanks in the Cold War were designed with these weapons in mind, improved engines, transmissions and suspensions allowed tanks of this period to grow larger. Aspects of gun technology changed significantly as well, with advances in shell design, during the Cold War, the main battle tank concept arose and became a key component of modern armies. Modern tanks seldom operate alone, as they are organized into combined arms units which involve the support of infantry and they are also usually supported by reconnaissance or ground-attack aircraft. The tank is the 20th century realization of an ancient concept, the internal combustion engine, armour plate, and continuous track were key innovations leading to the invention of the modern tank. Many sources imply that Leonardo da Vinci and H. G. Wells in some way foresaw or invented the tank, leonardos late 15th century drawings of what some describe as a tank show a man-powered, wheeled vehicle with cannons all around it. However the human crew would not have power to move it over larger distance. In the 15th century, Jan Žižka built armoured wagons containing cannons, the caterpillar track arose from attempts to improve the mobility of wheeled vehicles by spreading their weight, reducing ground pressure, and increasing their traction. Experiments can be traced back as far as the 17th century and it is frequently claimed that Richard Lovell Edgeworth created a caterpillar track. It is true that in 1770 he patented a machine, that should carry and lay down its own road and his own account in his autobiography is of a horse-drawn wooden carriage on eight retractable legs, capable of lifting itself over high walls. The description bears no similarity to a caterpillar track, armoured trains appeared in the mid-19th century, and various armoured steam and petrol-engined vehicles were also proposed
25.
M3 Stuart
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The M3 Stuart, formally Light Tank M3, is an American light tank of World War II. It was supplied to British and Commonwealth forces under lend-lease prior to the entry of the U. S. into the war, thereafter, it was used by U. S. and Allied forces until the end of the war. The name General Stuart or Stuart given by the British comes from the American Civil War Confederate General J. E. B, Stuart and was used for both the M3 and the derivative M5 Light Tank. In British service, it also had the nickname of Honey after a tank driver remarked Shes a honey. To the United States Army, the tanks were known only as Light Tank M3. Stuarts were the first American-crewed tanks in World War II to engage the enemy in tank versus tank combat, observing events in Europe, American tank designers realized that the Light Tank M2 was becoming obsolete and set about improving it. The upgraded design, with armor, modified suspension and new gun recoil system was called Light Tank M3. Production of the started in March 1941 and continued until October 1943. Later, the gun was replaced with the slightly longer M6, for a light tank, the Stuart was fairly heavily armored. Internally, the engine was at the rear and the transmission at the front. The prop shaft connecting the two ran through the middle of the fighting compartment, the radial engine, having its crankshaft high off the hull bottom, contributed to the tanks high silhouette. When a revolving turret floor was introduced in the M3 hybrid and M3A1, in contrast to the M2A4, all M3/M5 series tanks had a trailing rear idler wheel for increased ground contact). This variation was quieter, cooler and roomier, owing to its automatic transmission, it also simplified crew training. The new model featured a redesigned hull with sloped glacis plate. Although the main criticism from the using it was that the Stuarts lacked firepower. The M5 gradually replaced the M3 in production from 1942 and, the British Army was the first to use the Light Tank M3 as the General Stuart in combat. From mid-November 1941 to the end of the year, about 170 Stuarts took part in Operation Crusader during the North Africa Campaign and this is despite the fact that the M3 was superior or comparable in most regards to most of the tanks used by the Axis forces. The most numerous German tank, the Panzer III Ausf G, had nearly identical armor and speed to the M3, mentioned in the British complaints were the 37 mm M5 gun and poor internal layout
26.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
27.
Flathead engine
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A flathead engine is an internal combustion engine with valves placed in the engine block beside the piston, instead of in the cylinder head, as in an overhead valve engine. As the cylinder cross-section has the shape of an upside-down L, the sidevalves poppet valves are usually sited on one side of the cylinder. A recess in the head creates a corridor connecting the valves. The valve gear comprises a camshaft which operates the valves via simple tappets, indian, however, employs both rocker arms and pushrods to transmiit motion from the cam lobes to the valve stems. Flathead designs are commonly built new for many small engine applications of one. The main advantages of an engine are simplicity, reliability, low cost, compactness, responsive low-speed power, low mechanical engine noise. The absence of an overhead valve valvetrain allows a compact engine that is less expensive to manufacture. Even today, flatheads are common in lawnmowers and basic farm machinery, if a valve head breaks off, it may become lodged between the piston and the head causing severe damage. At top dead centre, the piston gets very close to the portion of the cylinder head above. The typical flathead engine has its valves adjacent, but the T-head variant acts as a cross-flow head, the main disadvantages of a sidevalve engine are poor gas flow, poor combustion chamber shape, and low compression ratio, all of which result in a low power output. The sidevalve configuration makes intake and exhaust gases follow a route, with low volumetric efficiency. Although a sidevalve engine can operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates. High volumetric efficiency was important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds. A compromise used by Willys, Rover and Rolls-Royce in the 1950s was the F-head, in there is one side valve. An advance in technology resulted from experimentation in the 1920s by Sir Harry Ricardo. Because the exhaust follows a path to leave the engine. In a T-head engine, the pairs have a crossflow configuration. American LaFrance powered their fire engines with T-head engines from the 1920s to the 1950s, the Cleveland Motorcycle Manufacturing Company produced a T-head four-cylinder in-line motorcycle engine in the 1920s, and early Stutz engines were T heads
28.
