1.
Edward S. Curtis
–
Edward Sheriff Curtis was an American photographer and ethnologist whose work focused on the American West and on Native American peoples. Curtis was born on February 16,1868, on a farm near Whitewater and his father, the Reverend Asahel Johnson Curtis, was a minister, farmer, and American Civil War veteran born in Ohio. His mother, Ellen Sheriff, was born in Pennsylvania, Curtiss siblings were Raphael, also called Ray, Edward, called Eddy, Eva, and Asahel Curtis. Weakened by his experiences in the Civil War, Johnson Curtis had difficulty in managing his farm, resulting in hardship and poverty for his family. Around 1874, the family moved from Wisconsin to Minnesota to join Johnson Curtiss father, Asahel Curtis, Curtis left school in the sixth grade and soon built his own camera. In 1885, at the age of 17, Curtis became a photographer in St. Paul. In 1887 the family moved to Seattle, Washington, where he purchased a new camera, Curtis paid $150 for his 50% share in the studio. After about six months, he left Rothi and formed a new partnership with Thomas Guptill and they established a new studio, Curtis and Guptill, Photographers and Photoengravers. In 1895, Curtis met and photographed Princess Angeline, also known as Kickisomlo and this was his first portrait of a Native American. In 1898, three of Curtiss images were chosen for an exhibition sponsored by the National Photographic Society, two were images of Princess Angeline, The Mussel Gatherer and The Clam Digger. The other was of Puget Sound, entitled Homeward, which was awarded the grand prize. In that same year, while photographing Mt. Rainier, Curtis came upon a group of scientists. One of them was George Bird Grinnell, considered an expert on Native Americans by his peers, Curtis was appointed the official photographer of the Harriman Alaska Expedition of 1899, probably as a result of his friendship with Grinnell. Having very little formal education Curtis learned much during the lectures that were aboard the ship each evening of the voyage. Grinnell became interested in Curtiss photography and invited him to join an expedition to photograph people of the Blackfoot Confederacy in Montana in 1900, in 1906, J. P. Morgan provided Curtis with $75,000 to produce a series on Native Americans. This work was to be in 20 volumes with 1,500 photographs, morgans funds were to be disbursed over five years and were earmarked to support only fieldwork for the books, not for writing, editing, or production of the volumes. Curtis received no salary for the project, which was to last more than 20 years, under the terms of the arrangement, Morgan was to receive 25 sets and 500 original prints as repayment. Once Curtis had secured funding for the project, he was able to hire employees to help him
Edward S. Curtis
–
Self-portrait circa 1889
Edward S. Curtis
–
Princess Angeline (
Duwamish) in an 1896
photogravure by Edward Sheriff Curtis
Edward S. Curtis
–
The North American Indian, 1907
Edward S. Curtis
–
Indian Days of the Long Ago, 1915
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
3.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
–
A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
–
Flag
California
–
Mount Shasta
California
–
Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
4.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
5.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
–
A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
–
Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
–
Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
–
Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
6.
Cahuilla language
–
Cahuilla call themselves ʔívil̃uqaletem or Iviatam–speakers of Ivilyuat –or táxliswet meaning person. A1990 census revealed 35 speakers in a population of 800. Three dialects are known to exist, Desert, Mountain and Pass and this Californian subgroup consisting of Cupan and Serran languages was once titled the Takic group which has fallen out of use. One of the designations for the language is ʔívil̃uʔat, alongside Ívilluat. Other variations include Ivilyuat and Ivia, however, both the language and the people are oftentimes called Cahuilla. Cahuilla has the vowel and consonant phonemes, Consonants in parentheses only occur in loans. /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ are allophones of /i/ and /u/, respectively, however, both /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ appear in the stressed position and are preceding any of the following consonants, /k/, /kʷ/, /q/, /p/, /ʔ/. Lengthened version of both result in their opened variant occurring, finally, word final instances of /i/ and /u/ are always open. Both long /oː/ and short /o/ only appear in borrowings, as an allophone of /e/, /ɛ/-distribution is unclear, conforming to the same rules of /i/ and /u/ sometimes. The word final variant of /e/ is always the open /æ/, similar to the high and mid vowels, /a/ sees similar allophonic distribution where /ɒ/ occurs under stress and /a/ falls in unstressed positions. /a/ is found in monosyllabic and polysyllabic words containing only one instance of the /a/, the semivowels, /j/ and /w/, are difficult to distinguish from their counterpart diphthongs, /i̯/ and /u̯/. When the semivowel is following an /i/ or /u/, it is realized as /ɪi̯/ or /ʊu̯/, when /i/, /u/ or /ɛ/ is followed by /a/, the /a/ usually becomes half-long. A salient feature found in Ivilyuat is the phenomenon of voiceless vowels occur in word-final positions or around /ʔ/. Word-finally, voiceless vowels occur as -Vh, words in Ivilyuat may never start with a vowel, and consonant clusters generally indicate the break between morphemic units. Whereas /ʔ/ is treated as a consonant in word-initial locations. There are three types of stress in Ivilyuat, primary, secondary and unstressed. Primary is distinguished from a syllable by loudness and elevation of pitch. Secondary stress carries less volume and the pitch is not as elevated as with primary stress, generally, stress falls on the first syllable of the root, however there are numerous cases of doubt and ambiguity
Cahuilla language
–
Cahuilla
7.
Roman Catholic
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholic
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholic
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
8.
Moravian Church
–
The modern Unitas Fratrum, with about 750,000 members worldwide, continues to draw on traditions established during the eighteenth century. The Moravians continue their tradition of missionary work, for example in the Caribbean. This is reflected in their global distribution. The Church places a value on ecumenism, personal piety, missions. The Church’s emblem is the Lamb of God with the flag of victory, surrounded by the Latin inscription, Vicit agnus noster, eum sequamur. The Hussite movement that was to become the Moravian Church was started by Jan Hus in early 15th century Bohemia, since these actions predate the Protestant Reformation by a century, some historians claim the Moravian Church was the first Protestant church. The movement gained support in the Crown of Bohemia, however, Hus was summoned to attend the Council of Constance, which decided that he was a heretic and had him burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. In 1434, an army of Utraquists and Catholics defeated the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany, the Utraquists signed the Compacts of Basel on 5 July 1436. Within fifty years of Hus death, a contingent of his followers had become independently organised as the Bohemian Brethren or Unity of the Brethren, a brother known as Gregory the Patriarch was very influential in forming the group, as well as the teachings of Peter Chelcicky. This group held to a strict obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, which included non-swearing of oaths, non-resistance, because of this, they considered themselves separate from the majority Hussites that did not hold those teachings. They received episcopal ordination through the Waldensians in 1467 and these were some of the earliest Protestants, rebelling against Rome some fifty years before Martin Luther. By the middle of the 16th century as many as 90 per cent of the inhabitants of the Bohemian Crown were Protestant, the majority of nobility was Protestant, the schools and printing-shops established by the Moravian Church were flourishing. Protestantism had an influence to the education of the population. Even in the middle of the 16th century there was not a town without a Protestant school in the Bohemian crown lands. With the University of Prague also firmly in hands of Protestants, therefore, the Jesuits were invited, with the backing of the Catholic Habsburg rulers, to come to the Bohemian Crown and establish a number of Catholic educational institutions. One of these is the university in the Moravian capital of Olomouc, in 1582 they forced closure of local Protestant schools. The Revolt started by unplanned second Defenestrations of Prague and was defeated in 1620 in the Battle of White Mountain near Prague, as consequence the local Protestant noblemen were either executed or expelled from the country while the Habsburgs placed Catholic nobility in their place. The war, plague, and subsequent disruption led to a decline in the population from over 3 million to some 800,000 people, by 1622 the entire education system was in the hands of Jesuits and all Protestant schools were closed
Moravian Church
–
The
seal of the Moravian Church featuring the
Agnus Dei. Stained glass at the Rights Chapel of Trinity Moravian Church,
Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States
Moravian Church
–
Jan Hus
Moravian Church
–
Jan Hus Preaching at
Bethlehem Chapel in Prague by
Alfons Mucha (1916)
Moravian Church
–
Jan Hus-Council of Constance by Josef Brožík
9.
