1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Coffeehouse
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A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or café is an establishment which primarily serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages, tea, and other hot beverages. Some coffeehouses also serve cold beverages such as iced coffee and iced tea, many cafés also serve some type of food, such as light snacks, muffins, or pastries. Coffeehouses range from owner-operated small businesses to multinational corporations. A coffeehouse may share some of the characteristics of a bar or restaurant. Many coffee houses in the Middle East and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world offer shisha, espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specializes in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. Since the development of Wi-Fi, coffeehouses with this capability have also become places for patrons to access the Internet on their laptops, a coffeehouse can serve as an informal club for its regular members. As early as the 1950s Beatnik era and the 1960s folk music scene, coffeehouses have hosted singer-songwriter performances, coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams, who banned them, as well as the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530, the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus and not long there were many coffeehouses in Cairo. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city, they opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale. Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a Kiva Han in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, resembling checkers, hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas, dervishes, and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose, the narrations by the mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. It often happens that two or three people talk at the time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher. The most common English spelling, café, is the French, Portuguese and Spanish spelling, thus the spelling cafe has become very common in English-language usage throughout the world, especially for the less formal, i. e. greasy spoon variety. The Italian spelling, caffè, is sometimes used in English. In southern England, especially around London in the 1950s, the French pronunciation was often altered to /ˈkæf/. The English words coffee and café both descend from the Italian word for coffee, caffè—first attested as caveé in Venice in 1570— and in turn derived from the Arabic qahuwa. The Arabic term qahuwa originally referred to a type of wine but after the ban by Mohammed
3.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
4.
Boulevard Saint-Germain
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The Boulevard Saint-Germain is a major street in Paris on the Left Bank of the River Seine. It curves in a 3½ kilometre arc from the Pont de Sully in the east to the Pont de la Concorde in the west, at its midpoint, the Boulevard Saint-Germain is traversed by the north-south Boulevard Saint-Michel. The boulevard is most famous for crossing the Saint-Germain-des-Prés quarter from which it derives its name, the Boulevard Saint-Germain was the most important part of Haussmanns renovation of Paris on the Left Bank. The Boulevard Saint-Germain derives its name from the church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés which dates back to the Middle Ages and this area around the boulevard is also referred to as the Faubourg Saint-Germain which developed around the abbey. In the 17th century, the Saint-Germain quarter became a site for noble town houses. From the 1930s on, Saint-Germain has been associated with its nightlife, cafés, after the Second World War the Boulevard Saint-Germain became the intellectual and cultural site for Parisian life. Philosophers, authors and musicians filled the night clubs and brasseries that line the boulevard, the Boulevard Saint-Germain today is a thriving high-end shopping street with stores from Armani to Rykiel. The cafes continue to be sites for intellectual and political gatherings, nearby is the Institut détudes politiques, one of the finest political science schools in Europe, or the College des Ingenieurs, a leading graduate school of management. At 184 Boulevard Saint-Germain is the Société de Géographie, the worlds oldest geographical society, founded in 1821 by von Humboldt, Chateaubriand, Dumont d’Urville and it has had its headquarters here since 1878. The entrance is marked by two caryatids representing Land and Sea. It was here, in 1879, that the construction of the Panama Canal was decided, nowadays the building accommodates Ipag - école supérieure de commerce. Some vestiges of the streets removed to make way for the Boulevard still remain today, another example is the south side of the boulevard just east of the rue des Ciseaux, which extends the current rue Gozlin, formerly rue Sainte-Marguerite. The north side of the rue Gozlin and this short section extending it represent exactly how much further south the abbey extended before the creation of the Boulevard Saint-Germain. For example, the buildings on the side of the boulevard between the rue de Buci and the rue de Seine are the original north side the former rue des Boucheries. At 175 Boulevard Saint-Germain at the corner of the rue des Saint-Peres stands a building built in 1678
5.
6th arrondissement of Paris
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The 6th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of Paris, France. Sulpice Church and square, the Pont des Arts and the Jardin du Luxembourg and it is a major locale for art galleries and one of the most fashionable districts of Paris as well as Paris most expensive area. The new Palace turned the neighborhood into a district for French nobility. The land area of the arrondissement is 2.154 km², in 1999, the population was 44,919 inhabitants while the arrondissement provided 43,691 jobs. Toei Animation Europe has its office in the arrondissement. The company, which opened in 2004, serves France, Germany, Italy, Spain, 6th arrondissement travel guide from Wikivoyage
6.
Philippe Derome
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Philippe Derome is a French figurative painter. Philippe Derome grew up in Boulogne-Billancourt and in Villeurbanne, in 1956 he settled in Paris where he studied for two years with Paul Colin. From 1960 to 1970 he was privileged enough to be part of the sophisticated, in Paris, he met black American students and writers such as James Baldwin. Baldwin fed his interest on issues related to black American identity, later in the 1980s he also painted themes about the black people in France. The staggered representation of recreation is another dominant theme seen in Derome’s work and his main subjects are, The leisure civilisation, Ski, beaches scenes, nights clubs Négritude, Civil Rights Movement, Selma to Montgomery marches and later black people in France. Vanitas War Oils and acrylics on canvas, gouaches on paper, collages, books of photograpics assemblies or colors papers silhouette cut and stuck as artwork Riot Selma marche Black head Le Flore Jusquà quand. Skieurs Harmony Tank rouge AIDS, hotel Bailey, NY1959, » Edouard Roditi, NY Diplomat 1973 -1980, Galerie Annick Gendron Paris 1974, Collection Jean Pierre Brasseur-Gregor. Marbella Philippe Derome, Black paints Philippe Derome, Paintings
7.