LaSalle (automobile)
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LaSalle was a brand of automobiles manufactured and marketed by General Motors Cadillac division from 1927 through 1940. Alfred P. Sloan developed the concept for LaSalle and certain other General Motors marques in order to fill pricing gaps he perceived in the General Motors product portfolio, Sloan created LaSalle as a companion marque for Cadillac. LaSalle automobiles were manufactured by Cadillac, but were priced lower than Cadillac-branded automobiles and were marketed as the second-most prestigious marque in the General Motors portfolio, like Cadillac, the LaSalle brand name was based on that of a French explorer, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. The Chevrolet was designated as the level product. Next, came the Pontiac, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Viking, Marquette, Buick, LaSalle, by the 1920s, certain General Motors products began to shift out of the plan as the products improved and engine advances were made. Cadillac, which had seen its base prices soar in the heady 1920s, was assigned the LaSalle as a marque to fill the gap that existed between it and Buick. What emerged as the LaSalle in 1927 is widely regarded as the beginning of modern American automotive styling, and was introduced on the GM C platform with Cadillac. The 1927 LaSalle was designed by Harley Earl, who would go on to have a 30-year career at General Motors, eventually gaining control of all design, prior to the 1927 LaSalle, automobile design essentially followed a set pattern, with design changes driven principally by engineering needs. For example, the Ford Model T evolved only slightly over its production run, Harley Earl, who had been hired by Cadillacs General Manager, Lawrence P. Fisher, conceived the LaSalle not as a junior Cadillac, but as something more agile and stylish. Built by Cadillac to its standards, the LaSalle soon emerged as a trend-setting automobile. Earl was then placed in charge of overseeing the design of all of General Motors vehicles, the LaSalle was offered in a full range of body styles, including Fisher and Fleetwood Metal Body-built custom designs. The open cars could also be ordered in tri-tone color combinations, at a time when dark colors like black, the LaSalles of this era were equipped with Cadillacs Ninety Degree V-8, making the car fast, while its smaller size made it sportier and more agile. In comparison, the speed at that years Indianapolis 500 was 97.5 mph. The test at Milford would have continued, however, a problem in the oil system drew the test to an early close, later, the Great Depression, combined with LaSalles stalling sales numbers, caused Cadillac to rethink its companion make. Both Buick and Oldsmobile had eliminated the Marquette and the Viking in 1930, Cadillac also saw sales of its cars losing ground, as confirmed Cadillac buyers tried to trim pennies by buying the less expensive LaSalle. LaSalle sales also were falling, from a high of 22,691 models in 1929 to a low of 3,290 in 1932, beginning with the 1934 model year, a significant portion of the LaSalle was more closely related to the Oldsmobile, than to senior Cadillacs. Again, Earls work with the LaSalle resulted in a vehicle, led by an elegant. Earls other contribution was the modern, airplane-styled, semi-shielded portholes along the side of the hood, All bodies were now made by Fleetwood
29.
Straight-eight engine
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The straight-eight engine or inline-eight engine is an eight-cylinder internal combustion engine with all eight cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase. The type has been produced in side-valve, IOE, overhead-valve, sleeve-valve, a straight-eight can be timed for inherent primary and secondary balance, with no unbalanced primary or secondary forces or moments. However, crankshaft torsional vibration, present to some degree in all engines, is sufficient to require the use of a harmonic damper at the end of the crankshaft. Without such damping, fatigue cracking near the main bearing journal may occur. Also, due to the number of power strokes per revolution. The smooth running characteristics of the straight-eight made it popular in luxury, however, the engines length demanded the use of a long engine compartment, making the basic design unacceptable in modern vehicles. Also, due to the length of the engine, torsional vibration in both crankshaft and camshaft can adversely affect reliability and performance at high speeds, as a result, the design has been displaced almost completely by the shorter V8 engine configuration. The first straight-eight was conceived by Charron, Girardot et Voigt in 1903, great strides were made during World War I, as Mercedes made straight-eight aircraft engines like the Mercedes D. IV. The disadvantages of crank and camshaft twisting were not considered at this time, unlike the V8 engine configuration, examples of which were used in De Dion-Bouton, Scripps-Booth, and Cadillac automobiles by 1914, no straight-eight engines were used in production cars before 1920. The Duesenberg brothers introduced their first production straight-eight in 1921, straight-eight engines were used in expensive luxury and performance vehicles until after World War II. Bugattis and Duesenbergs commonly used double overhead cam straight-eight engines, other notable straight-eight-powered automobiles were built by Daimler, Mercedes-Benz, Isotta-Fraschini, Alfa Romeo, Stutz, Stearns-Knight and Packard. One marketing feature of engines was their impressive length — some of the Duesenberg engines were over 4 ft long, resulting in the long hoods found on these automobiles. In the United States in the 1920s, automobile manufacturers, including Chandler, Marmon, Gardner, Engine manufacturer Lycoming built straight-eight engines for sale to automobile manufacturers, including Gardner, Auburn, and Locomobile. The automobile manufacturers within the Cord Corporation, comprising Auburn, Cord, Lycoming continues to this day as an aircraft engine manufacturer. In the late 1920s, volume sellers Hudson and Studebaker introduced straight-eight engines for the vehicles in their respective lines. They were followed in the early 1930s by Nash, REO, and the Buick, Oldsmobile, the Buick straight-eight engine was an overhead valve design, while the Oldsmobile and Pontiac straight-eights were flathead engines. Chevrolet, as a marque, did not have a straight-eight. Cadillac, the brand of General Motors, stayed with their traditional V8 engines
30.
