1.
Hermosillo
–
Hermosillo, formerly called Pitic is a city located centrally in the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the capital and largest city as well as the economic center for the state. It contains almost all of the manufacturing and has thirty percent of its population. The major manufacturing sector is automobiles, which was begun in the 1980s, evidence of the areas first inhabitants dates back 3,000 years, much of which are from a site called the San Dieguito Complex, located in the El Pinacate Zone. Evidence of agriculture dates back 2,500 years, in the pre-Hispanic era, this area was inhabited by the Seri, Tepoca, and Pima peoples. The first encounter between the Spanish and natives occurred in the middle of the 16th century, when explorers were sent here in search of nonexistent gold. The first missionaries arrived in the state of Sonora around 1614, what is now the states of Sonora and Sinaloa was loosely organized as the provinces of Sonora, Ostimura and Sinaloa. In 1700, three small Spanish villages were founded in what is now the outskirts of Hermosillo, Nuestra Señora del Pópulo, Nuestra Señora de Los Angeles and la Santísima Trinidad del Pitic. The native peoples here soon became hostile to the Spanish and managed to drive them out several times in the early 18th century, in 1716, the Spanish offered irrigated lands for farmers to natives who agreed to abide by Spanish law. Around 1726, a fort named the Presidio of Pitic was constructed to stop the domination of this area by the natives, however, the situation did not settle soon so that the first church was not built until 1787 and the first formal parish was not established until 1822. During the Mexican War of Independence, Sonora and the town of Pitic stayed loyal to the Spanish Crown, in fact, a general from this area, Alejo García Conde, defeated insurgent José María González Hermosillo, who had been sent here by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. In 1825, the village of Pitic was made the seat of the department of the same name, in 1828, the settlement changed its name to Hermosillo to honor José María González de Hermosillo. A battle between imperial and republican forces occurred here in 1866 during the French Intervention in Mexico, in 1879, the capital of the state of Sonora was moved from Arizpe to Hermosillo. In 1881 the railroad linking Hermosillo with Guaymas and Nogales was finished, allowing for expansion in the area by bringing in mining equipment. Since then, the city has been a center for northwest Mexico. During the Mexican Revolution, forces loyal to Pancho Villa were repulsed by General Manuel M. Diéguez, after the assassination of Francisco I. Madero in 1913, Venustiano Carranza, then governor of Coahuila, here Carranza began the Constitutionalist Movement, and because of this, Hermosillo has the nickname of the revolutionary capital of the country. From the late 19th century and through the first two decades of the 20th, Chinese immigrants came into Sonora state, one of the places in which a significant number settled was the city of Hermosillo
Hermosillo
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Hermosillo
Hermosillo
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Seal
Hermosillo
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Plaza Bicentenario in Hermosillo, 2011
Hermosillo
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Anastasio Cuca,
Yaqui leader, 1887.
2.
Sonora
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Sonora, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Sonora, is one of 31 states that, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities, the city is Hermosillo. Sonora is located in Northwest Mexico, bordered by the states of Chihuahua to the east, Baja California to the northwest and Sinaloa to the south. To the north, it shares the U. S. –Mexico border with the states of Arizona and New Mexico, and on the west has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of California. Sonoras natural geography is divided into three parts, the Sierra Madre Occidental in the east of the state, plains and rolling hills in the center, and the coast on the Gulf of California. It is primarily arid or semiarid deserts and grasslands, with only the highest elevations having sufficient rainfall to support other types of vegetation, Sonora is home to eight indigenous peoples, including the Mayo, the Yaqui, and Seri. It has been important for its agriculture, livestock, and mining since the colonial period. With the Gadsden Purchase, Sonora lost more than a quarter of its territory, from the 20th century to the present, industry, tourism, and agribusiness have dominated the economy, attracting migration from other parts of Mexico. Several theories exist as to the origin of the name Sonora and they encountered the Opata, who could not pronounce Señora, instead saying Senora or Sonora. A third theory, written by Father Cristóbal de Cañas in 1730, states that the name comes from the word for a water well, sonot. The first record of the name Sonora comes from explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, Francisco de Ibarra also traveled through the area in 1567 and referred to the Valles de Señora. Evidence of human existence in the dates back over 10,000 years. The first humans were hunter gatherers who used tools made from stones, seashells. During much of the period, the environmental conditions were less severe than they are today, with similar. The oldest Clovis culture site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora and it was discovered during a 2007 survey. It features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP, in 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found, the evidence suggests that humans did in fact kill two of them here. Agriculture first appeared around 400 BCE and 200 CE in the river valleys, the lowland central coast, however, seems never truly to have adopted agriculture. Because Sonora and much of the northwest does not share many of the traits of that area
Sonora
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Cajemé, Yaqui resistance leader
Sonora
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Flag
Sonora
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The Cananea miners' strike 1906
Sonora
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Colonia Centro, calle Pierson, Nogales
3.