French Third Republic
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It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again
8.
Flora (mythology)
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In Roman mythology, Flora was a Sabine-derived goddess of flowers and of the season of spring – a symbol for nature and flowers. Her name is derived from the Latin word flos which means flower, in modern English, Flora also means the plants of a particular region or period. Her festival, the Floralia, was held between April 28 and May 3 and symbolized the renewal of the cycle of life, drinking, and flowers. The festival was first instituted in 240 B. C. E, on May 23 another festival was held in her honor. Floras Greek equivalent was Chloris, who was a nymph, Flora was married to Favonius, the wind god also known as Zephyr, and her companion was Hercules. Flora achieved more prominence in the revival of Antiquity among Renaissance humanists than she had ever enjoyed in ancient Rome. Flora is the character of the ballet The Awakening of Flora. She is also mentioned in Henry Purcells Nymphs and Shepherds, there are many monuments of Flora, e. g. in Capitoline Museums in Rome, in Valencia and Szczecin. Ovid, Fasti V. 193-212 Macrobius, Saturnalia I.10. 11-14 Lactantius, the Obscure Goddess Online Directory, Flora
9.
Roman mythology
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Roman mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Romes legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans. Roman mythology may also refer to the study of these representations. The Romans usually treated their traditional narratives as historical, even when these have miraculous or supernatural elements, the stories are often concerned with politics and morality, and how an individuals personal integrity relates to his or her responsibility to the community or Roman state. When the stories illuminate Roman religious practices, they are concerned with ritual, augury. Romes early myths and legends also have a relationship with Etruscan religion. In particular, the versions of Greek myths in Ovids Metamorphoses, written during the reign of Augustus, because ritual played the central role in Roman religion that myth did for the Greeks, it is sometimes doubted that the Romans had much of a native mythology. This perception is a product of Romanticism and the scholarship of the 19th century. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, however, Roman myths were an inspiration particularly for European painting, the Roman tradition is rich in historical myths, or legends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities, in Romes earliest period, history and myth have a mutual and complementary relationship. As T. P. Wiseman notes, The Roman stories still matter, as they mattered to Dante in 1300 and Shakespeare in 1600, what does it take to be a free citizen. Can a superpower still be a republic, how does well-meaning authority turn into murderous tyranny. Major sources for Roman myth include the Aeneid of Vergil and the first few books of Livys history as well as Dionysius s Roman Antiquities. Other important sources are the Fasti of Ovid, a six-book poem structured by the Roman religious calendar, scenes from Roman myth also appear in Roman wall painting, coins, and sculpture, particularly reliefs. The Aeneid and Livys early history are the best extant sources for Romes founding myths, material from Greek heroic legend was grafted onto this native stock at an early date. By extension, the Trojans were adopted as the ancestors of the Roman people. Rape of the Sabine women, explaining the importance of the Sabines in the formation of Roman culture, numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome who consorted with the nymph Egeria and established many of Romes legal and religious institutions. Servius Tullius, the king of Rome, whose mysterious origins were freely mythologized. The Tarpeian Rock, and why it was used for the execution of traitors, lucretia, whose self-sacrifice prompted the overthrow of the early Roman monarchy and led to the establishment of the Republic
10.
Joris-Karl Huysmans
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Charles-Marie-Georges Huysmans was a French novelist who published his works as J. K. He is most famous for the novel À rebours and he supported himself by a 30-year career in the French civil service. Huysmans work is considered remarkable for its use of the French language, large vocabulary, descriptions, satirical wit. First considered part of Naturalism, he associated with the decadent movement with his publication of À rebours. His work expressed his pessimism, which had led him to the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. In later years, his novels reflected his study of Catholicism, religious conversion and he discussed the iconography of Christian architecture at length in La cathédrale, set at Chartres and with its cathedral as the focus of the book. Là-bas, En route and La cathédrale are a trilogy that feature Durtal, a character whose spiritual progress is tracked. In the novel follows, LOblat, Durtal becomes an oblate in a monastery, as Huysmans himself was in the Benedictine Abbey at Ligugé, near Poitiers. La cathédrale was his most commercially successful work and its profits enabled Huysmans to retire from his civil service job and live on his royalties. Huysmans was born in Paris in 1848 and his father Godfried Huysmans was Dutch, and a lithographer by trade. His mother Malvina Badin Huysmans had been a schoolmistress, Huysmans father died when he was eight years old. After his mother remarried, Huysmans resented his stepfather, Jules Og. During childhood, Huysmans turned away from the Roman Catholic Church and he was unhappy at school but completed his coursework and earned a baccalauréat. For 32 years, Huysmans worked as a servant for the French Ministry of the Interior. The young Huysmans was called up to fight in the Franco-Prussian War and he used this experience in an early story, Sac au dos. After his retirement from the Ministry in 1898, made possible by the success of his novel, La cathédrale, Huysmans planned to leave Paris. He intended to set up a community of Catholic artists, including Charles-Marie Dulac and he had praised the young painter in La cathédrale. Dulac died a few months before Huysmans completed his arrangements for the move to Ligugé, in addition to his novels, Huysmans was known for his art criticism in LArt moderne and Certains
11.