Oldsmobile
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Oldsmobile was a brand of American automobiles produced for most of its existence by General Motors. Olds Motor Vehicle Co. was founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897, in its 107-year history, it produced 35.2 million cars, including at least 14 million built at its Lansing, Michigan factory. When it was phased out in 2004, Oldsmobile was the oldest surviving American automobile marque, though it was discontinued in 2004, it still remains an active trademark of the General Motors Company. The closing of the Oldsmobile division presaged a larger consolidation of GM brands, Oldsmobiles were first manufactured by the Olds Motor Vehicle Co. in Lansing, Michigan, a company founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897. In 1901, the company produced 425 cars, making it the first high-volume gasoline-powered automobile manufacturer, Oldsmobile became the top selling car company in the United States for a few years around 1903-4. Ransom Olds left the company in 1904 because of a dispute, the 1901 to 1904 Oldsmobile Curved Dash was the first mass-produced car, made from the first automotive assembly line, an invention that is often miscredited to Henry Ford and the Ford Motor Company. By March 1901, the company had a line of models ready for mass production. However, a mistake by a worker caused the factory to catch fire, the only car that survived the fire was a Curved Dash prototype, which was wheeled out of the factory by two workers while escaping the fire. A new factory was built in Lansing, and production of the Curved Dash commenced, officially, the cars were called Olds automobiles, but were colloquially referred to as Oldsmobiles. It was this moniker, as applied especially to the Curved Dash Olds, the last Oldsmobile Curved Dash was made in 1907. General Motors purchased the company in 1908, the 1910 Limited Touring was a high point for the company. Riding atop 42-inch wheels, and equipped with white tires. The Limited retailed for US$4,600, an amount greater than the purchase of a new, buyers received goatskin upholstery, a 60 hp 707 CID straight-six engine, Bosch Magneto starter, running boards and room for five. Options included a speedometer, clock, and a glass windshield. A limousine version was priced at $5,800, in 1926, the Oldsmobile Six came in five body styles, and ushered in a new GM bodystyle platform called the GM B platform, shared with Buick products. In 1929, as part of General Motors companion make program, Oldsmobile introduced the higher standard Viking brand, Viking was discontinued already at the end of the 1930 model year although an additional 353 cars were marketed as 1931 models. This transmission features a conventional clutch pedal, which the driver presses before selecting either low or high range, in low, the car shifts between first and second gears. In high, the car shifts among first, third and fourth gears, for the 1940 model, Oldsmobile was the first auto manufacturer to offer a fully automatic transmission, called the Hydramatic, which features four forward speeds
31.