Serrano (people)
–
The Serrano are an indigenous people of California. They use the autonyms of Taaqtam, meaning people, Maarengayam, people from Morongo, today the Maarengayam are enrolled in the Morongo Band of Mission Indians, and the Yuhaviatam are enrolled in the San Manuel Band of Mission Indians. Additionally, some Serrano people are enrolled in the Soboba Band of Luiseno Indians, the Serrano historically lived in the San Bernardino Mountains and other Transverse Ranges, and in the southern Mojave Desert, within Southern California. The Serrano language is part of the Takic subset of the large Uto-Aztecan languages group of people of North America. The language family historically extended from Mexico along the West Coast and into the Great Basin and they were a branch of the Takic languages speaking people who arrived in Southern California around 2,500 years ago. Serrano means highlander or mountaineer in Spanish, the Spanish founded Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in 1771, south of the San Gabriel Mountains and southwest of the San Bernardino Mountains. With the Cahuilla and Quechan tribes, in 1812 the Serrano revolted against it, in 1834 the Mexican Alta California government forcibly relocated many Serrano to the missions. They suffered devastating smallpox outbreaks in 1840 and 1860, as they had no immunity to the Eurasian disease, in 1867 the Yuhaviatam band of Serrano were the victims of a massacre conducted by American settlers of the San Bernardino Valley, during a 32-day campaign at Chimney Rock. The massacre was a response to a raid, probably carried out by Chemehuevi Southern Paiutes, on a settlement at Lake Arrowhead. Three American ranch hands were killed at a ranch called Los Flores in Summit Valley, tribal leader Santos Manuel led the survivors from the mountains to the valley, where they established permanent residence adjacent to the hot springs near present-day Highland. In 1891 the United States established the San Manuel Reservation for the Serrano people, the Serrano populated the San Bernardino Mountains and extended northwest into the Mojave River area of the Mojave Desert and west into the Tejon Creek watershed in the Tehachapi Mountains. The Serrano populations along Tejon Creek were identified as the Cuahajai or Cuabajay, mountain camps were used for hunting. One such encampment was accidentally unearthed by the U. S. Forest Service fighting a wildfire in 2003 near Baldwin Lake, uncovered were artifacts of non-local jasper and obsidian, ash and charcoal, grinding stones, and fire pits possibly dating back 1,000 years. Their society was divided into two exogamous moieties and their villages had from 25 to a hundred people. Their dwellings were large and communal, framed with willow branches and covered over with woven mats, the lodges were made with fireplaces inside for each family. The men did not wear clothing and the women wore deerskin, otter, the Serrano who inhabited the San Bernardino Mountains would go to the milder areas of Apple Valley and Lucerne Valley during the winter, and the area in and around Big Bear Lake during the summer. They hunted small game such as rabbits, using traps along with bows and arrows and they did not hunt the grizzly bears, which they believed were reincarnations of their ancestors spirits. They were skilled craftsmen and experts in basketweaving, which created in a variety of sizes and shapes for different purposes, such as storage, carrying
Serrano (people)
–
Workers making pipe turnouts on the
Morongo Reservation
10.
Tongva people
–
The Tongva are Native Americans who inhabited the Los Angeles Basin and the Southern Channel Islands, an area covering approximately 4,000 square miles. The Tongva are also known as the Gabrieleño and Fernandeño, names derived from the Spanish missions built near their territory, Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, along with the neighboring Chumash, the Tongva were the most powerful indigenous people to inhabit Southern California. At the time of European contact, they may have numbered 5,000 to 10,000, many lines of evidence suggest that the Tongva are descended of Uto-Aztecan-speaking peoples from Nevada who moved southwest into coastal Southern California 3,500 years ago. These migrants either absorbed or pushed out the Hokan-speaking peoples in the region, by 500 AD, the Tongva had come to occupy all the lands now associated with them. A hunter-gatherer society, the Tongva traded widely with neighboring peoples, over time, scattered communities came to speak distinct dialects of the Tongva language, part of the Takic subgroup of the Uto-Aztecan language family. There may have five or more such dialects. The Tongva language became extinct in the century, but a reconstructed form continues to be spoken today. Initial Spanish exploration of the Los Angeles area occurred in 1542 and this marked the beginning of an era of forced relocation and exposure to Old World diseases, leading to the rapid collapse of the Tongva population. At times the Tongva violently resisted Spanish rule, such as the 1785 rebellion led by the female chief Toypurina, in 1821, Mexico gained its independence from Spain and the government sold mission lands to ranchers, forcing the Tongva to culturally assimilate. Three decades later, California was ceded to the United States following the Mexican–American War, the US government signed treaties with the Tongva, promising 8.5 million acres of land for reservations, but these treaties were never ratified. By the turn of the 20th century, the Island Tongva had disappeared, the endonym Tongva was recorded by American ethnographer C. Hart Merriam in 1903 and has been widely adopted by scholars and descendants, although some prefer the endonym Kizh. Two of the groups are the result of a split over the question of building an Indian casino. In 1994, the state of California recognized the Tongva as the tribe of the Los Angeles Basin. In 2008, more than 1,700 people identified as Tongva or claimed partial ancestry, the first record of an endonym for the Tongva people was Kizh, from 1846. Although subsequent authors equated this with the word for house, Hale gives the word for house as kītç in a list where the language was called Kīj, suggesting that the words were distinct. The term Kizh was generally used at that time to designate the language, in 1875, Yarrow indicated that the name Kizh was unknown at Mission San Gabriel. He reported that the natives called themselves Tobikhar, meaning settlers, in 1885, Hoffman also referred to the natives as Tobikhar. The word Tongva was recorded by Merriam in 1903 from a single informant and he spelled it Tong-vā, by his orthography, it would be pronounced /ˈtɒŋveɪ/, TONG-vay
Tongva people
–
Mrs. James Rosemeyre (née Narcisa Higuera), photographed here in 1905, was one of the last fluent
Tongva speakers. An informant for the ethnographer
C. Hart Merriam, she was the source of the widely used
endonym Tongva.
Tongva people
–
A portrait of a Tongva woman, possibly
Juana Maria, the last survivor of her tribe and the last known speaker of
Nicoleño.
Tongva people
–
Replica of a Tongva ki
11.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
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Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
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Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
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Wilma Mankiller
12.
Southern California
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Southern California, often abbreviated as SoCal, is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises Californias 10 southernmost counties. The region is described as eight counties, based on demographics and economic ties, Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara. The more extensive 10-county definition, which includes Kern and San Luis Obispo counties, is used and is based on historical political divisions. Southern California is an economic center for the state of California. The 8-county and 10-county definitions are not used for the greater Southern California Megaregion, the megaregions area is more expansive, extending east into Las Vegas, Nevada and south across the Mexican border into Tijuana.5 million people. With over 22 million people, Southern California contains roughly 60 percent of Californias population, located east of Southern California is the Colorado Desert and the Colorado River at the border with Arizona. The Mojave Desert is located at the border with the state of Nevada while towards the south is the Mexico–United States border, within Southern California are two major cities, Los Angeles and San Diego, as well as three of the countrys largest metropolitan areas. With a population of 3,792,621, Los Angeles is the most populous city in California and the second most populous in the United States. South of Los Angeles and with a population of 1,307,402 is San Diego, the second most populous city in the state and the eighth most populous in the nation. The counties of Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, and Riverside are the five most populous in the state, the motion picture, television, and music industry are centered in the Los Angeles area in Southern California. Hollywood, a district within Los Angeles, gives its name to the American motion picture industry, headquartered in Southern California are The Walt Disney Company, Sony Pictures, Universal, MGM, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Brothers. Universal, Warner Brothers, and Sony also run major record companies, Southern California is also home to a large homegrown surf and skateboard culture. Companies such as Vans, Volcom, Quiksilver, No Fear, RVCA, some of the worlds biggest action sports events, including the X Games, Boost Mobile Pro, and the U. S. Open of Surfing, are all held in Southern California. Southern California is also important to the world of yachting, the annual Transpacific Yacht Race, or Transpac, from Los Angeles to Hawaii, is one of yachtings premier events. The San Diego Yacht Club held the Americas Cup, the most prestigious prize in yachting, from 1988 to 1995, Southern California is home to many sports franchises and sports networks such as Fox Sports Net. Many locals and tourists frequent the Southern California coast for its popular beaches, the desert city of Palm Springs is popular for its resort feel and nearby open spaces. Southern California is not a geographic designation and definitions of what constitutes Southern California vary. Geographically, Californias North-South midway point lies at exactly 37°958.23 latitude, around 11 miles south of San Jose, however, when the state is divided into two areas, the term Southern California usually refers to the 10 southernmost counties of the state
Southern California
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Southern California Images top from bottom, left to right:
San Diego Skyline,
Downtown Los Angeles,
Village of La Jolla,
Santa Monica Pier,
Surfer at Black's Beach,
Hollywood Sign,
Disneyland,
Hermosa Beach Pier
Southern California
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San Diego Marina district
Southern California
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Sunset in
Venice, a district in Los Angeles
Southern California
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Three Arch Bay in Laguna
13.