Remy de Gourmont
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Remy de Gourmont was a French Symbolist poet, novelist, and influential critic. He was widely read in his era, and an important influence on Blaise Cendrars, the spelling Rémy de Gourmont is incorrect, albeit common and used by Ezra Pound in translations of his work. Gourmont was born at Bazoches-au-Houlme, Orne, into a family from Cotentin. He was the son of Count Auguste-Marie de Gourmont and his countess, in 1866 he moved to a manor close to Villedieu near La Manche. He studied law at Caen, and was awarded a degree in law in 1879. In 1881, Gourmont was employed by the Bibliothèque nationale and he began to write for general circulation periodicals such as Le Monde and Le Contemporain. He took an interest in ancient literature, following the footsteps of Gustave Kahn, Gourmont also began a literary alliance with Joris-Karl Huysmans, to whom he dedicated his prose work Le Latin mystique. In 1889 Gourmont became one of the founders of the Mercure de France, between 1893 and 1894 he was the co-editor, along with Alfred Jarry, of LYmagier, a magazine dedicated to symbolist wood carvings. This political essay led to his losing his job at the Bibliothèque Nationale, during this same period, Gourmont was stricken with lupus vulgaris. Disfigured by this illness, he retired from public view appearing only at the offices of the Mercure de France. In 1910, Gourmont met Natalie Clifford Barney, to whom he dedicated his Lettres à lAmazone, Gourmonts health continued to decline and he began to suffer from locomotor ataxia and be increasingly unable to walk. He was deeply depressed by the outbreak of World War I, berthe Courrière was his sole heir, inheriting a substantial body of unpublished work which she sent to his brother Jean de Gourmont, and dying within the year. Gourmont is buried in Père-Lachaise Cemetery and his poetic works include Litanies de la Rose, Les Saintes du Paradis, and Divertissements. His anthology Hieroglyphes, contains his experiments with the possibilities of sound and he was also a literary critic and essayist of great importance, most notably his Le Probleme du Style. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound in that capacity, in 1922 Aldous Huxley translated Gourmonts novel A Virgin Heart
12.
Charles Maurras
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Charles-Marie-Photius Maurras was a French author, poet, and critic. He was an organizer and principal philosopher of Action Française, a movement that was monarchist, anti-parliamentarist. Maurras ideas greatly influenced National Catholicism and nationalisme intégral, a major tenet of integral nationalism was stated by Maurras as a true nationalist places his country above everything. A political theorist and an intellectual influence in early 20th-century Europe, his views influenced several far-right ideologies. Maurras was born in an old Provençal family, and brought up by his mother and grandmother in a Catholic, in his early teens he became deaf. Like many other French politicians, he was affected greatly by the defeat during the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, Maurras published his first article, at the age of 17 years, in the review Annales de philosophie chrétienne. He then collaborated on various reviews, including L’Événement, La Revue bleue, La Gazette de France or La Revue encyclopédique, in which he praised Classicism, however, some time during his youth, Maurras lost his faith and became an agnostic. At the age of seventeen he came to Paris and started literary criticism in 1887 in the Catholic and he became acquainted with the Provençal poet Frédéric Mistral in 1888 and shared the federalist thesis of Mistrals Félibrige movement. The same year he met the nationalist writer Maurice Barrès, in 1890, Maurras approved Cardinal Lavigeries call for the rallying of Catholics to the Republic, making his opposition not to the Republic in itself but to sectarian Republicanism. Beside this Orleanist affiliation, Maurras shared some traits with Bonapartism, in December 1887, he demonstrated to the cry of Down with the robbers. During the decorations trafficking scandal which had involved Daniel Wilson, the son-in-law of the President Jules Grévy, despite this, he opposed at first the nationalist-populist Boulangist philosophy. But in 1889, after a visit to Maurice Barrès, Barrès voted for the Boulangist candidate, despite his anti-Semitism of the heart, during 1894–95 he briefly worked for Barrès newspaper La Cocarde, although he sometimes opposed Barrès opinions concerning the French Revolution. La Cocarde supported General Boulanger who had become a threat to the parliamentary Republic in the late 1880s and he became involved in politics at the time of the Dreyfus affair, becoming well-known as an Anti-Dreyfusard. He endorsed Colonel Henrys forgery blaming Dreyfus, as he considered that defending Dreyfus weakened the Army, according to Maurras, Dreyfus was to be sacrificed on the altar of national interest. But when the Republican nationalist thinker Barrès accused Dreyfus of being guilty because of his Jewishness, Maurras went a step further, while Barrès anti-Semitism originated both in pseudo-scientific racist contemporary theories and Biblical exegesis, Maurras decried scientific racism in favor of a more radical state anti-Semitism. In 1899 he founded the review Action Française, an offshoot of the created by Maurice Pujo. Maurras quickly became influential in the movement, and converted Pujo and Vaugeois to monarchism, with Léon Daudet he edited the movements review La Revue de lAction Française, which during 1908 became a daily newspaper with the shorter title LAction Française. The AF mixed integral nationalism with reactionary themes, shifting the nationalist ideology, previously supported by left-wing Republicans and it had a wide readership during the implementation of the 1905 law on the separation of Church and State
13.