Hydramatic
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Hydramatic was an automatic transmission developed by both General Motors Cadillac and Oldsmobile divisions. Introduced in 1939 for the 1940 model year vehicles, the Hydramatic was the first fully automatic mass-produced transmission developed for passenger automobile use, during the 1930s, automakers sought to reduce or eliminate the need to shift gears. At the time, synchronized gear shifting was still a novelty, the exception here was Cadillacs break-through synchromesh fully synchronized manual transmission, designed by Cadillac engineer Earl A. Thompson and introduced in the fall of 1928. During 1934, the Cadillac transmission group had developed a gearbox that would shift automatically under full torque. This same group of engineers was then moved into GM Central Research, the Automatic Safety Transmission was a tangent outgrowth of this work. Oldsmobile offered the AST from 1937-1939, while Buick offered it only in 1938, the HydraMatic was designed to combine hydraulic operation of a planetary gearbox with a fluid coupling instead of a friction clutch, eliminating the need for de-clutching. The transmission would have four speeds plus reverse, with all acceleration provided by gearing. It incorporated a parking pawl which was engaged when the selector was placed in reverse with the engine off. There was no separate Park position as found with modern transmissions, the result, dubbed Hydra-Matic Drive, went into production in May 1939 for the 1940 model year. The first Oldsmobiles so equipped were shipped in October 1939, advertising proclaimed it the greatest advance since the self-starter. In 1940, the Hydra-Matic was a $57.00 option, in 1941, it also became an option on Cadillacs for $125.00. Almost 200,000 had been sold by the passenger car production was halted for wartime production in February 1942. During the war, the Hydramatic was used in a variety of vehicles, including the M5 Stuart tank. The extensive wartime service greatly improved the postwar engineering of the transmission, starting in 1948 Hydramatic became optional for Pontiacs, although Buick and Chevrolet chose to develop their own automatic transmissions. One million Hydramatics had been sold by 1949, in the early 1950s various manufacturers without the resources to develop a proprietary automatic transmission bought Hydra-Matics from GM. As a result, Oldsmobiles and Cadillacs during the downtime were assembled with Buicks Dynaflow transmission, while Pontiacs used Chevrolets Powerglide, non-GM makes that bought Hydra-Matics from the corporation, including Ford Motor Co. About nine weeks after the Livonia fire, GM opened up a new source for Hydra-Matic production at Willow Run and it was a later version of GMs dual range Hydra-Matic, first introduced in some 1952 models. The dual range feature allowed the driver to hold the transmission in third gear until the maximum allowable upshift points, the new, dual coupling transmission also incorporated a separate park position, falling in line with other automatic transmissions of the day
32.
Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
33.
Cadillac Series 62
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The Cadillac Series 62 is a series of cars which was produced by Cadillac from 1940 through 1964. Originally designed to replace the entry level Series 65, it became the Cadillac Series 6200 in 1959, the Series 62 was also marketed as the Sixty-Two and the Series Sixty-Two. The Fisher-bodied Series 62 replaced the Cadillac Series 61 at the lowest rung in the line up in 1940. The Series 62 featured a low sleek torpedo style C-body with chrome window reveals, more slant in the windshield, when combined with a column mounted shift lever the cars offered true six passenger comfort. These changes had clearly been influenced by the Cadillac Sixty Special, the styling feature distinguishing all V-8 Cadillacs was once again the grille. Although grilles had the pointed shape as in 1939, the grille bars were heavier and fewer in number. Two sets of louver bars appeared on side of the hood. Runningboards were a no cost option, the Series 62 was available as a club coupe or a sedan, with 2-door and 4-door convertibles introduced mid-year. Sales totaled 5903 in its inaugural year accounting for about 45% of Cadillacs sales, in 1941 the one piece hood came down lower in the front, included the side panels and extended sideways to the fenders. A single rectangular panel of louver trim was used on side of the hood. The rectangular grille was wide, vertical, and bulged forward in the middle, rectangular parking lights were built into the top outer corners of the grille. Headlights were now built into the nose of the fenders, three chrome spears appeared on the rear section of all four fenders. The Series 62 offered the only 4-door convertible built by Cadillac in 1941, all Cadillacs shared the same 346 cu in 135 hp L-head V8 that year, with power rising to 150 hp. Evidently the new style with its low streamlined runningboardless bodies. The following model year, abbreviated as it was by a world war, the grille became more massive in 1942, with even fewer bars. Parking lights became round and fog light sockets became rectangular and were included in the grille area, a bullet shape appeared on the tops of the bumper guards. Front fenders extended into the front doors, rear fenders extended forward into the rear doors. The new fenders had heavy moldings along the sides, a new fresh air ventilating system with air ducts leading from the grille replaced cowl ventilators
34.