San Bernardino Mountains
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The San Bernardino Mountains are a high and rugged mountain range in Southern California in the United States. Situated north and northeast of San Bernardino and spanning two California counties, the range out at 11,489 feet at San Gorgonio Mountain – the tallest peak in all of Southern California. The San Bernardinos form a significant region of wilderness and are popular for hiking and skiing, the mountains were formed about eleven million years ago by tectonic activity along the San Andreas Fault, and are still actively rising. Many local rivers originate in the range, which receives more precipitation than the surrounding desert. The ranges unique and varying environment allows it to some of the greatest biodiversity in the state. For over 10,000 years, the San Bernardinos and their surrounds have been inhabited by indigenous peoples, Spanish explorers first encountered the San Bernardinos in the late 18th century, naming the eponymous San Bernardino Valley at its base. European settlement of the region progressed slowly until 1860, when the became the focus of the largest gold rush ever to occur in Southern California. Recreational development of the began in the early 20th century. Since then, the mountains have been engineered for transportation. Four major state highways and the California Aqueduct traverse the mountains today, the Morongo Valley in the southeast divides the range from the Little San Bernardino Mountains. Encompassing roughly 2,100 square miles, the mountains lie mostly in San Bernardino County, the range divides three major physiographic regions, the highly urbanized Inland Empire to the southwest, the Coachella Valley in the southeast, and the Mojave Desert to the north. Most of the lies within the boundaries of the San Bernardino National Forest. From its northwestern end, the crest of the mountains rises steadily until they are interrupted by the gorge of Bear Creek, many cities lie at the base of the San Bernardino Mountains. These include San Bernardino, Redlands and Yucaipa in the south, Yucca Valley to the east, in addition, there are several mid-sized to large towns in the mountains themselves, including Big Bear Lake, Big Bear City, Crestline, Lake Arrowhead and Running Springs. Cities within the San Bernardino Mountains total a population of about 44,000, several regional streams and rivers also have their headwaters in the mountains. The principal drainage is provided by the Santa Ana River, which runs westwards into the Pacific Ocean in Orange County, the San Bernardino Mountains are a humid island in the mostly semi-arid southern California coastal plain. Parts of the San Bernardino Mountains have annual totals in excess of 40 inches. Most of the falls between November and March, summers are mostly dry except for infrequent thunderstorms during late summer
San Bernardino Mountains
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The San Bernardinos seen from near Sugarloaf Mountain
San Bernardino Mountains
San Bernardino Mountains
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The range seen looking south from the Big Bear Valley
San Bernardino Mountains
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The mountains are named for the San Bernardino Valley, in turn named by the Spanish in 1810
14.
Borrego Springs, California
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Borrego Springs is a census-designated place in San Diego County, California. The population was 3,429 at the 2010 census, up from 2,535 at the 2000 census, Borrego Springs was designated as Californias first International Dark-Sky Community by the International Dark-Sky Association. It is a center for public astronomy activities throughout the year, Borrego Springs has pueblo-style, modern architecture and ranch-style house architecture. A local landmark is the roundabout between the airport and downtown, known as Christmas Circle. The town includes a branch of the San Diego County Library, the name of Anza-Borrego State Park is derived from a combination of Juan Baptista de Anza and borrego which is Spanish for little lamb, in honor of the local herds of bighorn sheep. Tourism is the industry in Borrego Springs. The 600,000 acres Anza-Borrego Desert State Park surrounds the town, there are 4 public golf courses, Tennis Center, horseback riding, and it is a destination for Snow birders who seasonally migrate each year from colder northern climates in winter to warmer terrain. According to the United States Geological Survey Borrego Springs is located at 33°15′24″N 116°22′30″W and this points at Christmas Circle Drive, at the intersection of Palm Canyon Drive and Borrego Springs Road, which is where most maps place the community. According to the United States Census Bureau Borrego Springs is located at 33°14′50″N 116°22′19″W, located between Frying Pan Road and Double O Road, this is 3,530 feet south-southeast of the USGS location. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Borrego Springs census-designated place has an area of 43.4 square miles,99. 22% of it land and 0. 78% water. The village is located on the floor of the Borrego Valley, Borrego Springs is situated on the valley floor within a diverse variety of desert flora and fauna. An abandoned Calcite Mine, which dates to World War II days, is situated on the northeast slope of the Santa Rosa Mountains in the State Park, average January temperatures are a maximum of 69.0 °F and a minimum of 43.4 °F. Average July temperatures are a maximum of 106.8 °F, there are an average of 172.6 days with highs of 90 °F or higher and an average of only 2.6 days with lows of 32 °F or lower. The record high temperature was 122 °F on June 25,1990, the record low temperature was 20 °F on January 5,1971. Average annual precipitation is 6.13 inches and there are an average of 24 days with measurable precipitation, the wettest year was 1983 with 18.73 inches and the driest year was 1953 with 1.35 inches. The most rainfall in one month was 8.78 inches in January 1993, the most rainfall in 24 hours was 2.46 inches on March 2,1983. Although snow rarely falls in the lowlands,6.5 inches fell in December 1967, the 2010 United States Census reported that Borrego Springs had a population of 3,429. The population density was 79.0 people per square mile, the racial makeup of Borrego Springs was 2,766 White,20 African American,34 Native American,22 Asian,5 Pacific Islander,500 from other races, and 82 from two or more races
Borrego Springs, California
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Downtown as seen from Christmas Circle
15.