Georges Bataille
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Georges Albert Maurice Victor Bataille was a French intellectual and literary figure working in literature, philosophy, anthropology, economics, sociology and history of art. His writing, which included essays, novels, and poetry, explored such subjects as eroticism, mysticism, surrealism and his work would prove influential on subsequent schools of philosophy and social theory, including poststructuralism. Georges Bataille was the son of Joseph-Aristide Bataille, a tax collector, born in Billom in the region of Auvergne, his family moved to Reims in 1898, where he was baptized. He went to school in Reims and then Épernay, although brought up without religious observance, he converted to Catholicism in 1914, and became a devout Catholic for about nine years. He considered entering the priesthood and attended a Catholic seminary briefly, however, he quit, apparently in part in order to pursue an occupation where he could eventually support his mother. He eventually renounced Christianity in the early 1920s, Bataille attended the École Nationale des Chartes in Paris, graduating in February 1922. Though he is referred to as an archivist and a librarian because of his employment at the Bibliothèque Nationale. After graduating he moved to the School of Advanced Spanish Studies in Madrid, as a young man, he befriended, and was much influenced by, the Russian existentialist, Lev Shestov. Founder of several journals and literary groups, Bataille is the author of a large and diverse body of work, readings, poems and he sometimes published under pseudonyms, and some of his publications were banned. Initially attracted to Surrealism, Bataille quickly fell out with its founder André Breton, although Bataille, Bataille was a member of the extremely influential College of Sociology which included several other renegade surrealists. Fascinated by human sacrifice, he founded a society, Acéphale. According to legend, Bataille and the members of Acéphale each agreed to be the sacrificial victim as an inauguration. An indemnity was offered for an executioner, but none was found before the dissolution of Acéphale shortly before the war, the group also published an eponymous review of Nietzsches philosophy which attempted to postulate what Derrida has called an anti-sovereignty. Collaborators in these projects included André Masson, Pierre Klossowski, Roger Caillois, Jules Monnerot, Jean Rollin, Bataille drew from diverse influences and used various modes of discourse to create his work. The imagery of the novel is built upon a series of metaphors which in turn refer to philosophical constructs developed in his work, the eye, the egg, the sun, the earth, the testicle. During World War II Bataille produced Summa Atheologica which comprises his works Inner Experience, Guilty, after the war he composed The Accursed Share, which he said represented thirty years work. The singular conception of sovereignty expounded there would become an important topic of discussion for Derrida, Giorgio Agamben, Jean-Luc Nancy, Bataille also founded the influential journal Critique. Batailles first marriage was to actress Silvia Maklès, in 1928, they divorced in 1934, Bataille also had an affair with Colette Peignot, who died in 1938
14.
Robert Desnos
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Robert Desnos, was a French surrealist poet who played a key role in the Surrealist movement of his day. Robert Desnos was born in Paris on 4 July 1900, the son of a dealer in game. Other sources state Desnos was the son of a Parisien café owner, Desnos attended commercial college, and started work as a clerk. He also worked as an amanuensis for journalist Jean de Bonnefon, after that he worked as a literary columnist for the newspaper Paris-Soir. In 1922, he published his first book, a collection of surrealistic aphorisms, in 1919, he met the poet Benjamin Péret who introduced him to the Paris Dada group and André Breton, with whom he soon became friends. While working as a literary columnist for Paris-Soir, Desnos was an member of the Surrealist group. He, together with such as Louis Aragon and Paul Éluard. André Breton included two photographs of Desnos sleeping in his surrealist novel Nadja, Desnos continued work as a columnist. In 1926, he composed The Night of Loveless Nights, a poem dealing with solitude curiously written in classic quatrains. Desnos fell in love with Yvonne George, a singer whose obsessed fans made his love impossible and he wrote several poems for her, as well as the erotic surrealist novel La liberté ou lamour. Critic Ray Keenoy describes La liberté ou lamour. as literary, by 1929, Breton definitively condemned Desnos, who in turn joined Georges Bataille and Documents, as one of the authors to sign Un Cadavre attacking le boeuf Breton. He wrote articles on Modern Imagery, Avant-garde Cinema, Pygmalion and the Sphinx, and Sergei Eisenstein and his career in radio began in 1932 with a show dedicated to Fantômas. During that time, he became friends with Picasso, Hemingway, Artaud and John Dos Passos, published critical reviews on jazz and cinema. He wrote for periodicals, including Littérature, La Révolution surréaliste. During World War II, Desnos was an member of the French Résistance network Réseau AGIR, under the direction of Michel Hollard. For Réseau Agir, Desnos provided information collected during his job at the journal Aujourdhui and he was first deported to the German concentration camps of Auschwitz in occupied Poland, then Buchenwald, Flossenburg in Germany and finally to Terezín in occupied Czechoslovakia in 1945. Desnos died in Malá pevnost, which was a part of Terezín used only for political prisoners, from typhoid. He wrote poems during his imprisonment which were destroyed following his death
15.
Raymond Queneau
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Raymond Queneau was a French novelist, poet, critic, editor and co-founder and president of Oulipo, notable for his wit and cynical humour. Queneau was born in Le Havre, Seine-Maritime, the child of Auguste Queneau. After his completion of his studies in Le Havre, Queneau moved to Paris in 1920, Queneau performed military service as a zouave in Algeria and Morocco during the years 1925–26. During the 1920s and 30s Queneau took odd jobs for income such as bank teller, tutor, translator and some writing in a column entitled, Queneau was drafted in August 1939 and served in small provincial towns before we was promoted to corporal just before being demoblized in 1940. After a prolific career of writing, editing and critique, Queneau passed away on October 25,1976 and he married Janine Kahn in 1928 after returning to Paris from the his first military service. Kahn was the sister-in-law of Andre Breton, leader of the surrealist movement, in 1934 they had a son, Jean-Marie, who eventually became a painter. They remained married until Janines death in 1972, Queneau spent much of his life working for the Gallimard publishing house, where he began as a reader in 1938. He later rose to be general secretary and eventually director of lEncyclopédie de la Pléiade in 1956. During some of time, he also taught at lÉcole Nouvelle de Neuilly. He entered the Collège de ‘Pataphysique in 1950, where he became Satrap, during this time, Queneau also acted as a translator, notably for Amos Tutuolas The Palm-Wine Drinkard in 1953. Additionally, he edited and published Alexandre Kojèves lectures on Hegels Phenomenology of Spirit, Queneau had been a student of Kojève during the 1930s and was, during this period, also close to writer Georges Bataille. As an author, Queneau came to attention in France with the publication in 1959 of his novel Zazie dans le métro. In 1960 the film directed by Louis Malle was released during the Nouvelle Vague movement. Zazie explores colloquial language as opposed to standard written French, a distinction that is more marked in French than in some other languages. The first word of the book, the alarmingly long Doukipudonktan is a transcription of Doù quils puent donc tant. – How come they stink so much, juliette Greco popularized the song Si tu timagines, a song by Joseph Kosma, with lyrics by Queneau. Before he founded the Ouvroir de littérature potentielle in 1960, Queneau was attracted to mathematics as a source of inspiration and he became a member of la Société Mathématique de France in 1948. In Queneaus mind, elements of a text, including seemingly trivial details such as the number of chapters, were things that had to be predetermined, perhaps calculated
16.