Yaqui people
–
The Yaqui or Yoeme are Native Americans who inhabit the valley of the Río Yaqui in the Mexican state of Sonora and the Southwestern United States. They also have small settlements in Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and Durango, the Pascua Yaqui Tribe is based in Tucson, Arizona. Yaqui people also live elsewhere in the southwestern United States, especially Nevada, the Yaqui territory comprises three distinct areas, a mountainous area, a fishing area and cropland. Today the population is about 32,000, having been reduced because of the wars they fought for their survival for more than 50 years. At the end of the 19th century, under the government of Porfirio Diaz, they were confronted and many were deported to plantations in Yucatan and Quintana Roo. Many of them returned to their homeland on foot, and others immigrated to Arizona in order to escape the repression of the Mexican government, the Yaqui population in Arizona is currently about 8,000 and the Tribe is recognized by the United States government. Today, in addition to the inhabitants of the traditional Yaqui area, since they did not return to their villages, they form their own colonies inside of various prominent cities. In the capital of Sonora, the city of Hermosillo, colonies such as La Matanza, El Coloso and these are places in which the inhabitants make an effort to conserve the traditions and culture of the Yaqui Nation. The patio is used for raising animals and, in the remote areas, is where the latrine is installed. The Yaqui language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family, Yaqui speak a Cahitan language, a group of about 10 mutually-intelligible languages formerly spoken in much of the states of Sonora and Sinaloa. Most of the Cahitan languages are extinct, only the Yaqui and Mayo still speak their language. About 15,000 Yaqui speakers live in Mexico and 1,000 in the U. S. A, the Yaqui call themselves Hiaki or Yoeme, the Yaqui word for person. The Yaqui call their homeland Hiakim, from which some say the name Yaqui is derived and they may also describe themselves as Hiaki Nation or Pascua Hiaki, meaning The Easter People, as most had converted to Catholicism under Jesuit influence in colonial Mexico. Many folk etymologies account for how the Yoeme came to be known as the Yaqui, when the Spanish first came into contact with the Yaqui in 1533, they occupied a territory along the lower course of the Yaqui River. They were estimated to number 30,000 people living in 80 rancherias in an area about 60 miles long and 15 miles wide, some Yaqui lived near the mouth of the river and were dependent upon the sea for subsistence. Most lived in communities, growing beans, maize. A few lived an existence in the deserts and mountains. Captain Diego de Guzmán, leader of an expedition to lands north of the Spanish settlements
Yaqui people
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Yaqui Indians
Yaqui people
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Gen.
Obregón and staff of Yaqui, c. 1910
Yaqui people
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Traditional everyday dress worn by Yaqui women at the
Museo de Arte Popular in Mexico City.
4.
Franco-Mexican War
–
It followed President Benito Juárezs suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on 17 July 1861, which angered these three major creditors of Mexico. Emperor Napoleon III of France was the instigator, justifying military intervention by claiming a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade, for him, a friendly government in Mexico would ensure European access to Latin American markets. Napoleon also wanted the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire, Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain while the U. S. was deeply engaged in its civil war. The three European powers signed the Treaty of London on 31 October 1861, to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico, on 8 December the Spanish fleet and troops arrived at Mexicos main port, Veracruz. When the British and Spanish discovered that France planned to all of Mexico. The subsequent French invasion resulted in the Second Mexican Empire, after heavy guerrilla resistance led by Juárez, which continued even after the capital had fallen in 1863, the French eventually withdrew from Mexico and Maximilian I was executed in 1867. The British, Spanish and French fleets arrived at Veracruz, between 8 and 17 December 1861 intending to pressure the Mexicans into settling their debts, the Spanish fleet seized San Juan de Ulúa and subsequently the capital Veracruz on 17 December. The European forces advanced to Orizaba, Cordoba and Tehuacán, as they had agreed in the Convention of Soledad, the city of Campeche surrendered to the French fleet on 27 February 1862, and a French army, commanded by General Lorencez, arrived on 5 March. When the Spanish and British realised the French ambition was to conquer Mexico, they withdrew their forces on 9 April, in May, the French man-of-war Bayonnaise blockaded Mazatlán for a few days. Mexican forces commanded by General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated the French army in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862, the pursuing Mexican army was contained by the French at Orizaba, Veracruz, on 14 June. More French troops arrived on 21 September, and General Bazaine arrived with French reinforcements on 16 October, the French occupied the port of Tampico on 23 October, and unopposed by Mexican forces took control of Xalapa, Veracruz on 12 December. The French bombarded Veracruz on 15 January 1863, two months later, on 16 March, General Forey and the French Army began the siege of Puebla. They were forced to make a defence in a nearby hacienda, danjou was mortally wounded at the hacienda, and his men mounted an almost suicidal bayonet attack, fighting to nearly the last man, only three French Legionnaires survived. To this day, the anniversary of 30 April remains the most important day of celebration for Legionnaires. The French army of General François Achille Bazaine defeated the Mexican army led by General Comonfort in its campaign to relieve the siege of Puebla, at San Lorenzo, Puebla surrendered to the French shortly afterward, on 17 May. On 31 May, President Juárez fled the city with his cabinet, retreating northward to Paso del Norte, having taken the treasure of the state with them, the government-in-exile remained in Chihuahua until 1867. French troops under Bazaine entered Mexico City on 7 June 1863, the main army entered the city three days later led by General Forey. General Almonte was appointed the provisional President of Mexico on 16 June, the Superior Junta with its 35 members met on 21 June, and proclaimed a Catholic Empire on 10 July
Franco-Mexican War
–
Clockwise from left: French assault during the
Second Battle of Puebla;
French cavalry seize the Republican flag during the
Battle of San Pablo del Monte; depiction of the execution of Emperor Maximilian I by
Édouard Manet.
Franco-Mexican War
–
The
Battle of Puebla, 1862
Franco-Mexican War
–
Emperor
Maximilian I of Mexico
Franco-Mexican War
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Battle of Miahuatlán, 3 October 1866
5.