Chocolate Mountains
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The Chocolate Mountains of California are located in Imperial and Riverside counties in the Colorado Desert of Southern California. The mountains stretch more than 60 miles in a northwest to southeast direction, and are located east of the Salton Sea and south and west of the Chuckwalla Mountains, to the northwest lie the Orocopia Mountains. The Chocolate Mountains form the northeast boundary of the Salton Trough extending as a range some 80 miles southeast from the Orocopia Mountains to the Colorado River valley. The mountains are located about 30 miles west of the Chocolate Mountains of Arizona, the range reaches an elevation of 2,475 feet at Mount Barrow, and serves as a drainage divide for the Salton Watershed to the west. The mountains receive very little rainfall in a year, typically 4-6 inches. The predominant natural plants are of the creosote bush–white bursage community, the range is composed of Precambrian basement rocks and Orocopia Schist with Mesozoic granite intrusions. The range may have formed by the collision of a microcontinental fragment with mainland Southern California during the Late Cretaceous. The range was host to numerous small gold workings in the 19th century with one, a large part of the Chocolate Mountains lies within the gunnery range, and is closed to the public. At the southeastern end of the Chocolate Mountains range are two important wilderness areas, the first is the Little Picacho Wilderness, a 38,170 acre region of geological features and habitat protection under the direction of the Bureau of Land Management. The preserve has within its boundaries the southern portion of the Chocolate Mountains, elevations within this area range from 200 to 1,500 feet. The topography, characterized by jutting spires and steep ridges, is quite dramatic, ravines laced within the range gradually broaden into sandy, tree-lined washes. Slopes and plains are devoid of vegetation, instead covered with a pavement of angular cobbles. These rusty dark orange and brown colored cobbles stand out against the nearly white bottoms of the washes and it is also called the Little Picacho Peak Wilderness. The Indian Pass Wilderness Area is to the north with 32,008 acres of open space, the Indian Pass Wilderness is a distinctive part of the Chocolate Mountains, a range which extends from south central Riverside County to the Colorado River near Yuma, Arizona. Quartz peak is the highest point in the wilderness capped at 2,200 feet, jagged peaks and spires are sliced by mazes of twisting canyons which carry water from occasional desert cloudbursts into several tree-lined washes. One of these passes through the heart of the wilderness area, giving rise to the regions local name. The areas proximity to the Colorado River and the Arizona Desert contribute to the presence of species not commonly found in the California Desert. A herd of 25 desert bighorn sheep reside in the area, along with the Picacho feral horses, wild burros
Chocolate Mountains
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Chocolate Mountains
16.
Colorado Desert
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Californias Colorado Desert is a part of the larger Sonoran Desert. It encompasses approximately 7 million acres including the heavily irrigated Coachella, the Colorado Desert is home to many unique flora and fauna, many of which can be found nowhere else on the planet. The majority of the Colorado Desert lies at a low elevation, below 1,000 feet. Although the highest peaks of the Peninsular Range reach elevations of nearly 10,000 feet, in this region, the geology is dominated by the transition of the tectonic plate boundary from rift to fault. The southernmost strands of the San Andreas Fault connect to the northern-most extensions of the East Pacific Rise, consequently, the region is subject to earthquakes, and the crust is being stretched, resulting in a sinking of the terrain over time. The Colorado Deserts climate distinguishes it from other deserts, the region experiences greater summer daytime temperatures than higher-elevation deserts and almost never experiences frost. In addition, the Colorado Desert experiences two seasons per year, especially toward the southern portion of the region, the more northerly Mojave Desert usually has only winter rains. The west coast Peninsular Ranges, or other west ranges, of Southern California–northern Baja California, block most eastern Pacific coastal air and rains, producing an arid climate. Other short or longer-term weather events can move in from the Gulf of California to the south and these include remnants of Pacific hurricanes, storms from the southern tropical jetstream, and the northern ITCZ. The regions terrestrial habitats include creosote bush scrub, mixed scrub, including yucca and cholla cactus, desert saltbush, sandy soil grasslands, higher elevations are dominated by pinyon pine and California juniper, with areas of manzanita and Coulter pine. In addition to hardy perennials, more than half of the plant species are herbaceous annuals. In the southern portion of the region, the additional moisture supplied by summer rainfall fosters the germination of annual plants and supports smoketree, ironwood. The unique Joshua tree can be found in Joshua Tree National Park, common desert wildlife include mule deer, bobcat, desert kangaroo rat, cactus mouse, black-tailed jackrabbit, Gambels quail, and red-diamond rattlesnake. The best place to spot wildlife is at the wetland refuges along the Colorado River, Cibola National Wildlife Refuge, in the Colorado Deserts arid environment, aquatic and wetland habitats are limited in extent but are critically important to wildlife. Two of the regions most significant aquatic systems are the Salton Sea, in some places, summer rains produce short-lived seasonal pools that host uncommon species like Couchs spadefoot toad. Desert fan palm oases are rare ecological communities found only in the Colorado Desert, the only palm native to California, Washingtonia filifera, grows at the oases. Some sub-regions of the Colorado Desert contain endemic flora, many unique communities, particularly aquatic and dune systems, are limited in distribution and separated by vast expanses of inhospitable, arid desert terrain. Even limited human disturbances can have deleterious effects on the endemic
Colorado Desert
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Colorado Desert landscape
Colorado Desert
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The Algodones Dunes
Colorado Desert
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Blooming cholla cactus with bird's nest in
Anza Borrego Desert State Park
Colorado Desert
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Bighorn sheep at
Palm Canyon in
Anza-Borrego State Park.
17.
San Jacinto Mountains
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The San Jacinto Mountains are a mountain range, in Riverside County, east of Los Angeles southern California in the United States. The mountains are named for Saint Hyacinth, the range extends for approximately 30 mi from the San Bernardino Mountains southeast to the Santa Rosa Mountains. The San Jacinto Mountains are the northernmost of the Peninsular Ranges, the highest peak in the range is San Jacinto Peak NAVD88, and the range is also a Great Basin Divide landform for the Salton Watershed to the east. The Coachella Valley stretches along the side of the range, including the cities of Palm Springs. San Gorgonio Pass separates the range from Mount San Gorgonio to the north, the western slope holds the community of Idyllwild. The range is the boundary of the San Jacinto Valley, location of Hemet, it also marks the eastern edge of the fast-growing Inland Empire region. Much of the range is embraced by the Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument created in 2000, Mount San Jacinto State Park is located along the flank of San Jacinto Peak. Part of the flank of the range is located within the Agua Caliente Indian Reservation. In 1990 the California Legislature created the Coachella Valley Mountains Conservancy to protect the surrounding the valley. The range is a block of granitic rocks squeezed between the San Jacinto fault on the west and the San Andreas fault system on the east. The fault scarp on the northern and eastern side is one of the most abrupt in North America, the height and steepness of the range points out that the San Jacinto fault and San Andreas fault are very active and very capable of producing major earthquakes. Rock slides from the range are possible during major earthquakes in the future and these slides may potentially impact the communities built directly adjacent to the steep escarpment on the desert side of the range. The San Jacinto Mountains, like the neighboring San Bernardino Mountains, are an island above the surrounding desert and semi-desert. Annual precipitation ranges from about 15 inches at the base to as much as 30 inches above 5,500 feet. The coastal side of the range receives more precipitation than the eastern side, most of the precipitation falls between November and March, with a secondary maximum associated with thunderstorms during the summer monsoon season between July and September. The precipitation totals are highly variable from year to year, snow usually falls above 4,000 feet elevation in winter. Above 8,000 feet, snow sometimes persists until June, near the crest, there are often a few patches of snow that may persist all year in shady spots. The range can be thought of as a sky island, as it contains species of flora
San Jacinto Mountains
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The San Jacinto Mountains seen from
Hemet
San Jacinto Mountains
San Jacinto Mountains
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Aerial view of the mountains
San Jacinto Mountains
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North slope of San Jacinto Peak
18.