Oldsmobile V8 engine
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Like all other GM divisions, Olds continued building its own V8 engine family for decades, finally adopting the corporate Chevrolet 350 small-block and Cadillac Northstar engine only in the 1990s. All Oldsmobile V8s were manufactured at plants in Lansing, Michigan, the 260 cu in,307 cu in,330 cu in,350 cu in and 403 cu in engines are commonly called small-blocks. 400 cu in,425 cu in, and 455 cu in V8s have a deck height to accommodate a 4.25 in stroke crank to increase displacement. These taller-deck models are commonly called big-blocks, and are 1 in taller and 1.5 in wider than their small-block counterparts, the Rocket V8 was the subject of many first and lasts in the automotive industry. It was the first mass-produced OHV V8, in 1949, the factory painted small-blocks gold or blue, while big-blocks could be red, green, blue, or bronze. As is the case with all pre-1972 American passenger car engines, published horsepower and torque figures for years were SAE Gross, as opposed to 1972. The first generation of Oldsmobile V8s ranged from 1949-1964, each engine in this generation is quite similar with the same size block and heads. The 303-cubic-inch engine had hydraulic lifters, a bore, stroke ratio, a counterweighted forged crankshaft, aluminum pistons, floating wristpins. The 303 was produced from 1949-1953, bore was 3.75 in and stroke was 3.4375 in. The original Oldsmobile V8 was to have been marketed as Kettering Power after chief engineer Charles Kettering, instead, the legendary Rocket was born, available in Oldsmobiles 88, Super 88, and 98 models. The engine proved so popular, the divisions 88 models were popularly called Rocket 88s, the 303 was available from 1949 through 1953. In 1949 through 1951 the 2-barrel carburetor 303 produced 135 hp and 253 lb·ft, over 33% more power than the extremely popular and widely produced 100 hp 1949 Ford Flathead V8. 195288 and Super 88 V8s used a 4-barrel carburetor for 160 hp and 265 lb·ft, applications, 1949–1953 Oldsmobile 88 1949–1953 Oldsmobile 98 1952–1953 Oldsmobile Super 88 The 324-cubic-inch version was produced from 1954 until 1956. Bore was increased to 3.875 in and stroke remained the same at 3.4375 in, two-barrel carburetion was standard, all high performance 324s came with four-barrel carburetors. The 324 was shared with GMC trucks, the 195488 and Super 88 V8s used an 8.25,1 compression ratio for 170 and 185 hp and 295 and 300 ft·lbf respectively. The 1955 model upped the compression to 8.5,1 for 185 hp and 320 lb·ft in the 88 and 202 hp and 332 lb·ft in the Super 88 and 98. For engines built during the first part of 1955, the 324 skirted pistons had a reputation for failing due to the cast aluminum skirt separating from its steel interior brace and this problem did not appear until the engine had over 50,000 miles on it. By late 1956, many Olds dealers learned about the problem, Compression was up again in 1956 for 230 hp and 340 lb·ft in the 88 and 240 hp and 350 lb·ft in the Super 88 and 98
35.
Overhead valve engine
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An overhead valve engine is an engine in which the valves are placed in the cylinder head. This was an improvement over the flathead engine, where the valves were placed in the block next to the piston. Overhead camshaft engines, while overhead valve by definition, are usually categorized apart from other OHV engines. Lifters or tappets are located in the block between the camshaft and pushrods. By contrast, overhead camshaft design avoids the use of pushrods by putting the camshaft directly above the valves in the cylinder head, in 1900, Marr was hired as chief engineer at the Buick Auto-Vim and Power Company in Detroit, where he worked until 1902. Marr said he got the idea of overhead valves when making the small tricycle engine, marrs engine employed pushrod-actuated rocker arms, which in turn pushed valves parallel to the pistons, and this is still in use today. This contrasts with previous designs which use of side valves. Marr left Buick briefly to start his own company in 1902, the Marr Auto-Car. The OHV engine was patented in 1902 by Buicks second chief engineer Eugene Richard, at the Buick Manufacturing Company, precursor to the Buick Motor Company. The worlds first production overhead valve engine was put into the first production Buick automobile, the 1904 Model B, the engine was designed by Marr and David Buick. Eugene Richard of the Buick Manufacturing Company was awarded US Patent #771,095 in 1904 for the valve in head engine. Arthur Chevrolet was awarded US Patent #1,744,526 for an adapter that could be applied to an existing engine, in 1949, Oldsmobile introduced the Rocket V8. It was the first high-compression I-head design, and is the archetype for most modern pushrod engines, general Motors is the worlds largest pushrod engine producer, producing both I4, V6 and V8 pushrod engines. Nowadays, automotive use of side-valves has virtually disappeared, and valves are almost all overhead, however, most are now driven more directly by the overhead camshaft system. Few pushrod-type engines remain in production outside of the United States market and this is in part a result of some countries passing laws to tax engines based on displacement, because displacement is somewhat related to the emissions and fuel efficiency of an automobile. This has given OHC engines a regulatory advantage in those countries, however, in 2002, Chrysler introduced a new pushrod engine, a 5. 7-litre Hemi engine. The new Chrysler Hemi engine presents advanced features such as variable displacement technology and has been an option with buyers. The Hemi was on the Wards 10 Best Engines list for 2003 through 2007, Chrysler also produced the worlds first production variable-valve OHV engine with independent intake and exhaust phasing
36.