War of Reform
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The War of the Reform is one of many episodes of the long struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces that dominated the country’s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted to eliminate the political, economic, and cultural power of the Catholic church as well as undermine the role of the Mexican Army, both the Catholic Church and the Army were protected by corporate or institutional privileges established in the colonial era. Liberals sought to create a modern nation-state founded on liberal principles, the liberals passed a series of separate laws implementing their vision of Mexico, and then promulgated the Constitution of 1857, which gave constitutional force to their program. The Liberals lack military experience and lost most of the early battles, Liberal victories accumulated thereafter until Conservative forces surrendered in December 1860. After the end of the Mexican War of Independence, the country was divided as it tried to recover from more than a decade of fighting. From 1821-57,50 different governments ruled the country and these included dictatorships, constitutional republican governments and a monarchy. The political division was divided into two groups, the Liberals and the Conservatives. The Liberal political movements had their beginnings in the meetings of the Freemasonry. The secret nature of the society allowed for discreet political discussion, Conservatives favored a strong centralized government, with many wanting a European-style monarchy. Conservatives favored protecting many of the institutions inherited from the period, including tax and legal exemptions for the Catholic Church. Liberals favored the establishment of a federalist republic based on ideas coming out of the European Enlightenment, until the end of the Reform period Mexico’s history would be dominated by these two factions vying for control and fighting against foreign incursions at the same time. The Reform Era of Mexican history is defined from 1855-76. In the 1850s the Liberal ousted Antonio López de Santa Anna under the Plan of Ayutla in 1855 and this ascendancy came after the loss of about half of Mexico’s national territory to the US in the Mexican–American War. Liberals believed that the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The Liberals challenge to the Catholic Churchs hegemony in Mexico came about in stages even before the 1850s and this included Catholic newspapers such as La Cruz and conservative groups that strongly attacked Liberal policies and ideology. This ideology had roots in the European Enlightenment, which sought to reduce the role of the Catholic Church in society. The Reforms began in the 1830s and 1840s coalesced into the laws of the Reform era. The 1857 Constitution of Mexico was promulgated near the end of the first phase, more Reform laws were passed from 1861–63 and after 1867 when the Liberals emerged victorious after two civil wars with Conservative opponents
War of Reform
–
Conservatives
6.
Yaqui Wars
–
The Yaqui Wars, were a series of armed conflicts between New Spain, and the later Mexican republic, against the Yaqui Native Americans. The period began in 1533 and lasted until 1929, the Yaqui Wars, along with the Caste War against the Maya, were the last conflicts of the centuries long Mexican Indian Wars. Over the course of nearly 400 years, the Spanish and the Mexicans repeatedly launched military campaigns into Yaqui territory which resulted in several serious battles and some infamous massacres. The cause of the conflicts was like many of the Indian Wars in history, in 1684, following this, the Spanish gradually began settling on Yaqui land and by 1740, the natives were ready to resist. Some minor conflicts from before dated back to 1533 but in 1740 the Yaquis united their tribe with the neighboring Mayo, Opata, during the Mexican War of Independence from Spain the Yaqui did not participate on either side. It was when Occidente passed a law in 1825 making the Yaqui its citizens and subjecting them to taxes that the Yaqui decided to go to war, the first fighting was at Rahum. The movement was encouraged by Pedro Leyva, a Catholic priest, the Yaqui coalesced around Juan Banderas as their leader. Banderas managed to get the Mayos, Opatas and Pimas to join in the war against the Mexican government, Occidente was so affected by the war that the capital was moved from Cosala to Fuerte. In 1827 Banderas forces were defeated by Mexicans in the vicinity of Hermosillo and this defeat was partly due to the Yaquis having primarily bows and arrows, while the Mexicans had guns. After this defeat, Banderas negotiated a peace with Occidente, in which he was granted pardon, and recognized as captain-general of the Yaqui town, and was given a salary. In 1828 the office of captain-general was abolished, and Occidente government reasserted its right to tax the Yaqui, in 1832 Banderas renewed the war against the Mexican authorities, in cooperation with Dolores Gutiérrez, a chief of the Opata. In 1833 Banderas and Gutiérrez were executed after their forces were defeated in a battle near Buenavista, there were other leaders who continued resisting, so the wars continued. One incident in 1868 was a massacre by Mexican soldiers of about 120 Yaqui men, women and children, some 400 of the Yaqui prisoners were held inside a church which was then bombarded by artillery. Affairs such as this many of the natives to emigrate. Some warriors fled from their occupied pueblos along the Rio Yaqui, in 1834 Yaqui at Torim tried to drive the Mexican settlers from that location. The Mexican forces in this fighting were led by a Yaqui, Juscamea continued to cooperate with the Mexican government until 1840 when he was killed by anti-Mexican Yaquis in fighting at Horcasitas. During the 1830s and 1840s the Yaqui often allied with Manuel Gándara in his struggle against José de Urrea for control of Sonora, in 1838 this led to Urrea capturing the coastal salt deposits of the Yaqui and transferring them to state control. In 1857 Gándara was removed from power by Ignacio Pesqueira, the Yaqui under the leadership of Mateo Marquin, also known as Jose Maria Barquin, were among the chief allies of Gándara in his attempt to regain control of Sonora
Yaqui Wars
–
Uprising of the Yaqui Indians - Yaqui Warriors in Retreat, by
Frederic Remington, 1896.
Yaqui Wars
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a group of Yaqui Indians at the surrender and signing of peace treaty at Ortiz, Mexico, ca.1910. Two Mexicans stand near three Indians in the foreground.
Yaqui Wars
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The Yaqui warrior Cajemé in April 1887, taken at the time of his arrest by Mexican authorities.
Yaqui Wars
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The Yaqui leader Anastacio Cuca in May 1887.
7.
California Gold Rush
–
The California Gold Rush began on January 24,1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutters Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States, the Gold Rush initiated the California Genocide, with 100,000 Native Californians dying between 1848 and 1868. By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory to the state of the first nominee for the Republican Party. The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial, whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold-seekers, called forty-niners. The first to hear confirmed information of the rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands, and Latin America. While most of the newly arrived were Americans, the Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia, agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. San Francisco grew from a settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852. Roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California, in 1849 a state constitution was written. The new constitution was adopted by vote, and the future states interim first governor. In September,1850, California became a state, at the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of staking claims was developed. Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques, although the mining caused environmental harm, more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world. New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service, by 1869 railroads were built across the country from California to the eastern United States. At its peak, technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required, Gold worth tens of billions of todays dollars was recovered, which led to great wealth for a few. However, many returned home with more than they had started with. The Mexican–American War ended on February 3,1848, although California was firmly in American hands before that, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutters Mill, near Coloma, on January 24,1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter, and the two tested the metal. However, rumors started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher
California Gold Rush
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Sailing to California at the beginning of the Gold Rush
California Gold Rush
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Merchant ships fill
San Francisco harbor, 1850–51
California Gold Rush
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Panning for gold on the
Mokelumne River
California Gold Rush
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"Independent Gold Hunter on His Way to California", circa 1850. The gold hunter is loaded down with every conceivable appliance, much of which would be useless in California. The prospector says: "I am sorry I did not follow the advice of Granny and go around the Horn, through the Straights, or by Chagres [Panama]."