Uto-Aztecan
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Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan /ˈjuːtoʊ. æzˈtɛkən/ is a Native American language family consisting of over 30 languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States, the name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Utah and the Aztecan languages of Mexico. The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of languages, and geographic extension. The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Idaho, Ethnologue gives the total number of languages in the family as 61, and the total number of speakers as 1,900,412. The roughly 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl languages account for almost four-fifths of these, below this level of classification the main branches are well accepted, Numic, and the Californian languages, including Cahuilla and Luiseño, account for most of the Northern languages. Hopi and Tübatulabal are languages outside those groups, the Southern languages are divided into the Tepiman, the Tarahumaran languages including Raramuri and Guarijio language, the Cahitan languages, Corachol and Nahuan languages. The homeland of the Uto-Aztecan languages is considered to have been in the American Southwest or possibly Northwestern Mexico. Linguistic scholars have discussed the possibility that the family originated in southern Mexico. The Proto-Uto-Aztecan language is the common ancestor of the Uto-Aztecan languages. The proto-language would have been spoken by Mesolithic foragers in Aridoamerica, the homeland of the Numic languages has been placed in Southern California near Death Valley, and the homeland of the proposed Southern Uto-Aztecan group has been placed on the coast of Sonora. The geographic diffusion of speakers corresponded to the breakup of linguistic unity and this hypothesis has been criticized on several grounds, and it is not generally accepted by Uto-Aztecanists. A survey of agriculture-related vocabulary by Merrill found that the agricultural vocabulary can only be reconstructed for Southern Uto-Aztecan and this supports a conclusion that the Proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community did not practice agriculture, but only adopted it after entering Mesoamerica from the North. A recent proposal by David L. Shaul presents evidence suggesting contact between proto-Uto-Aztecan and languages of central California such as Esselen and the Yokutsan languages and this leads Shaul to suggest that proto-Uto-Aztecan was spoken in Californias Central Valley area, and formed part of an ancient Californian linguistic area. Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in the North American mountain ranges and adjacent lowlands of the western United States, classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and its modern relatives are part of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Pipil language, an offshoot of Nahuatl, spread to Central America by a wave of migration from Mexico, now it has gone extinct in Guatemala and Honduras, and it is nearly extinct in western El Salvador, all areas dominated by use of Spanish. Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are accepted as valid by all experts, Numic, Takic, Pimic, Taracahitic, Corachol. This leaves two ungrouped languages—Tübatulabal and Hopi, as to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century. Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within dialect continua, the similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by J. C. E
Uto-Aztecan
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Pre-contact distribution of Northern Uto-Aztecan languages (note: this map does not show the total distribution in Mexico).
19.
Ranchos of California
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The Spanish and later Mexican governments encouraged settlement of Alta California by giving prominent men large land grants called ranchos, usually two or more square leagues. Land-grant titles were government-issued, permanent, unencumbered property-ownership rights to land called ranchos, devoted to raising cattle and sheep, the owners of the ranchos attempted to pattern themselves after the landed gentry of Spain. Their workers included Californian Native Americans who had learned to speak Spanish, Spain made about 30 grants between 1784 and 1821, and Mexico granted about 270 more between 1833 and 1846. The ranchos established land-use patterns and place names that are still in use in California today, Rancho boundaries became the basis for Californias land survey system, and can still be found on modern maps and land titles. Ranchos were partially based on geography, such as access to river water, Land development in the 20th and 21st century often follow the boundaries of the ranchos, and often retain the original name. For example, Rancho San Diego, an unincorporated rural-burb east of San Diego, or Rancho Bernardo, during Spanish rule, the ranchos were concessions from the Spanish crown, permitting settlement and granting grazing rights on specific tracts of land, while the crown retained the title. The land concessions were usually measured in leagues, a league of land would encompass a square that is one Spanish league on each side – approximately 4,428 acres. The Spanish and Mexican governments made a number of grants from 1785 to 1846. It was not until the Mexican era that the titles to the plots of land were granted to individuals, in 1821, Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California, and by 1828, the Acts sought to break the land monopoly of the missions and also paved the way for luring additional settlers to California by making land grants easier to obtain. Secularization was implemented between 1834 and 1836, the Mexican government allowed the padres to keep only the church, priests quarters and priests garden. The army troops guarding each Mission were dismissed, a commissioner would oversee the missions crops and herds, while the land was divided up as communal pasture, a town plot, and individual plots for each Indian family. The Mission Indians, freed from the missions, often joined other tribes or sought work on the new ranchos along the troops formerly assigned to each mission. The number of Mexican land grants greatly increased after the secularization of the missions in 1834, the Mexican rancho grants were provisional. The boundaries, on paper, had to be surveyed and marked. This produced a diseño, a topological map, to define the area. Since there were very few surveyors this requirement was seldom met, the grantee could not initially subdivide or rent out the land. The land had to be used for grazing or cultivated, some kind of residential house had to be built within a year—most were initially simple adobe walled cabins
Ranchos of California
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Sketch map or diseño of Rancho Providencia, 1840s.
20.
Coachella Valley
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It is the northernmost extent of the vast trough which includes the Salton Sea, the Imperial Valley and the Gulf of California. The San Andreas Fault crosses the valley from the Chocolate Mountains in the southeast corner, the fault is easily visible along its northern length as a strip of greenery against an otherwise bare mountain. The Chocolate Mountains are home to a United States Navy live gunnery range and are mostly off-limits to the public, in comparison to the Inland Empire, some people refer to the IEs sub-region Coachella Valley as the Desert Empire to differentiate it from the neighboring Imperial Valley. Geographers and geologists sometimes call the area, along with the Imperial Valley to the south, the valley connects with the Greater Los Angeles area to the west via the San Gorgonio Pass, a major transportation corridor that includes I-10 and the Union Pacific Railroad. The valley is part of the 13th-largest metropolitan area in the United States, the famous desert resort cities of Palm Springs and Palm Desert lie in the Coachella Valley.5 million annual conventioneers and tourists. The local population rounds up to almost 500,000 in April, declines to 200,000 in July, there is some contention as to the origin of the name. Early maps show the area as Conchilla, the Spanish word for seashell, since the area was once a part of a vast inland sea, tiny fossilized mollusk shells can be found in just about every remote area. Local lore explains the change in the name from Conchilla to Coachella as a made by the map-makers contracted to transcribe the data supplied by the Southern Pacific Railroads survey party. Rather than redraw the expensive maps, the railroad chose to begin calling the area by the misspelled name Coachella rather than its traditional name Conchilla. Some believe that the name Coachella was simply made up, cindarella Courtney was the first non-Indian child born in Indio in 1898. The first boy, David Elgin, was born in 1899, the coming in 1926 of U. S. So too did the coming of State Highway 111 in the early 1930s, the standard was refined and adopted worldwide. Doctor McCarroll is memorialized by a stretch of I-10 through Indio named in her honor, the Coachella Valley was popular among celebrities from Frank Sinatra to Dakota Fanning who came and continue to come to enjoy vacations and winter homes in the desert resort community. Also it became a real estate destination in the 1980s and 1990s no longer limited to senior citizens, winter residents. Families with young children and young adults interested in Palm Springs and surrounding communities for lower cost housing. In a 2003 Condé Nast publication review, Palm Springs was ranked one of the top 10 global vacation destinations, and the smallest one in population. The area is surrounded on the southwest by the Santa Rosa Mountains, by the San Jacinto Mountains to the west and these mountains peak at around 11,000 feet and tend to average between 5,000 and 7,000 feet. Elevations on the Valley floor range from 1600 ft above sea level at the end of the Valley to 250 ft below sea level around Mecca
Coachella Valley
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Coachella Valley
Coachella Valley
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Panorama of the view south from Keys View in the
Little San Bernardino Mountains,
Joshua Tree National Park, California, USA. Visible landmarks are the
Salton Sea (230ft below sea level) at rear left, along towards the center the
Santa Rosa Mountains behind
Indio and the
San Jacinto Mountains behind
Palm Springs. In the valley floor, the
San Andreas Fault is clearly visible. At the rear right is the 11,500 ft (3,500 m)
San Gorgonio Mountain
Coachella Valley
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The
San Gorgonio Pass Wind Farm as viewed from the top of the
Palm Springs Aerial Tramway in the
San Jacinto Mountains to the south.
21.