Connecting rod
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In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion. Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion, historically, before the development of engines, they were first used in this way. As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a push or a pull, earlier mechanisms, such as chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod is required to push. Today, connecting rods are best known through their use in internal combustion piston engines and these are of a distinctly different design from earlier forms of connecting rods, used in steam engines and steam locomotives. The earliest evidence for a connecting rod appears in the late 3rd century AD Roman Hierapolis sawmill and it also appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman saw mills excavated at Ephesus and Gerasa. The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these Roman watermills converted the motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a − albeit mechanically misunderstood − compound crank, a sound understanding of the motion involved is displayed by the painter Pisanello who showed a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods. The first steam engines, Newcomens atmospheric engine, was single-acting, its piston only did work in one direction and their output rocked back and forth, rather than rotating continuously. Steam engines after this are usually double-acting, their internal pressure works on each side of the piston in turn. This requires a seal around the rod and so the hinge between the piston and connecting rod is placed outside the cylinder, in a large sliding bearing block called a crosshead. In a steam locomotive, the pins are usually mounted directly on one or more pairs of driving wheels. The connecting rods, run between the pins and crossheads, where they connect to the piston rods. Crossheads or trunk guides are used on large diesel engines manufactured for marine service. The connecting rods of smaller steam locomotives are usually of rectangular cross-section but, on small locomotives, stephen Lewin, who built both locomotive and marine engines, was a frequent user of round rods. Gresleys A4 Pacifics, such as Mallard, had an alloy steel connecting rod in the form of an I-beam with a web that was only 0.375 in thick. On Western Rivers steamboats, the rods are properly called pitmans
37.
Power steering
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In automobiles, power steering helps drivers steer by augmenting steering effort of the steering wheel. Power steering can also be engineered to provide some artificial feedback of forces acting on the steered wheels, hydraulic power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder that is part of a servo system. These systems have a mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone, electric power steering systems use electric motors to provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system, other power steering systems have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage, they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no connection, are sometimes called drive by wire or steer by wire. In this context, wire refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle, this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the relative to each other to steer. The first power steering system on an automobile was apparently installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts, but little else is known about him. The next power steering system was put on a Columbia 5-ton truck in 1903 where an electric motor was used to assist the driver in turning the front wheels. Robert E. Twyford, a resident of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, francis W. Davis, an engineer of the truck division of Pierce-Arrow, began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented and demonstrated the first practical power steering system. Davis moved to General Motors and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering system, Davis then signed up with Bendix, a parts manufacturer for automakers. Military needs during World War II for easier steering on heavy vehicles boosted the need for assistance on armored cars and tank-recovery vehicles for the British. Chrysler Corporation introduced the first commercially available passenger car power steering system on the 1951 Chrysler Imperial under the name Hydraguide, the Chrysler system was based on some of Daviss expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952 Cadillac with a steering system using the work Davis had done for the company almost twenty years earlier. Charles F. Hammond from Detroit filed several patents for improvements of power steering with the Canadian Intellectual Property Office in 1958. Most new vehicles now have power steering, owing to the trends toward front wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, and wider tires, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in countries, would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds
38.
Distributor
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A distributor is an enclosed rotating shaft used in spark-ignition internal combustion engines that have mechanically-timed ignition. The distributors main function is secondary, or high voltage, current from the ignition coil to the spark plugs in the correct firing order. Except in magneto systems, the distributor also houses a mechanical or inductive breaker switch to open, the first reliable battery operated ignition was developed by Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co. and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was developed by Charles Kettering and was considered a wonder in its day, atwater Kent invented his Unisparker ignition system about this time in competition with the Delco system. A distributor consists of an arm or rotor inside the distributor cap, on top of the distributor shaft, but insulated from it. The distributor shaft is driven by a gear on the camshaft on most overhead valve engines, the metal part of the rotor contacts the high voltage cable from the ignition coil via a spring-loaded carbon brush on the underside of the distributor cap. The metal part of the arm passes close to the output contacts which connect via high tension leads to the spark plug of each cylinder. As the rotor spins within the distributor, electric current is able to jump the small gaps created between the arm and the contacts due to the high voltage created by the ignition coil. The distributor shaft has a cam that operates the contact breaker, opening the points causes a high induction voltage in the systems ignition coil. In addition, the distributor has a vacuum advance unit that advances the timing even further as a function of the vacuum in the inlet manifold, usually there is also a capacitor attached to the distributor. The capacitor is connected parallel to the points, to suppress sparking to prevent excessive wear of the points. Around the 1970s the primary breaker points were replaced with a Hall effect sensor or optical sensor. As this is a device and the ignition coil is controlled by solid state electronics. This also eliminates any problem with breaker follower or cam wear, the remaining secondary circuit stayed essentially the same, using an ignition coil and a rotary distributor. Most distributors used on electronically fuel injected engines lack vacuum and centrifugal advance units, on such distributors, the timing advance is controlled electronically by the engine computer. This allows more control of ignition timing, as well as the ability to alter timing based on factors other than engine speed. Additionally, eliminating vacuum and centrifugal advance results in a simpler, the distributor cap is the cover that protects the distributors internal parts and holds the contacts between internal rotor and the spark plug wires. The distributor cap has one post for each cylinder, and in points ignition systems there is a central post for the current from the ignition coil coming into the distributor
39.