8.
English Language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English Language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English Language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English Language
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Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
9.
Guaymas
–
Guaymas is a city located in Guaymas Municipality in the southwest part of the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. The city is located 117 km south of the capital of Hermosillo, and 242 miles from the U. S. border. The municipality is located in the Sonora Desert and has a hot, the municipality’s formal name is Guaymas de Zaragoza and the city’s formal name is the Heróica Ciudad de Guaymas. The city proper is mostly an industrial port, with nearby San Carlos being the major tourist attraction for its beaches, the city also has a well-attended annual carnival, which has been held since 1888. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the now known as Guaymas was dominated by the Guaymas, Seri. In 1539, two Spanish ships, the Santa Agueda and El Trinidad, arrived in Guaymas Bay. They were commanded by Francisco de Ulloa, who called the area “the port of ports. ”Some small Jesuit missions in the area were founded in the 1610s and 1620s, the Seri strongly opposed the settlement of Europeans and resisted fiercely until 1769. Juan María de Salvatierra and Eusebio Kino asked for permission to evangelize the area, in 1701, Salvatierra came to this area and established the Loreto mission somewhat inland from where Guaymas is now. To receive supplies by ship and evangelize the Guaymas Indians, the Jesuits founded another small mission on the bay and it was headed by Manuel Diaz. The Seri repeatedly attacked the San José mission, forcing it to be abandoned, the last time this mission was abandoned was in 1759. In 1767, Viceroy Marqués de Croix ordered a military offensive. After doing so, the Spanish colonials built a fort with four towers in Guaymas. No traces of the fort today, but the San José mission is marked by a church located on the road leading to Empalme. Around the same time, the colonists formally mapped the Guaymas Bay, despite the decree, no colonists settled there until the early 19th century. In the late 18th and early 19th century, there was only one inhabitant in Guaymas, called “Tio Pepe”, who was said to be a drunk. At the beginning of the 19th century, the village began to be populated by farmers and ranchers, farming was on a subsistence level. In 1811, commercial traffic was authorized, and customs were established later in 1823. Guaymas received the name San Fernando de Guaymas in 1820, ships visited the bay intermittently but only one house was here for customs purposes
Guaymas
–
Aerial view of Guaymas
Guaymas
–
Coat of arms
Guaymas
–
Statues of the three presidents at the Tres Presidentes Plaza
10.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
–
A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
–
Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
–
Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
–
Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
11.
Militia
–
For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
Militia
–
The Lexington Minuteman, a statue commemorating
Captain John Parker, a commander of Massachusetts militia forces during the
American Revolutionary War.
Militia
–
Peshmurga Kurdish Militia, cleaning weapons
Militia
–
The war standard of the Imeretian militia of the Imperial Russian Army. The inscription reads in Russian and Georgian: "To the Militia of Our Faithful Imeretian People for Exceptional Courage Displayed against the Mountaineers in 1838.".
Militia
–
Captain
John Smith's 1624 map of the Somers Isles (
Bermuda), showing
St. George's Town and related fortifications, including the
Castle Islands Fortifications with their garrisons of militiamen
12.
Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon
–
Charles Rene Gaston Gustave de Raousset-Boulbon was a French adventurer, filibuster and entrepreneur and, by some accounts a pirate, and a theoretician of colonialism. Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon was born on May 5,1817 and he inherited the title of count. Unable to survive in France, he boarded a sailing to the Americas as a third-class passenger. His impressions are typical of a 19th-century aristocrat, A letter to a friend describes Colombia as. the true America, ruins, mendicants, racial degradation, the haphazard mixture of all kins of blood, vagabonds playing guitar. Naked children, little savages running everywhere amongst dogs, all of it in an admirable state of Nature. Raousset-Boulbon arrived in San Francisco and felt deeply disillusioned after not receiving the treatment he thought was deserved for a Count, after a series of failed enterprises as a gold prospector he became involved in a conflict in the Mexican state of Sonora. The first expedition was under the guise of a company known as La Compenia Restauradora de la Mina de la Arizona. Raousset-Boulbon and his forces captured Hermosillo, Sonora, the capital of the state, a retreat to Guaymas resulted in his surrender to General Miguel Blanco. In 1854 Raousset-Boulbon returned to Sonora, but his forces did not get the support they needed. They were defeated in Guaymas by an army led by Jose Maria Yanez, in the Battle of Guaymas. On August 13,1854 the Count Raousset-Boulbon was executed by a squad in Guaymas. He refused to wear a blindfold, filibuster William Walker List of French possessions and colonies Condal, Pablo. Todo es historia, El ayer de los hechos de hoy, satélite. de Collet La Madelène, Joseph Henri. Le comte Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon, sa vie et ses aventures, dpres ses papiers et sa correspondance, paris, Charpentier et Cie, Libraires Éditeurs. de Lachapelle, André. El Conde De Raousset-Boulbon Y La Expedición De Sonora, Correspondencia, recuerdos y obras inéditas, publicadas por André de Lachapelle, exredactor en jefe del Messager de San Francisco, parís, Impreso en Bonaventure et Successois, Quai des Augustins,55. Un conquistador moderne, Le comte de Raousset-Boulbon, un folletín realizado, La aventura del conde de Raousset-Boulbon. Secretaría de Educación Pública, Dirección General de Educación Audiovisual y Divulgación
Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon
–
Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon
13.