Lake Cahuilla
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Lake Cahuilla is a prehistoric lake in California and northern Mexico. Located in the Coachella and Imperial Valleys, it covered areas of 5,700 square kilometres to a height of 12 metres above sea level during the Holocene. Earlier stages during the Pleistocene reached even higher levels, up to 31–52 metres above sea level, the lake overflowed close to Cerro Prieto into the Rio Hardy, eventually draining into the Gulf of California. The lake formed several times over during the Holocene when water from the Colorado River was diverted into the Salton Trough and this tectonic depression forms the northern basin of the Gulf of California, but was separated from the sea proper by the growth of the Colorado River Delta. Such changes in river courses may have been caused by earthquakes among the numerous faults that cross the region, conversely, it is possible that the weight of the water itself triggered earthquakes. During its existence it formed well developed strandlines and various beach deposits such as gravel bars, the lake existed in several stages during the past 2,000 years, periodically drying and refilling and eventually disappearing sometime after 1580. In 1905-1907, the Salton Sea formed in parts of the basin of Lake Cahuilla. Today the former lake bed forms the regions of the Imperial. The Algodones Dunes were formed from sand deposited by Lake Cahuilla, during its existence, the lake supported a rich biota with fish, bivalves and vegetation on its shorelines. In turn these resources supported human populations on its shores, as evidenced by a number of archeological sites, the lake may have had profound effects on population genetics and language history of the surrounding regions. The name Lake Cahuilla was used in 1907 by William Phipps Blake, the lake is named after the Cahuilla, who refer to the lake in their oral tradition. A second name is Blake Sea, after William Phipps Blake, the Cahuilla themselves named the lake paul, and their mythology states that when their creator paulnevolent was cremated, tears turned the lake salty. The name Lake LeConte was coined in 1902 by Gilbert E. Bailey, in 1980, M. R. Waters applied the term to cover all lakes of Holocene age in the Salton Basin. This name is derived from Joseph Le Conte, a geography professor, presently, the name Lake Cahuilla applies to the reservoir at the northern end of the Coachella Canal, in the Coachella Valley. Lake Cahuilla is also the name of a station in California. Lake Cahuilla formed in the region of the present-day Salton Sea and it extended over the southern end of Coachella Valley in the north, through the Imperial Valley in the south, and down to the Cerro Prieto area in Baja California. This area was known as the Colorado Desert. Currently,5,400 square kilometres of the land is below sea level, the Salton Trough extends 225 kilometres northwest and has a width of 110 kilometres at the border
Lake Cahuilla
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Old Shoreline of Lake Cahuilla,
Santa Rosa Mountains near the Salton Sea
22.
Colorado River
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The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The 1, 450-mile-long Colorado River drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U. S. starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U. S. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora. Known for its dramatic canyons, whitewater rapids, and eleven U. S. National Parks, the Colorados large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power, and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West. Intensive water consumption has dried up the lower 100 miles of the river, beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers, Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years. Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago. Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century, when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area, early contact between Europeans and Native Americans was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river. After most of the Colorado River basin became part of the U. S. in 1846, several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century – one of which, led by John Wesley Powell, was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon. American explorers collected valuable information that would later be used to develop the river for navigation, lesser numbers settled in the upper basin, which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s. Large engineering works began around the start of the 20th century, with guidelines established in a series of international. The U. S. federal government was the driving force behind the construction of dams and aqueducts in the river system, although many state. Most of the dams in the river basin were built between 1910 and 1970, the system keystone, Hoover Dam, was completed in 1935. The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world, as demands for Colorado River water continue to rise, the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy. The Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, after a short run south, the river turns west below Grand Lake, the largest natural lake in the state. As it flows southwest, it gains strength from many tributaries, as well as larger ones including the Blue, Eagle. In a few areas, such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters, arcing northwest, the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau, a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States. In Utah, the Colorado flows primarily through the slickrock country and this is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States. Here, the San Juan River, carrying runoff from the slope of Colorados San Juan Mountains, joins the Colorado from the east. S
Colorado River
–
The Colorado River at
Horseshoe Bend,
Arizona, a few miles below
Glen Canyon Dam
Colorado River
–
Map of the Colorado River basin
Colorado River
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The
Kawuneeche Valley, near the headwaters of the Colorado River in
Rocky Mountain National Park
Colorado River
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Colorado River in the Grand Canyon seen from Pima Point, near
Hermit's Rest
23.
Salton Sea
–
The Salton Sea is a shallow, saline, endorheic rift lake located directly on the San Andreas Fault, predominantly in Californias Imperial and Coachella Valleys. The lake occupies the lowest elevations of the Salton Sink in the Colorado Desert of Imperial and its surface is 235.2 ft below sea level as of Feb.5,2017. The deepest point of the sea is 5 ft higher than the lowest point of Death Valley, the sea is fed by the New, Whitewater, and Alamo Rivers, as well as agricultural runoff, drainage systems, and creeks. Over millions of years, the Colorado River has flowed into the Imperial Valley and deposited soil, building up the terrain, the cycle of filling has been about every 400–500 years and has repeated itself many times. The latest natural cycle occurred around 1600–1700 as remembered by Native Americans who talked with the first European settlers, fish traps still exist at many locations, and the Native Americans evidently moved the traps depending upon the cycle. The most recent inflow of water from the now heavily controlled Colorado River was accidentally created by the engineers of the California Development Company in 1905, in an effort to increase water flow into the area for farming, irrigation canals were dug from the Colorado River into the valley. Due to fears of silt buildup, a cut was made in the bank of the Colorado River to further increase the water flow, while it varies in dimensions and area with fluctuations in agricultural runoff and rainfall, the Salton Sea is about 15 miles by 35 miles. With an estimated area of 343 square miles or 350 square miles. The average annual inflow is less than 1,200,000 acre feet, which is enough to maintain a depth of 43 feet. The lakes salinity, about 56 grams per litre, is greater than that of the waters of the Pacific Ocean, recently, the concentration has been increasing at a rate of about 3% per year. About 4,000,000 short tons of salt are deposited in the each year. The area was part of a vast inland sea that covered a large area of Southern California. Eventually, the reached the western shore of the Gulf of California. Were it not for this barrier the entire Salton Sink along with the Imperial Valley would be submerged as the Gulf would extend as far north as Indio. A lake exists only during times it is replenished by the rivers and rainfall and these indicate that the basin was occupied intermittently as recently as a few hundred years ago. Throughout the Spanish period of Californias history, the area was referred to as the Colorado Desert after the Colorado River, in a railroad survey completed in 1855, it was called the Valley of the Ancient Lake. On several old maps from the Library of Congress, it has been found labeled Cahuilla Valley and Cabazon Valley. Salt Creek first appeared on a map in 1867 and Salton Station is on a map from 1900
Salton Sea
–
Salton Sea
Salton Sea
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Map of the Salton Sea drainage area
Salton Sea
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Original caption: Dry Bed of Colorado River Below Imperial Intake [...] River Diverted Into
Imperial Canal
Salton Sea
24.
Native plant
–
Native plants are plants indigenous to a given area in geologic time. This includes plants that have developed, occur naturally, or existed for years in an area. Some native plants have adapted to limited, unusual environments or very harsh climates or exceptional soil conditions. Although some types of plants for these reasons exist only within a limited range. Research has found that insects depend on native plants, an ecosystem consists of interactions of plants, animals, and microorganisms with their physical and climatic conditions. Native plants form a part of an environment, or plant community. That could be a case if a plant exists because a certain animal pollinates the plant, some native plants rely on natural conditions, such as occasional wildfires, to release their seeds or to provide a fertile environment in which their seedlings can become established. As societies move plants or introduce them to new locations for cultivation as crops or ornamentals, some of them may become invasive species, besides ecological damage, these species can also damage agriculture, infrastructure, and cultural assets. Government agencies and environmental groups are directing increasing resources to addressing these species, non-native species can have profound effects on ecosystems by changing ecosystem structure, function, species abundance, and community composition. To prevent erosion of the sand dunes at the western edge of the Los Angeles International Airport in 1975. Unfortunately, the mix was representative of coastal sage scrub. As a result, the El Segundo blue butterfly became an endangered species, the rich diversity of unique species across many parts of the world exists only because bioregions are separated by barriers, particularly large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts. Humans, migratory birds, ocean currents, etc. can introduce species that have never met in their evolutionary history, humans are moving species across the globe at an unprecedented rate. Those working to address invasive species view this as a risk to indigenous species. The term nativar is becoming accepted as cultivars of native plants. The use of nativars is a widely disputed practice among native plant activists, the identification of local plant communities provides a basis for their work. Returning Essential Wildflowers to America’s Landscapes, Project Milkweed, Xerces Society Milkweeds are the required host plants for caterpillars of the monarch butterfly, mary M. Walker, Native Plant Societies of the United States and Canada. Introduced birds of the world, The worldwide history, distribution, New York, Universe Books, New York City, Sydney, Reed ISBN 0-589-50260-3 Vermeij, Geerat J.1991
Native plant
–
Wild Perennial
Lupin (Lupinus perennis)
25.