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, Picassos work is often categorized into periods. Much of Picassos work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in a neoclassical style and his later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco and María Picasso y López. His mother was of one quarter Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa, though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picassos family was of middle-class background and his father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts, Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were piz, piz, a shortening of lápiz, from the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was an academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork, the family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his sketch of a pigeon. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his sister, Conchita. After her death, the moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home, Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, the student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day. Picassos father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrids Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, at age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment
17.
Premier of the People's Republic of China
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This position was originally known as Premier of the Government Administration Council of the Central Peoples Government and changed to its current name in 1954. The Premier is formally approved by the National Peoples Congress upon the nomination of the President, in practice, the candidate is chosen through an informal process within the Communist Party of China. Both the President and the Premier are selected once every five years, the Premier has always been a member of the powerful Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China. The current Premier is Li Keqiang, who took office on 15 March 2013, the Premier is the highest administrative position in the Government of the Peoples Republic of China. The Premier is responsible for organizing and administering the Chinese civil bureaucracy, for example, the Premier is tasked with planning and implementing national economic, social development and the state budget. The Premiers powers and responsibilities are codified into the constitution unlike the Prime Minister from the Westminster system as by convention or traditions, the Premier has been supported by four Vice-Premiers since Deng Xiaopings reform in 1983. The First-ranked Vice Premier will act in the capacity in their absence. As of April 2017, there are three living former premiers, Since the first premier, seven had a spouse during term of office
18.
Zhou Enlai
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Zhou Enlai was the first Premier of the Peoples Republic of China, serving from October 1949 until his death in January 1976. Zhou served under Chairman Mao Zedong and was instrumental in the Communist Partys rise to power, and later in consolidating its control, forming foreign policy, a skilled and able diplomat, Zhou served as the Chinese foreign minister from 1949 to 1958. He helped devise policies regarding the disputes with the U. S. Taiwan. Zhou survived the purges of other top officials during the Cultural Revolution, while Mao dedicated most of his later years to political struggle and ideological work, Zhou was the main driving force behind the affairs of state during much of the Cultural Revolution. His attempts at mitigating the Red Guards damage and his efforts to protect others from their wrath made him popular in the Cultural Revolutions later stages. As Mao Zedongs health began to decline in 1971 and 1972, Zhous health was also failing, however, and he died eight months before Mao on 8 January 1976. The massive public outpouring of grief in Beijing turned to anger towards the Gang of Four, although succeeded by Hua Guofeng, it was Deng Xiaoping, Zhous ally, who was able to outmaneuver the Gang of Four politically and eventually take Maos place as paramount leader by 1978. Zhou Enlai was born in Huaian, Jiangsu province on 5 March 1898, the Zhou family was originally from Shaoxing in Zhejiang province. During the late Qing dynasty, Shaoxing was famous as the home of such as Zhous. To move up the ladder in civil service, the men in these often had to be transferred. Even after the move, however, the continued to view Shaoxing as its ancestral home. Zhous grandfather, Zhou Panlong, and his granduncle, Zhou Junang, were the first members of the family to move to Huaian, Panlong apparently passed the provincial examinations, and Zhou Enlai later claimed that Panlong served as magistrate governing Huaian county. Zhous father, Zhou Yineng, was the second of Zhou Panlongs four sons, Zhous birth mother, surnamed Wan, was the daughter of a prominent Jiangsu official. Like many others, the fortunes of Zhous large family of scholar-officials were decimated by a great economic recession that China suffered in the late 19th century. Zhou Yineng had a reputation for honesty, gentleness, intelligence and concern for others and he was unsuccessful in his personal life, and drifted across China doing various occupations, working in Beijing, Shandong, Anhui, Shenyang, Inner Mongolia and Sichuan. Zhou Enlai later remembered his father as being away from home. Soon after birth, Zhou Enlai was adopted by his fathers youngest brother, Zhou Yigan, apparently the adoption was arranged because the family feared Yigan would die without an heir. Zhou Yigan died soon after the adoption, and Zhou Enlai was raised by Yigans widow, madame Chen was also from a scholarly family and received a traditional literary education
19.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
20.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
21.