Die casting
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Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process. Most die castings are made from metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used, the casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process to high-volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only four main steps and it is especially suited for a large quantity of small- to medium-sized castings, which is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting process. Die castings are characterized by a good surface finish and dimensional consistency. Two variants are pore-free die casting, which is used to eliminate gas porosity defects, and direct injection die casting, Die casting equipment was invented in 1838 for the purpose of producing movable type for the printing industry. The first die casting-related patent was granted in 1849 for a small hand-operated machine for the purpose of mechanized printing type production, in 1885 Otto Mergenthaler invented the linotype machine, an automated type-casting device which became the prominent type of equipment in the publishing industry. The Soss die-casting machine, manufactured in Brooklyn, NY, was the first machine to be sold in the market in North America. Other applications grew rapidly, with die casting facilitating the growth of consumer goods, in 1966, General Motors released the Acurad process. The main die casting alloys are, zinc, aluminium, magnesium, copper, lead, specific die casting alloys include, Zamak, zinc aluminium, aluminium to, e. g. The Aluminum Association standards, AA380, AA384, AA386, AA390, and AZ91D magnesium. The following is a summary of the advantages of each alloy, Zinc, magnesium, the easiest metal to machine, excellent strength-to-weight ratio, lightest alloy commonly die cast. Silicon tombac, high-strength alloy made of copper, zinc and silicon, often used as an alternative for investment casted steel parts. Lead and tin, high density, extremely close dimensional accuracy, such alloys are not used in foodservice applications for public health reasons. Type metal, an alloy of lead, tin and antimony is used for casting hand-set type in letterpress printing, traditionally cast in hand jerk moulds now predominantly die cast after the industrialisation of the type foundries. Around 1900 the slug casting machines came onto the market and added further automation, maximum weight limits for aluminium, brass, magnesium and zinc castings are approximately 70 pounds,10 lb,44 lb, and 75 lb, respectively. The material used defines the minimum thickness and minimum draft required for a casting as outlined in the table below
40.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
41.
Alternator
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An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, an alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, an alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators, large 50 or 60 Hz three phase alternators in power plants generate most of the worlds electric power, which is distributed by electric power grids. Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the induction of electric current in the 1830s. Rotating generators naturally produced alternating current but, since there was use for it, it was normally converted into direct current via the addition of a commutator in the generator. The early machines were developed by such as Michael Faraday. Faraday developed the rotating rectangle, whose operation was heteropolar – each active conductor passed successively through regions where the field was in opposite directions. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz, supplying the proper amount of voltage from generating stations in these early systems was left up to the engineers skill in riding the load. In 1883 the Ganz Works invented the constant voltage generator that could produce an output voltage. The introduction of transformers in the led to the widespread use of alternating current. After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases, later alternators were designed for various alternating current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors. A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive force in it and this emf reverses its polarity when it moves under magnetic poles of opposite polarity. Typically, a magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF, the rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since the currents in the stator windings vary in step with the position of the rotor, the rotors magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, or by a field coil electromagnet. Automotive alternators use a rotor winding which allows control of the generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding
42.
Electric generator
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In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was built in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids, the reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators. Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two categories, dynamos and alternators. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets, a generator using permanent magnets is sometimes called a magneto. Armature, The power-producing component of an electrical machine, in a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, the charge was generated using either of two mechanisms, electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current and their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators. The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832 by Michael Faraday, the principle later called Faradays law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field and this counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction. Another disadvantage was that the voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a feature of all subsequent generator designs
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Positive crankcase ventilation
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A crankcase ventilation system is a one way passage for gases to escape in a controlled manner from the crankcase of an internal combustion engine. For control of the pressure inside it, a PCV valve is used to vent the crankcase, from the late 19th century through the early 20th, blow-by gases from internal combustion were allowed to find their own way out to the atmosphere past seals and gaskets. It was considered normal for oil to be found both inside and outside an engine, and for oil to drip to the ground in small, the latter had also been true for steam engines and steam locomotives in the decades before. Even bearing and valve designs generally made little to no provision for keeping oil or waste gases contained, sealed bearings and valve covers were for special applications only. Gaskets and shaft seals were meant to limit loss of oil, on internal combustion engines, the hydrocarbon-rich blow-by gases would diffuse through the oil in the seals and gaskets into the atmosphere. Engines with high amounts of blow-by would leak profusely via those routes, when the vehicle is moving, airflow across the open end of the tube creates a draft that pulls gases out of the crankcase. The high location of the end of the pipe minimises liquid oil loss. And non-road vehicles such as boats