Washingtonia filifera
–
Washingtonia filifera, also known as desert fan palm, California fan palm or California palm, is a flowering plant in the palm family, and native to the southwestern U. S. and Baja California. Growing to 15–20 m tall by 3–6 m broad, it is a monocot with a tree-like growth habit. It has a columnar trunk and waxy fan-shaped leaves. Other common names include California fan palm and petticoat palm, the specific epithet filifera means thread-bearing. Washingtonia filifera is the only native to the Western United States. Primary populations are found in riparian habitats at spring-fed and stream-fed oases in the Colorado Desert. It is a species in the warm springs near Death Valley. It is also naturalized in the Southeast, Florida, Hawaii, the U. S. Virgin Islands. Washingtonia filifera grows to 18 metres in height in ideal conditions, the California Fan Palm Tree is also known as the Desert Fan Palm, American Cotton Palm and Arizona Fan Palm. The fronds are up to 3. 5–4 metres long, made up of a petiole up to 2 metres long, bearing a fan of leaflets 1. 5–2 metres long. They have long white fibers and the petioles are pure green with yellow edges and filifera-filaments. The trunk is gray and tan and the leaves are gray green, when the fronds die they remain attached and drop down to cloak the trunk in a wide skirt. The shelter that the skirt creates provides a microhabitat for many small birds, if there is any red color present on petioles or trunk it is not a pure filifera but a fila-busta hybrid. Washingtonia filifera can live from 80 to 250 years or more, Desert fan palms provide habitat for the giant palm boring beetle, western yellow bat, hooded oriole and many other bird species. Hooded orioles rely on the trees for food and places to build nests, numerous insect species visit the hanging inflorescences that appear in late spring. The palm boring beetle Dinapate wrightii can chew through the trunks of this as well as other palms, eventually a continued infestation of beetles can kill various genera and species of palms. The recent discovery of the red palm weevil in Southern California may pose a threat to many palms, however, it seems that this species is resistant to the red palm weevil through a mechanism based on antibiosis. Currently the desert fan palm is experiencing a population and range expansion, historically, natural oases are mainly restricted to areas downstream from the source of hot springs, though water is not always visible at the surface
Washingtonia filifera
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Washingtonia filifera
Washingtonia filifera
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Washingtonia filifera in Palm Canyon,
Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument.
Washingtonia filifera
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Washingtonia filifera trees and
fronds in
Anza-Borrego Desert State Park
Washingtonia filifera
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Palms planted 1834 by
Amalia of Greece in Athens (
National Garden)
26.
Basketry
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Basket weaving is the process of weaving or sewing pliable materials into two- or threedimensional artefacts, such as mats or containers. Craftspeople and artists specialised in making baskets are usually referred to as basket makers, Basketry is made from a variety of fibrous or pliable materials—anything that will bend and form a shape. Examples include pine straw, stems, animal hair, hide, grasses, thread, Indigenous peoples are particularly renowned for their basket-weaving techniques. These baskets may then be traded for goods but may also be used for religious ceremonies, twining actually refers to a weaving technique where two or more flexible weaving elements cross each other as they weave through the stiffer radial spokes. Wicker and Splint basketry using reed, cane, willow, oak and it is pliable, and when woven correctly, it is very sturdy. Also, while traditional materials like oak, hickory, and willow might be hard to come by, reed is plentiful and can be cut into any size or shape that might be needed for a pattern. The type of baskets that reed is used for are most often referred to as wicker baskets, wicker baskets are often used to store beer, grain, and even in some human sacrificing tribes, the heads of the sacrifice. Many types of plants can be used to create baskets, dog rose, honeysuckle, blackberry briars once the thorns have been scraped off, Willow was used for its flexibility and the ease with which it could be grown and harvested. Willow baskets were commonly referred to as wickerwork in England, water hyacinth is currently also being used as a base material in some areas where the plant has become a serious pest. For example, a group in Ibadan led by Achenyo Idachaba have been creating handicrafts in Nigeria, the parts of a basket are the base, the side walls, and the rim. A basket may also have a lid, handle, or embellishments, most baskets begin with a base. The base can either be woven with reed or wooden, a wooden base can come in many shapes to make a wide variety of shapes of baskets. The static pieces of the work are laid down first, in a round basket, they are referred to as spokes, in other shapes, they are called stakes or staves. Then the weavers are used to fill in the sides of a basket, a wide variety of patterns can be made by changing the size, colour, or placement of a certain style of weave. To achieve an effect, aboriginal artists first dye the twine. So without proper preservation, much of the history of basket making has been lost and is simply speculated upon, other baskets have been discovered in the Middle East that are up to 7,000 years old. However, baskets seldom survive, as they are made from perishable materials, the most common evidence of a knowledge of basketry is an imprint of the weave on fragments of clay pots, formed by packing clay on the walls of the basket and firing. During the Industrial Revolution, baskets were used in factories and for packing, wicker furniture became fashionable in Victorian society
Basketry
–
Artist
Lucy Telles and large basket, in
Yosemite National Park, 1933
Basketry
–
A woman weaves a basket in
Cameroon
Basketry
–
Woven
bamboo basket for sale in K. R. Market,
Bangalore, India
Basketry
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Bending vines for basket construction in
Pohnpei
27.
Juan Bautista de Anza
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Juan Bautista de Anza Bezerra Nieto was a New-Spanish explorer of Basque descent, and Governor of New Mexico for the Spanish Empire. Juan Bautista de Anza was born in Fronteras, Sonora, New Spain in 1736 and he was the son of Juan Bautista de Anza I. In 1752 he enlisted in the army at the Presidio of Fronteras and he advanced rapidly and was a captain by 1760. His wife was the daughter of Spanish mine owner Francisco Pérez Serrano and his military duties mainly consisted of forays against hostile Native Americans, such as the Apache, during the course of which he explored much of what is now Arizona. The Spanish began colonizing Alta California with the Portolá expedition of 1769-1770, the two-pronged Portolá effort involved both a long sea voyage against prevailing winds and the California Current, and a difficult land route from Baja California. Colonies were established at San Diego and Monterey, with a presidio, a more direct land route and further colonization were desired, especially at present-day San Francisco, which Portolá saw but was not able to colonize. By the time of Juan Bautista de Anzas expedition, three missions had been established, including Mission San Antonio de Padua in the Salinas Valley. In 1772, Anza proposed an expedition to Alta California to the Viceroy of New Spain, Anza heard of a California Native American called Sebastian Tarabal who had fled from Mission San Gabriel to Sonora, and took him as guide. The expedition took a route along the Rio Altar, then paralleled the modern Mexico/California border. This was in the domain of the Yuma tribe, with which he established good relations, Anza reached Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, near the California coast, on March 22,1774, and Monterey, California, Alta Californias capital, on April 19. He returned to Tubac by late May,1774 and this expedition was closely watched by Viceroy and King, and on October 2,1774, Anza was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and ordered to lead a group of colonists to Alta California. The expedition got under way on October 23,1775, and arrived at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel in January,1776, today this route is marked as the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail. The expedition continued on to Monterey with the colonists, in Anzas diary on March 25,1776, he states that he arrived at the arroyo of San Joseph Cupertino, which is useful only for travelers. Here we halted for the night, having come eight leagues in seven, from this place we have seen at our right the estuary which runs from the port of San Francisco. Pressing on, Anza located the sites for the Presidio of San Francisco and Mission San Francisco de Asis in present-day San Francisco and he did not establish the settlement, it was established later by José Joaquín Moraga. While returning to Monterey, he located the sites for Mission Santa Clara de Asis and the town of San José de Guadalupe. On August 24,1777, the Viceroy of New Spain appointed Anza as the Governor of the Province of Nuevo México, Governor Anza led a punitive expedition against the Comanche group of Native Americans, who had been repeatedly raiding Taos during 1779. With his Ute and Apache Native American allies, and around 800 Spanish soldiers, Anza went north through the San Luis Valley, entering the Great Plains at what is now Manitou Springs, circling El Capitan, he surprised a small force of the Comanche near present-day Colorado Springs
Juan Bautista de Anza
–
Juan Bautista de Anza
Juan Bautista de Anza
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Signature
Juan Bautista de Anza
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Juan Bautista de Anza, from a portrait in oil by Fray Orsi in 1774
Juan Bautista de Anza
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Map of the route, Juan Bautista de Anza travelled in 1775–76 from Mexico to today's San Francisco
28.