Tepic
–
Tepic is the capital and largest city of the western Mexican state of Nayarit. It is located in the part of the state, at 21°30′30″N 104°53′35″W. It stands at an altitude of 915 metres above sea level, on the banks of the Río Mololoa, nearby are the extinct Sangangüey volcano and its crater lake. Tepic is the urban center of this rich agricultural region, major crops include sugarcane, tobacco. The city was founded in 1531 as Villa del Espíritu Santo de la Mayor España, Tepic has the second largest indigenous population in ths State of Nayarit, with 4.375. The most prominent among them are the Huichol, Cora 527, catholicism is the most prominent religion in Tepic with 94, 2% of the population. Juan Escutia, Boy hero of the Battle of Chapultepec, born in Tepic, between 1828 and 1832, on the morning of 13 September 1847, he fought to prevent invading U. S. forces from capturing Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City. After a brave defense, he is reported to have wrapped himself in the national flag, luis Ernesto Franco, Mexican actor Nayarit had small stadiums built for football and baseball. Both now demolished, they have a project to make new, modern, and bigger stadiums, there are multiple football fields and places to play cascaritas, indoor football courts, a basketball center and gym, several volleyball courts, and a bowling alley. In addition to sports, in the citys main park there is an olympic swimming pool. In Tepic, tennis is a sport, but the most popular is soccer. The city also has a bullring, as do most Mexican cities, Tepic has several state teams, one or more for each sport. Both the soccer and the teams are named Coras. Futsal is also played in the city. Tepic has a subtropical climate, with most rain falling in the wet season from June to October
Tepic
–
Tepic Cathedral
Tepic
–
Location of Tepic municipality
Tepic
–
View of the ruins of Jauja
14.
Acaponeta
–
Acaponeta is both a municipality and a town in the northern part of the Mexican state of Nayarit. The town is located at the coordinates of 22°29′47″N 105°21′34″W. The population of the municipality was 34,665 in the 2005 census, the population of the municipal seat was 18,066, the fifth-largest community in the state. The Acaponeta River flows through the town, the climate is hot, subhumid, with the rainy season between June and September. The average annual rainfall is 1,307 mm. of which 92% is registered in the months of July to September, the average temperature is 26.7 °C. The municipality is crossed by the Nogales, Sonora-Mexico City railroad, distances to some major cities are, Mazatlán 150.3 km. See Ferromex The economy of the region is dependent on agriculture. The main crops are corn, beans, sorghum, tobacco, chile, there is a modest cattle herd as well as swine and poultry. Industry is little developed and consists of small transformation industries, the municipality has one of the oldest processing plants for corn flour as well as packing houses for mangos. Agriculture employs over 40% of the active population, 41% are in services. Due to the nature of the economy there is high sub-employment and subsequent immigration to the United States of America
Acaponeta
–
Municipalities
and
municipal seats
15.
Nayarit
–
Nayarit, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Nayarit, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided in 20 municipalities and its capital city is Tepic and it is located in Western Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Sinaloa to the northwest, Durango to the north, Zacatecas to the northeast, to the west, Nayarit has a significant share of coastline on the Pacific Ocean, including the islands of Marías and Marietas. The beaches of San Blas and the so-called Riviera Nayarit are popular with tourists, beside tourism, the economy of the state is based mainly on agriculture and fishing. Home to Uto-Aztecan indigenous peoples such as the Huichol and Cora, Spanish governance was made difficult by indigenous rebellions and by the inhospitable terrain of the Sierra del Nayar. The last independent Cora communities were subjugated in 1722, the states name recalls the Coras label for themselves, Náayerite, commemorating Nayar, a resistance leader. Encountered on the western coast by the Spanish invaders in 1500, hernándo was the first known European to enter into the area now known as Nayarit, which claimed for Spain as part of the colony of Nueva Galicia. As the Spaniards invaded the area, led by Nuño de Guzman, their brutality caused the inhabitants to revolt. After almost two centuries of resistance, the last independent Cora communities were incorporated into the administration by force in 1722. Then followed intense missionary efforts by Jesuit friars, in the colonial period, the port of San Blas was one of the most important trade ports on the American Pacific coast. Galleons transporting goods from Manila, the Philippines arrived here before the rise of the port of Acapulco, today, the town still boasts colonial architecture from the its heyday, such as the aduana, contaduria and the fortress that protected the port against pirates. In Nayarit, the struggle for independence from Spain was initiated by the priest José María Mercado, with the first independent constitution of 1824, Nayarit was a part of Jalisco state. During the second half of the 19th century, Nayarit was one of the most turbulent territories in Mexico, the population was in open revolt, demanding access to land. Nayarit was one of the last territories admitted as a state of the Mexican federation, Nayarit covers 27,815 square kilometers, making it one of the smaller states in Mexico. Nayarit is located between latitude lines 23°05 north and 20°36 south and longitude lines 103°43 east and 105°46 west and its terrain is broken up by the western ends of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. Its highest mountains are, San Juan, Sanguangüey, El Ceboruco, Nayarit has two volcanoes, Ceboruco and Sangangüey. In the northeast are broad, tropical plains watered by the Río Grande de Santiago, the main state rivers are the Río Grande de Santiago, San Pedro, Acaponeta, Ameca and Las Cañas. The Río Grande de Santiago is the largest river in Nayarit, the Santiago and its tributaries are of major importance for agricultural irrigation
Nayarit
–
The colonial contaduría (accounting offices) in the old port town of
San Blas.
Nayarit
–
Flag
Nayarit
–
Sayulita off Nayarit's Pacific coast, a former fishing village now mostly given over to tourism, part of the area now marketed as "La
Riviera Nayarita " or "Nuevo Vallarta"
Nayarit
–
Flora and fauna of Nayarit
16.