Les Deux Magots
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Les Deux Magots is a famous café in the Saint-Germain-des-Prés area of Paris, France. It once had a reputation as the rendezvous of the literary and it is now a popular tourist destination. Its historical reputation is derived from the patronage of Surrealist artists, intellectuals such as Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre, and young writers, such as Ernest Hemingway. Other patrons included Albert Camus, Pablo Picasso, James Joyce, Bertolt Brecht, Julia Child, and the American writers, James Baldwin, Chester Himes, Charles Sutherland, the Deux Magots literary prize has been awarded to a French novel every year since 1933. The name originally belonged to a fabric and novelty shop at nearby 23 Rue de Buci, the shop sold silk lingerie and took its name from a popular play of the moment entitled Les Deux Magots de la Chine. Its two statues represent Chinese mandarins, or magicians, who gaze serenely over the room and these two oriental gentlemen are the source of the name for one of the great cultural landmark cafes of Saint-Germain des Pres. Magot literally means stocky figurine from the Far East, in 1873, the business moved to its current location in the Place Saint-Germain-des-Prés. In 1884, the changed to a café and liquoriste. Auguste Boulay bought the business in 1914, when it was on the brink of bankruptcy, the present manager, Catherine Mathivat, is his great-great-granddaughter. Café de Flore List of bakery cafés Les Deux Magots appears in The Chariot Makers, in which the author describes Les Deux Magots as, the first café in the quarter to be blessed by the morning sun. Its clientele pay a premium for drinking there, it’s only fitting they should be the first to catch the warmth of the new day. The café figures prominently in Abha Dawesars novel That Summer in Paris The café is referenced in the 1955 novel Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov, the narrator claims, I sat with uranists in the Deux Magots. The café is mentioned in Pete Hamills 2011 novel, Tabloid City, the café is mentioned in Craig Fergusons 2006 novel, Between the Bridge and the River. The café is mentioned in Jean Rhyss 1938 novel, Good Morning,1959 color photograph by Saul Leiter 1967 figurative painting by Jean-François Debord Several scenes in the 1949 movie, The Man on the Eiffel Tower take place here
22.
Jean-Paul Sartre
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Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology and his work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre was also noted for his relationship with prominent feminist. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, Sartres introduction to his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Humanism, originally presented as a lecture. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused it, saying that he always declined official honours, Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, when Sartre was two years old, his father died of a fever overseas. When he was twelve, Sartres mother remarried, and the moved to La Rochelle. As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergsons essay Time and Free Will and he attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris. It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartres philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojèves seminars, which continued for a number of years. From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters, in 1927, his antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the event on 25 May, thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The publics resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign, in 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous, the first time Sartre took the exam to become a college instructor, he failed. He took it a time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place in his class. Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence. From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre, Laon, in 1932, Sartre discovered Voyage au bout de la nuit by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on him. In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français dAllemagne in Berlin where he studied Edmund Husserls phenomenological philosophy, Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinass Théorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl. The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a generation of French thinkers, including Sartre
23.
Simone de Beauvoir
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Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir was a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory, De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She was also known for her lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris on 9 January 1908 and her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a legal secretary who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise de Beauvoir, a wealthy bankers daughter and devout Catholic. Simones sister, Hélène, was two years later. De Beauvoir herself was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun and she experienced a crisis of faith at age 14, after which she remained an atheist for the rest of her life. De Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her fathers encouragement, he reportedly would boast, because of her familys straitened circumstances, de Beauvoir could no longer rely on her dowry, and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. De Beauvoir took this opportunity to do what she wanted to do while also taking steps to earn a living for herself. After passing baccalaureate exams in mathematics and philosophy in 1925, she studied mathematics at the Institut Catholique de Paris and she then studied philosophy at the Sorbonne and after completing her degree in 1928, she wrote her diplôme détudes supérieures on Leibniz for Léon Brunschvicg. De Beauvoir was only the woman to have received a degree from the Sorbonne at the time. De Beauvoir first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss, when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the secondary school. It was while studying for the agrégation that she met École Normale students Jean-Paul Sartre, Paul Nizan, and René Maheu. The jury for the agrégation narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of de Beauvoir and this disequilibrium, which made my life a kind of endless disputation, is the main reason why I became an intellectual. From 1929 to 1943, De Beauvoir taught at the level until she could support herself solely on the earnings of her writings. She taught at the Lycée Montgrand, the Lycée Jeanne-dArc, the Lycée Molière, during October 1929, Jean-Paul Sartre and De Beauvoir became a couple and, after they were confronted by her father, Sartre asked her to marry him. One day while they were sitting on a bench outside the Louvre, he said, near the end of her life, de Beauvoir said, Marriage was impossible. So they entered a lifelong relationship, De Beauvoir chose never to marry and did not set up a joint household with Sartre. This gave her time to earn an academic degree, to join political causes, to travel, to write, to teach
24.
Albert Camus
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Albert Camus was a French philosopher, author, and journalist. His views contributed to the rise of the known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay The Rebel that his life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual freedom. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957, Camus did not consider himself to be an existentialist despite usually being classified as a follower of it, even in his lifetime. In a 1945 interview, Camus rejected any ideological associations, No, Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names linked. Camus was born in French Algeria to a Pied-Noir family and studied at the University of Algiers, in 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons to denounce two ideologies found in both the USSR and the USA. Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in Dréan in French Algeria and his mother was of Spanish descent and could only hear out of her left ear. His father, Lucien, an agricultural worker of Alsatian descent, was wounded in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during World War I. Lucien died from his wounds in an army hospital on 11 October. Camus and his mother, a house cleaner, lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. In 1923, Camus was accepted into the Lycée Bugeaud and eventually was admitted to the University of Algiers, after he contracted tuberculosis in 1930, he had to end his football activities, he had been a goalkeeper for a prominent Algerian university team. In addition, he was able to study part-time. To earn money, he took odd jobs, as a tutor, car parts clerk. Camus joined the French Communist Party in early 1935, seeing it as a way to fight inequalities between Europeans and natives in Algeria. He did not suggest he was a Marxist or that he had read Das Kapital, in 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party was founded. Camus joined the activities of the Algerian Peoples Party, which got him into trouble with his Communist party comrades, Camus then became associated with the French anarchist movement. The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought, Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire, La révolution Prolétarienne, and Solidaridad Obrera, the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT. Camus stood with the anarchists when they expressed support for the uprising of 1953 in East Germany and he again allied with the anarchists in 1956, first in support of the workers uprising in Poznań, Poland, and then later in the year with the Hungarian Revolution
25.