Sonora
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Sonora, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Sonora, is one of 31 states that, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities, the city is Hermosillo. Sonora is located in Northwest Mexico, bordered by the states of Chihuahua to the east, Baja California to the northwest and Sinaloa to the south. To the north, it shares the U. S. –Mexico border with the states of Arizona and New Mexico, and on the west has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of California. Sonoras natural geography is divided into three parts, the Sierra Madre Occidental in the east of the state, plains and rolling hills in the center, and the coast on the Gulf of California. It is primarily arid or semiarid deserts and grasslands, with only the highest elevations having sufficient rainfall to support other types of vegetation, Sonora is home to eight indigenous peoples, including the Mayo, the Yaqui, and Seri. It has been important for its agriculture, livestock, and mining since the colonial period. With the Gadsden Purchase, Sonora lost more than a quarter of its territory, from the 20th century to the present, industry, tourism, and agribusiness have dominated the economy, attracting migration from other parts of Mexico. Several theories exist as to the origin of the name Sonora and they encountered the Opata, who could not pronounce Señora, instead saying Senora or Sonora. A third theory, written by Father Cristóbal de Cañas in 1730, states that the name comes from the word for a water well, sonot. The first record of the name Sonora comes from explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, Francisco de Ibarra also traveled through the area in 1567 and referred to the Valles de Señora. Evidence of human existence in the dates back over 10,000 years. The first humans were hunter gatherers who used tools made from stones, seashells. During much of the period, the environmental conditions were less severe than they are today, with similar. The oldest Clovis culture site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora and it was discovered during a 2007 survey. It features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP, in 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found, the evidence suggests that humans did in fact kill two of them here. Agriculture first appeared around 400 BCE and 200 CE in the river valleys, the lowland central coast, however, seems never truly to have adopted agriculture. Because Sonora and much of the northwest does not share many of the traits of that area
Sonora
–
Cajemé, Yaqui resistance leader
Sonora
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Flag
Sonora
–
The Cananea miners' strike 1906
Sonora
–
Colonia Centro, calle Pierson, Nogales
29.
Monterey, California
–
The City of Monterey in Monterey County is located on the southern edge of Monterey Bay, in the Northern Portion of Californias Central Coast. It stands at an elevation of 26 feet above sea level, the 2010 census recorded a population of 27,810. Monterey was the capital of Alta California under both Spain and Mexico and it was the only port of entry for taxable goods in California. In 1846 the U. S. flag was raised over the Customs House, the city had Californias first theater, public building, public library, publicly funded school, printing press, and newspaper. The city and surrounding area have attracted artists since the late 19th century, until the 1950s, there was an abundant fishery. Among Montereys notable present-day attractions are the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Cannery Row, Fishermans Wharf, long before the arrival of Spanish explorers, the Rumsen Ohlone tribe, one of seven linguistically distinct Ohlone groups in California, inhabited the area now known as Monterey. They subsisted by hunting, fishing and gathering food on and around the biologically rich Monterey Peninsula, researchers have found a number of shell middens in the area and, based on the archaeological evidence, concluded the Ohlones primary marine food consisted at various times of mussels and abalone. A number of sites have been located along about 12 miles of rocky coast on the Monterey Peninsula from the current site of Fishermans Wharf in Monterey to Carmel. In 1602, Spanish maritime explorer Sebastian Vizcaino recorded the name Bahía de Monterrey, Vizcaino landed at the southern end of the bay and described a great port, suitable for use as an anchorage by southbound Manila galleons. Vizcaino also noted and named the Point of Pines, all other uses of the name Monterey derive from Vizcainos name for the bay. Variants of the name are recorded as Monte Rey and Montery. In 1769, the first European land exploration of Alta California, for some reason, the explorers failed to recognize the place when they came to it on October 1,1769. The party continued north as far as San Francisco Bay before turning back, on the return journey, they camped near one of Montereys lagoons on November 27, still not convinced they had found the place Vizcaino had described. Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí noted in his diary, We halted in sight of the Point of Pines and camped near a lagoon which has rather muddy water. Portolá returned by land to Monterey the next year, having concluded that he must have been at Vizcainos Port of Monterey after all, the land party was met at Monterey by Junípero Serra who traveled by sea. Portolá erected the Presidio of Monterey to defend the port and, on June 3,1770, Portolá returned to Mexico, replaced in Monterey by Captain Pedro Fages, who had been third in command on the exploratory expeditions. Fages became the governor of Alta California, serving from 1770 to 1774. Serras missionary aims soon came into conflict with Fages and the soldiers, the existing wood and adobe building became the chapel for the Presidio
Monterey, California
–
Fisherman's Wharf and downtown rooftops, seen from
Monterey Bay
Monterey, California
–
Construction on the
Custom House began in 1814 under Spanish rule. This photo dates from 1936.
Monterey, California
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Birds along a rock sea wall near the Coast Guard Station, which borders the
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary
Monterey, California
–
Monterey Wharf and Harbor area
30.
Alta California
–
Alta California, founded in 1769 by Gaspar de Portolà, was a polity of New Spain and after the Mexican War of Independence in 1822, a territory of Mexico. The region included all of the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Large areas east of the Sierra Nevada and San Gabriel Mountains were claimed to be part of Alta California, to the southeast, beyond the deserts and the Colorado River, lay the Spanish settlements in Arizona. The areas formerly comprising Alta California were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War in 1848, two years later, California joined the union as the 31st state. Other parts of Alta California became all or part of the later U. S. states of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Spanish explored the area of Alta California by sea beginning in the 16th century. During the following two centuries there were plans to settle the area, none of which were effectively carried out. Ultimately, New Spain did not have the resources nor population to settle such a far northern outpost. To ascertain the Russian threat a number of Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were launched, the Spanish Crown funded the construction and subsidized the operation of the missions, with the goal that the relocation, conversion and enforced labor of Native people would bolster Spanish rule. The first Alta California mission and presidio were established by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, the following year,1770, the second mission and presidio were founded in Monterey. In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu, the missionary effort coincided with the construction of presidios and pueblos, which were to be manned and populated by Hispanic people. The first pueblo founded was San José in 1777, followed by Los Ángeles in 1781, by law, mission land and property were to pass to the indigenous population after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish subjects. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Native residents, the transfer of property never occurred under the Franciscans. As the number of Spanish settlers grew in Alta California, the boundaries, conflicts between the Crown and the Church and between Natives and settlers arose. State and ecclesiastical bureaucrats debated over authority of the missions and they advocated that the Natives owned property and had the right to defend it. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta and Baja Californias official borders, Mexico won independence in 1822, and Alta California became a territory of Mexico. The Spanish and later Mexican governments rewarded retired soldados de cuera with large grants, known as ranchos, for the raising of cattle. Hides and tallow from the livestock were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century, the construction, ranching and domestic work on these vast estates was primarily done by Native Americans, who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses
Alta California
–
Map of N. America showing California when it was part of New Spain. Map dated 1789 from
Dobson's Encyclopedia.
Alta California
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Mexico in 1838. From Britannica 7th edition
Alta California
–
Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847. New California is depicted with a north-eastern border at the meridian leading north of the
Rio Grande headwaters.
United States 
(California)