Pima people
–
The Pima /ˈpiːmə/ are a group of Native Americans living in an area consisting of what is now central and southern Arizona. They are closely related to other people, the Ak-Chin Oodham. They are also related to the Sobaipuri, whose descendants reside on the San Xavier Indian Reservation or Wa, k, and in the Salt River Indian Community. Together with the kindred Tohono Oodham of Eastern Papagueria, and the Hia C-ed Oodham of the Western Papagueria, the Akimel Oodham form the Upper Ootham or Upper Pima. The short name, Pima, is believed to have come from the phrase pi añi mac or pi mac, meaning I dont know, the latter referred to them as the Pima. This term was adopted by later English speakers, traders, explorers and settlers, the Pima Indians called themselves Othama until the first account of interaction with non-Native Americans was recorded. Spanish missionaries recorded Pima villages known as Kina, Equituni and Uturituc, European Americans later corrupted the miscommunication into Pimos, which was adapted to Pima river people. The Akimel OOtham are a subgroup of the Upper Ootham or Upper Pima and they are thought to be culturally descended from the group classified in archaeology as the Hohokam. The term Hohokam is a derivative of the Ootham word Huhugam, the Pima Alto or Upper Pima groups were subdivided by scholars on the basis of cultural, economic and linguistic differences into two main groupings, One was known commonly as the Pima or River Pima. Since the late 20th century, they have called by their own name, or autonym, Akimel Ootham Akimel Ootham Onk Akimel Oodham. Keli Akimel Ootham, now known as the Gila River Indian Community Ak-Chin OOdham, Ak-Chin Indian Community Sobaipuri, in the early 18th century, they were gradually driven out of the lower San Pedro River valley. In the middle of the century, their settlements along the upper San Pedro River were broken up by Arivaipa. They moved west, seeking refuge among the Tohono Oodham and Akimel Oodham, the other people was known commonly as the Papago or Desert Pima. The people are now known by their own name or autonym, Tohono Oodham, the neighboring Akimel Oodham called them Pahpah Au-Authm or Ba, bawĭkoʼa - eating tepary beans, which was pronounced Papago by the Spanish. The villages were set up as a group of houses with familial groups sharing a central ramada. Brush olaskis were built around this central area, the Ootham are matrilocal, with daughters and their husbands living with and near the daughters mother. Familial groups tended to consist of extended families, the Akimel Ootham also lived seasonally in temporary field houses in order to tend their crops. The Oodham language, variously called Oʼodham ñeʼokĭ, Oʼodham ñiʼokĭ or Oʼotham ñiok, is spoken by all Oodham groups, there are certain dialectal differences, but they are mutually intelligible and all Oodham groups can understand one another
Pima people
–
O'odham portraits
Pima people
–
Pima
Pima people
–
Pima home in 1900.
Pima people
–
Kaviu, a Pima elder, photographed around 1907 by
Edward S. Curtis.
17.
Reform War
–
The War of the Reform is one of many episodes of the long struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces that dominated the country’s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted to eliminate the political, economic, and cultural power of the Catholic church as well as undermine the role of the Mexican Army, both the Catholic Church and the Army were protected by corporate or institutional privileges established in the colonial era. Liberals sought to create a modern nation-state founded on liberal principles, the liberals passed a series of separate laws implementing their vision of Mexico, and then promulgated the Constitution of 1857, which gave constitutional force to their program. The Liberals lack military experience and lost most of the early battles, Liberal victories accumulated thereafter until Conservative forces surrendered in December 1860. After the end of the Mexican War of Independence, the country was divided as it tried to recover from more than a decade of fighting. From 1821-57,50 different governments ruled the country and these included dictatorships, constitutional republican governments and a monarchy. The political division was divided into two groups, the Liberals and the Conservatives. The Liberal political movements had their beginnings in the meetings of the Freemasonry. The secret nature of the society allowed for discreet political discussion, Conservatives favored a strong centralized government, with many wanting a European-style monarchy. Conservatives favored protecting many of the institutions inherited from the period, including tax and legal exemptions for the Catholic Church. Liberals favored the establishment of a federalist republic based on ideas coming out of the European Enlightenment, until the end of the Reform period Mexico’s history would be dominated by these two factions vying for control and fighting against foreign incursions at the same time. The Reform Era of Mexican history is defined from 1855-76. In the 1850s the Liberal ousted Antonio López de Santa Anna under the Plan of Ayutla in 1855 and this ascendancy came after the loss of about half of Mexico’s national territory to the US in the Mexican–American War. Liberals believed that the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The Liberals challenge to the Catholic Churchs hegemony in Mexico came about in stages even before the 1850s and this included Catholic newspapers such as La Cruz and conservative groups that strongly attacked Liberal policies and ideology. This ideology had roots in the European Enlightenment, which sought to reduce the role of the Catholic Church in society. The Reforms began in the 1830s and 1840s coalesced into the laws of the Reform era. The 1857 Constitution of Mexico was promulgated near the end of the first phase, more Reform laws were passed from 1861–63 and after 1867 when the Liberals emerged victorious after two civil wars with Conservative opponents
Reform War
–
Conservatives
18.