The Fire Within
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The Fire Within is a 1963 French drama film directed by Louis Malle. It is based on the novel Will O the Wisp by Pierre Drieu La Rochelle which itself was inspired by the life of Jacques Rigaut, the score features the music of Erik Satie. Alain Leroy, an alcoholic at a rehabilitation clinic in Versailles suffers with a depression. He intends to commit suicide, but first decides to visit his friends in Paris one final time, trying to find a reason to live. The stark contrast and seemingly pointless nature of his friends bourgeois existence only brings Leroy into a state of even further contention with his absence of meaning in life, perceived by him. Maurice Ronet as Alain Leroy Léna Skerla as Lydia Yvonne Clech as Mademoiselle Farnoux Hubert Deschamps as DAverseau Jean-Paul Moulinot as Dr, in his 2006 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gives the film 3.5 stars and calls it probably Malles best early film. Roger Ebert gives the film the rating, describing it as a triumph of style. com
26.
Nicolas Peyrac
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Nicolas Peyrac is a French musician, writer and photographer. Jean-Jacques spent his youth in the town of Saint-Brice-en-Coglès in Brittany together with his brothers and parents. As a youngster, not partial to the advance of rock n roll, he had a passion for Ferré and Brel. When his parents divorced in the early 1960s, he went to live with his mother in New York, allowing him to broaden his musical horizon, while studying at the Lycée français, he learned to play the guitar. After returning to France to live with his father, he entered a TV talent show but was unsuccessful, refusing to let him live the life of a vagabond, his parents pressured him into studying medicine. The latter introduced him to producer Patrick Legrand, to whom he showed some lyrics he had written and this started his career as a songwriter, writing for artists like Marie Laforêt and Gérard Lenorman. Soon after he signed a contract with Pathé-Marconi, in 1974, Jean-Jacques, now using the stage name Nicolas Peyrac, released his first two singles, but to limited or no success. Just when he was about to lose his record deal with Pathé due to failure of success, Nicolas released the critically acclaimed 1975 song So far away from L. A. which made him an overnight star. Dropping his medical studies almost near the end, he concentrated on his career, releasing his next hit song Et mon père for which he received a French Grammy. Within a few months, he part of the most talented musicians of his generation. Continuing the 1975 success, Nicolas released several albums, and was supporting act for stars like Serge Lama and he also regularly headlined, taking him all the way to Japan. Although writing songs for stars like Johnny Hallyday and Plácido Domingo, his own career lost ground, in 1992, Nicolas close friend and colleague Michel Berger suddenly died of a heart attack, prompting him to take control of his life again. He started writing again, helped by former colleagues and friends and this marked his return to the spotlights, although it took some time for him to be fully back on track. With his fathers help, Nicolas emigrated to Montreal, Canada, giving him new energy and it is there he finished his novel, Quimporte le boulevard où tu mattends, published in 1994. In 1995, he returned to his fathers home in Brittany. Following its release, Nicolas extensively toured Quebec, and the year he returned to France, starring at the Casino de Paris. A conflict with his record company led to a delay of his next album, Autrement. Although positively received by the critics, it failed to be noticed by the public, following the release of Autrement, Nicolas kept writing and recording almost non-stop
27.
Amanda Lear
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Amanda Lear is a French singer, lyricist, painter, television presenter, actress and former model. Lear grew up in the south of France and in Switzerland and she began her professional career as a fashion model in the mid-1960s and went on to model for Paco Rabanne and Ossie Clark among others. Around that time she met the Spanish surrealist painter Salvador Dalí and would remain his closest friend, Lear first came into the public eye as the cover model for Roxy Musics album For Your Pleasure in 1973. From the mid-1970s to the early 1980s, she was a disco queen, mainly in Continental Europe and Scandinavia. Lears first four albums earned her popularity, charting in the Top 10 on European charts. Her biggest hits included Blood and Honey, Tomorrow, Queen of Chinatown, Follow Me, Enigma, in the mid-1980s Lear positioned herself as one of the leading media personalities in mainland Europe, especially in Italy and in France where she hosted many popular TV shows. Amandas 1980s musical output saw her experimenting with different genres and trying to revive her career by re-recording earlier hits to various levels of success, 1980s also saw her release two books, an autobiography My Life with Dalí and a novel LImmortelle. Since the 1990s her time has been divided between music, television, movies and painting, despite frequent album releases, she failed to achieve success on charts with her music. However, her career remained successful, with Lear hosting numerous prime time TV shows, occasionally making guest appearances in French. She has also performed acting and dubbing roles in independent as well as major film productions, in the late 2000s Lear would reinvent herself as a theatrical actress, performing in long-running stage plays in France. To date, she has sold over 25 million singles and 15 million albums worldwide, Lear is also a widely recognized gay icon. Lears origins are unclear, with the singer herself providing different information about her background, contested facts include her birth date and place, her birth gender, names and nationalities of her parents, and the location of her upbringing. Most sources claim 18 November 1939 to be her date, including GEMA. During a 2010 interview with a French newspaper Libération, Lear presented her identity card to a journalist and this date seems to be age fabrication, as public records show that she began university in September 1964, and that she married in December 1965. She was a child to her parents who later divorced. Most sources, including Lears 1965 wedding certificate, confirm that her father was a French army officer and her mother appears to have had a Russo-Asiatic background. In a 1976 interview with Carmen Thomas for a German television show, Lear confirmed that her father was British and mother was Russian, however, she would later claim her mother had a French background. In her book, April Ashleys Odyssey, she recalls Lear performing drag acts under the stage name Peki dOslo
28.