never generated a draft on the tube, the draft tube discharged the crankcase gases, composed largely of unburnt hydrocarbons, directly into the air. This created pollution as well as objectionable odors, moreover, the draft tube could become clogged with snow or ice, in which case crankcase pressure would build and cause oil leaks and gasket failure. The PCV system and its control valve were invented to meet this need, the GM Research Laboratory discovered in 1958 that the road draft tube was a major source—about half—of the hydrocarbons coming from the automobile. The PCV system thus became the first real vehicle emissions control device, positive crankcase ventilation was first factory-installed on a widespread basis by law on all new 1961-model cars first sold in California. The following year, New York required it, by 1964, most new cars sold in the U. S. were so equipped by voluntary industry action so as not to have to make multiple state-specific versions of vehicles. PCV quickly became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide because of its benefits not only in emissions reduction but also in engine internal cleanliness, in 1967, several years after its introduction into production, the PCV system became the subject of a U. S. In the decades since, legislation and regulation of emissions has tightened substantially. Todays petrol engines continue to use PCV systems, in order for the PCV system to sweep fumes out of the crankcase, the crankcase must have a source of fresh, clean air, called the crankcase breather. To achieve this, the air inlet is usually ducted to the engines air cleaner. The breather is usually provided with baffles and filters to prevent oil mist, intake manifold vacuum is applied to the crankcase via the PCV valve, drawing fresh air into the crankcase via the breather. The airflow through the crankcase and engine interior sweeps away combustion byproduct gases and this mixture of air and crankcase gases then exits, often via another simple baffle, screen, or mesh to exclude oil droplets, through the PCV valve and into the intake manifold
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Chrysler
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FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chrysler Corporation was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925, out of what remained of the Maxwell Motor Company, Chrysler greatly expanded in 1928, when Mr. The brand diversification efforts were inspired by Mr. Chryslers time working for General Motors, in the 1960s the company expanded into Europe, by taking control of French, British and Spanish auto companies, Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1. Chrysler struggled through the 1970s to adapt to changing markets, increased US import competition, the company began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. By the late 1970s, Chrysler was on the verge of bankruptcy, New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship, in 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation, which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was hit hard by the industry crisis of 2008–2010. On June 10,2009, Chrysler emerged from the proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S. p. A. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts, by May 24,2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U. S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years Fiat gradually acquired the other parties shares while removing much of the weight of the loans in a short period. On January 1,2014, Fiat S. p. A announced a deal to purchase the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust. The deal was completed on January 21,2014, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S. p. A, in May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, NV was established by merging Fiat S. p. A. into the company. This was completed in August 2014, Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15,2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6,1925, Walter Chrysler arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s. He was hired to overhaul the companys troubled operations, in late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile, the Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. The original 1924 Chrysler included an air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication
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Lincoln Motor Company
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The Lincoln Motor Company is a division of the U. S. -based Ford Motor Company that sells luxury vehicles under the Lincoln brand. Founded in 1917 by Henry M. Leland, Lincoln has been a subsidiary of Ford since 1922, while currently sold primarily in North America, Ford introduced the Lincoln brand to China in 2014. Lincoln vehicles are also sold in the Middle East and South Korea. The current Lincoln model range in North America consists of two sedans, three crossover utility vehicles, and a utility vehicle. Lincoln also sells two vehicles specifically for use, both based on the MKT. The Lincoln Motor Company was founded in August 1917 by Henry Leland, an engineer, Henry Leland named his new automobile company after Abraham Lincoln, the first presidential candidate for whom he had cast a vote. Following the end of the war, the Lincoln factory was retooled entirely for automobile production, during the early 1920s, Lincoln suffered severe financial issues, balancing the loss of revenue of Liberty engine production with the obsolete design of the expensive Model L. For Henry Ford, the purchase of Lincoln was a personal triumph, the company, renamed Cadillac in 1902 was purchased by General Motors in 1909, serving as the chief competitor to Lincoln. While Henry Ford had previously introduced Ford-branded luxury vehicles, the company found little acceptance, with the acquisition of Lincoln, the nameplate became a top-selling rival alongside Pierce-Arrow, Marmon, Peerless, Duesenberg, and Packard. Although the chassis itself saw few changes, the body saw significant updates. At the direction of Henrys son Edsel, in 1923 several body styles were introduced, that included two- and three-window, four-door sedans and they also offered a two-passenger roadster and a seven-passenger touring sedan and limousine, which was sold for $5,200. A sedan, limo, cabriolet, and town car were offered by coachbuilders Fleetwood, Derham and Dietrich. Murphy, Rollston, and Waterhouse were added in the 1930s, in 1924 large touring sedans began to be used by police departments around the country. They were known as Police Flyers, which were equipped with four-wheel brakes, Police whistles were coupled to the exhaust system and gun racks were also fitted to these vehicles. Optional equipment was not necessarily an issue with Lincolns sold during the 1920s, however, a nickel-plated radiator shell could be installed for $25, varnished natural wood wheels were $15, or Rudge-Whitworth center-lock wire wheels for another $100. Disteel steel disc wheels were available for $60. Lincoln chose not to make yearly model changes, used as a tool of the time. Lincoln customers of the time were known to more than one Lincoln with different bodywork
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Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
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