French Intervention in Mexico
–
It followed President Benito Juárezs suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on 17 July 1861, which angered these three major creditors of Mexico. Emperor Napoleon III of France was the instigator, justifying military intervention by claiming a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade, for him, a friendly government in Mexico would ensure European access to Latin American markets. Napoleon also wanted the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire, Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain while the U. S. was deeply engaged in its civil war. The three European powers signed the Treaty of London on 31 October 1861, to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico, on 8 December the Spanish fleet and troops arrived at Mexicos main port, Veracruz. When the British and Spanish discovered that France planned to all of Mexico. The subsequent French invasion resulted in the Second Mexican Empire, after heavy guerrilla resistance led by Juárez, which continued even after the capital had fallen in 1863, the French eventually withdrew from Mexico and Maximilian I was executed in 1867. The British, Spanish and French fleets arrived at Veracruz, between 8 and 17 December 1861 intending to pressure the Mexicans into settling their debts, the Spanish fleet seized San Juan de Ulúa and subsequently the capital Veracruz on 17 December. The European forces advanced to Orizaba, Cordoba and Tehuacán, as they had agreed in the Convention of Soledad, the city of Campeche surrendered to the French fleet on 27 February 1862, and a French army, commanded by General Lorencez, arrived on 5 March. When the Spanish and British realised the French ambition was to conquer Mexico, they withdrew their forces on 9 April, in May, the French man-of-war Bayonnaise blockaded Mazatlán for a few days. Mexican forces commanded by General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated the French army in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862, the pursuing Mexican army was contained by the French at Orizaba, Veracruz, on 14 June. More French troops arrived on 21 September, and General Bazaine arrived with French reinforcements on 16 October, the French occupied the port of Tampico on 23 October, and unopposed by Mexican forces took control of Xalapa, Veracruz on 12 December. The French bombarded Veracruz on 15 January 1863, two months later, on 16 March, General Forey and the French Army began the siege of Puebla. They were forced to make a defence in a nearby hacienda, danjou was mortally wounded at the hacienda, and his men mounted an almost suicidal bayonet attack, fighting to nearly the last man, only three French Legionnaires survived. To this day, the anniversary of 30 April remains the most important day of celebration for Legionnaires. The French army of General François Achille Bazaine defeated the Mexican army led by General Comonfort in its campaign to relieve the siege of Puebla, at San Lorenzo, Puebla surrendered to the French shortly afterward, on 17 May. On 31 May, President Juárez fled the city with his cabinet, retreating northward to Paso del Norte, having taken the treasure of the state with them, the government-in-exile remained in Chihuahua until 1867. French troops under Bazaine entered Mexico City on 7 June 1863, the main army entered the city three days later led by General Forey. General Almonte was appointed the provisional President of Mexico on 16 June, the Superior Junta with its 35 members met on 21 June, and proclaimed a Catholic Empire on 10 July
French Intervention in Mexico
–
Clockwise from left: French assault during the
Second Battle of Puebla;
French cavalry seize the Republican flag during the
Battle of San Pablo del Monte; depiction of the execution of Emperor Maximilian I by
Édouard Manet.
French Intervention in Mexico
–
The
Battle of Puebla, 1862
French Intervention in Mexico
–
Emperor
Maximilian I of Mexico
French Intervention in Mexico
–
Battle of Miahuatlán, 3 October 1866
19.
Maximilian I of Mexico
–
Maximilian was the only monarch of the Second Mexican Empire. He was a brother of the Austrian emperor Francis Joseph I. After a distinguished career in the Austrian Navy, he accepted an offer by Napoleon III of France to rule Mexico, France had invaded Mexico in the winter of 1861, as part of the War of the French Intervention. Seeking to legitimize French rule in the Americas, Napoleon III invited Maximilian to establish a new Mexican monarchy for him. With the support of the French army, and a group of conservative Mexican monarchists hostile to the administration of new Mexican President Benito Juárez. Once there, he declared himself Emperor of Mexico on 10 April 1864, the Empire managed to gain recognition by major European powers including Britain, Austria, and Prussia. The United States however, continued to recognize Juarez as the president of Mexico. Maximilian never completely defeated the Mexican Republic, Republican forces led by President Benito Juárez continued to be active during Maximilians rule, with the end of the American Civil War in 1865, the United States began more explicit aid of President Juárezs forces. Matters worsened for Maximilian after the French armies withdrew from Mexico in 1866 and his self-declared empire collapsed, and he was captured and executed by the Mexican government in 1867. His wife, Charlotte of Belgium, had left for Europe earlier to try to support for her husbands regime, after his execution, however. Maximilian was born on 6 July 1832 in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna and he was baptized the following day as Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph. The first name honored his godfather and paternal uncle, The King of Hungary and his father was Archduke Franz Karl, the second surviving son of The Emperor of Austria, during whose reign he was born. Maximilian was thus a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, a cadet branch of the House of Habsburg. His mother was Princess Sophie of Bavaria, a member of the House of Wittelsbach, despite their different personalities, the marriage was fruitful, and after four miscarriages, four sons—including Maximilian—would reach adulthood. The existence of an affair between Sophie and the Duke, and any possibility that Maximilian was conceived from such a union, are widely dismissed by historians. Adhering to traditions inherited from the Spanish court during Habsburg rule, afterwards, his education was entrusted to a tutor. Most of Maximilians day was spent in study, the thirty-two hours per week of classes at age 7 steadily grew until it reached fifty-five hours per week by the time he was 17. The disciplines were diverse, ranging from history, geography, law and technology, to languages, military studies, fencing, in addition to his native German, he eventually learned to speak Hungarian, Slovak, English, French, Italian and Spanish
Maximilian I of Mexico
–
Emperor Maximiliano around 1865
Maximilian I of Mexico
–
Maximilian receiving a Mexican delegation at
Miramar Castle in
Trieste, Italy.
Maximilian I of Mexico
–
Portrait as Emperor of Mexico,
Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1864
Maximilian I of Mexico
–
Maximilian I of Mexico depicted on a 20
peso gold coin (1866)
20.