Absolutely Fabulous
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Absolutely Fabulous, also known as Ab Fab, is a BBC television sitcom created by, written by and starring Jennifer Saunders. It is based on a 1990 French & Saunders sketch created by Saunders, the series features Saunders as Edina Monsoon, a heavy-drinking, drug-abusing PR agent who spends her time chasing bizarre fads in a desperate attempt to stay young and hip. The series also stars June Whitfield as Edinas sarcastic and thieving mother, Absolutely Fabulous returned for three special episodes which were originally broadcast on 25 December 2011,1 January 2012 and 23 July 2012 to mark the shows 20th anniversary. The episode broadcast on 23 July 2012 featured the 2012 Summer Olympics which were being held in London that week, a film based on the series was released to theatres on 1 July 2016. On 28 November 2016, Jennifer Saunders announced that the series is finished, the show has had an extended and sporadic run. The first three series were broadcast on the BBC from 1992 to 1995, followed by a series finale in the form of a television film entitled The Last Shout in 1996. Creator Jennifer Saunders revived the show for a series in 2001, after having written and submitted a pilot entitled Mirrorball. The pilot was intended to be turned into a series of episodes, however, Saunders felt the characters were far too rich and interesting to put aside, and were far better suited for her new story ideas. Instead of Mirrorball, a new series of Absolutely Fabulous was proposed to the BBC, which later commissioned the fourth series in 2001. From 2001 to 2004, two series were produced, along with three one-off hour-long specials, Gay in 2002, Cold Turkey, a Christmas special in 2003, and White Box. A Comic Relief sketch was broadcast in 2005, in August 2011, Lumley confirmed the planned filming of three new episodes. In 2011, plans for a 20th anniversary revival were welcomed in The Guardian, the first new special was broadcast on 25 December with the second episode being shown on 1 January 2012. The third, and final special coincided with the 2012 Summer Olympics, a film version of the series was released in summer 2016. In the United States, the first of the three new 20th anniversary specials aired in January 2012 for broadcast by both BBC America and Logo Channel, both channels also co-produced the 20th Anniversary episodes, although Logo removed some scenes for its airings. BBC America broadcast it in full, both channels aired the episode in a 40-minute block to allow for commercial interruptions. Absolutely Fabulous is ranked as the 17th greatest British TV show of all time by the British Film Institute, a scene from the show was included in the 100 Greatest TV Moments programme broadcast by Channel 4. In 1997, the episode, Fashion, was ranked number 47 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time list. In 2004 and 2007, the series was ranked number 24, Absolutely Fabulous evolved from a French & Saunders sketch called Modern Mother and Daughter, which starred Saunders as the mother and French as the daughter, already named Saffron
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Renaud
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Renaud Pierre Manuel Séchan, known as Renaud, is a popular French singer, songwriter and actor. His characteristically broken voice makes for a distinctive vocal style. Several of his songs are classics in France, including the sea tale Dès que le vent soufflera, the irreverent Laisse béton, the ballad Morgane de toi. However, with the exception of a recording of Miss Maggie in English, fresh out of school, Renaud was determined to become an actor. By chance he met the actor Patrick Dewaere and was invited to join the company of the comedy theatre Café de la Gare, which had recently founded by Patrick Dewaere, Coluche. His early work is characterized by a temperament, innovative use of French. Raised in a milieu, the son of an intellectual, Renaud adopted the looks and attitude of working-class youth in the 1970s. A recurrent theme is his disgust for the average French person with petit-bourgeois preoccupations, in 1985, in a concert in Moscow, in what was an orchestrated gesture, roughly one third of the spectators upped and left the concert hall when he sang the anti-militarist Déserteur. He has also ventured into music and language, such as the language of Marseille in La Belle de Mai. In 1992, he helped resurrect the defunct satirical weekly Charlie Hebdo. His column appeared again in 1995-1996, retitled Envoyé spécial chez moi, in 2006, he published Les Bobos, as a satire on the Parisian lower bourgeoisie. In 2009 Renaud released Molly Malone – Balade irlandaise his long-awaited album of classic Irish balads, produced by ex-Boomtown Rats bassist Pete Briquette, the album was commercially successful but the singers feeble, often out-of-tune vocals caused some negative reviews. In 2014, a collective of 15 artists released an album containing 14 tracks covers of his songs under the title La Bande à Renaud. On 26 January 2016, on his web site, Renaud released Toujours debout. On the same day, he announced on the French public radio station France Inter the title of his new studio album, the video Toujours debout is released on 26 February 2016. On 8 April 2016, Renaud released his new long-awaited studio album, announced and known under the title Toujours debout, Renauds father Olivier Séchan was a prize-winning novelist and popular childrens writer, born to a Protestant Languedoc family from the Cévennes and Montpellier. He taught German language in a school of Paris. The director Edmond Séchan is his uncle and his grandfather was the famous scholar and Hellenist Louis Séchan, who taught in the Sorbonne
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