Pueblos
–
The Pueblo peoples speak languages from several different groups and are also divided culturally by their kinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties of corn. In addition to differing kinship systems, the peoples have differing marriage practices and those who have a matrilineal system, in which children are considered born into the mothers clan and her line is used for inheritance and descent, are the Hopi, Keres, Towa and Zuni. The non-Towa Tanoan have a system, with clan membership, inheritance. All the Pueblo peoples have traditional economies based on agriculture and trade, at the time of Spanish encounter beginning in the 16th century, these peoples were living in complex, multi-story villages often built around a central courtyard. The Spanish called these pueblos, meaning towns, and applied the name to all the living in such complexes. In the 21st century there are 21 surviving pueblos in the Southwest of the United States, Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are the best-known. The main pueblos are located primarily in the states of New Mexico. Anthropologists have studied these peoples extensively and published various classifications of their subdivisions, in 1950, Fred Russell Eggan contrasted the peoples of the Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on their subsistence farming techniques. The Western or Desert Pueblos of the Zuñi and Hopi specialize in dry farming, in 1954, Paul Kirchhoff published a division of the Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture, one includes the Hopi, Zuni, Keres and Jemez. They each have matrilineal kinship systems, children are considered born into their mothers clan and must marry a spouse outside it and they maintain multiple kivas for sacred ceremonies. Their creation myth tells that humans emerged from the underground and they emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in the north. Four and seven are considered significant in their rituals and symbolism. In contrast, the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos have a kinship system. They practice endogamy, or marriage within the clan and they have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based in dualism, the creation story recounts the emergence of the people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west and their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three. The Pueblo peoples speak languages from different language families, demonstrating their diverse ethnic origins. The Hopi language is Uto-Aztecan, Zuni is an isolate, and Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo
Pueblos
–
Laguna Pueblo dwellers
Pueblos
–
Taos Pueblo, circa 1920
Pueblos
–
Sculptor
Cliff Fragua. Unveiling and Dedication of the
Popé statue in the Capitol in Washington DC, September 2005.
Pueblos
–
A Zuni drying platform for maize and other foods, with two women crafting pottery beneath it. From the
Panama-California Exposition, San Diego, California. January 1915.
21.
Republic
–
It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
Republic
–
Vaishali was the
capital of the
Vajjian Confederacy, an early republic.
Republic
–
A map of the
Roman Republic
Republic
–
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo,
Neptune offers the wealth of the sea to Venice, 1748–50. This painting is an allegory of the power of the Republic of
Venice.
Republic
–
Beginning of the Republic of
Metz. Election of the first Head-Alderman in 1289, by Auguste Migette.
Metz was then a
free imperial city of the
Holy Roman Emperor.
22.
Taxation
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A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent, the legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not regard many transfers to governments as taxes. For example, some transfers to the sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments, governments also obtain resources by creating money and coins, through voluntary gifts, by imposing penalties, by borrowing, and by confiscating wealth. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money, but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre-capitalist states, the method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Canada Revenue Agency, when taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties or criminal penalties on the non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing and/or to alter prices in order to affect demand, States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. A governments ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity, when expenditures exceed tax revenue, a government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts, governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. These services can include education systems, pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities. A tax effectively changes relative prices of products and they have therefore sought to identify the kind of tax system that would minimize this distortion. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates, historically, taxes on the poor supported the nobility, modern social-security systems aim to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are still working. A states tax system often reflects its communal values and the values of those in current political power. To create a system of taxation, a state must make choices regarding the distribution of the tax burden—who will pay taxes and how much they will pay—and how the taxes collected will be spent. In democratic nations where the public elects those in charge of establishing or administering the tax system, in countries where the public does not have a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may reflect more closely the values of those in power. All large businesses incur administrative costs in the process of delivering revenue collected from customers to the suppliers of the goods or services being purchased. Taxation is no different, the resource collected from the public through taxation is always greater than the amount which can be used by the government, the difference is called the compliance cost and includes the labour cost and other expenses incurred in complying with tax laws and rules
Taxation
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Pieter Brueghel the Younger, The tax collector's office, 1640
Taxation
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Taxation
Taxation
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Egyptian
peasants seized for
non-payment of taxes. (
Pyramid Age)
23.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
Society of Jesus
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Ignatius of Loyola
Society of Jesus
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Society of Jesus
Society of Jesus
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Church of
Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris.
Society of Jesus
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Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting
Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from
Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by
Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in
Olomouc after 1743.
24.
Federal government of the United Mexican States
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Similar to the federal government of the United States, the Mexican federal government has three branches, executive, legislative, and judicial. The seat of the government functions per the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, as enacted in 1917. The executive power is exercised by the branch, which is headed by the president and his Cabinet. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary, and the collegiate, unitary, and district tribunals. The federal government, known as the Supreme Power of the Federation, is constituted by the Powers of the Union, the legislative, the executive, Mexico City, as the capital of the federation is the Federal District, the seat of the powers of the Union. All branches of government are independent, no two separate branches must be vested upon a person or institution, and the legislative power must not be vested upon a single individual. The legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a bicameral congress comprising the Senate, the Senate addresses all matters concerning foreign policy, approves international agreements, and confirms presidential appointments. The Chamber of Deputies is formed by 500 representatives of the nation, Deputies cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Being a supplementary system of voting, proportionality is only confined to the plurinominal seats. The Senate consists of 128 representatives of the constituent states of the federation, senators cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, the ministers of the Supreme Court will serve for 15 years and cannot be appointed to serve more than once. Mexico City did not belong to any state in particular, but to the federation, being the capital of the country, as such, it was constituted as a Federal District, ultimately administered by the Powers of the Union. Nonetheless, since the late 1990s certain autonomy and powers have been gradually devolved, the executive power is vested upon a head of government now elected by first-past-the-post plurality. The legislative power is vested upon a unicameral Legislative Assembly, the judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice and the Judiciary Council. The Federal District was divided into delegaciones or boroughs, in 2016, the name was changed to Mexico City and the 12 delegations were transformed into municipalities each one with its own mayor
Federal government of the United Mexican States
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San Lázaro Palace, the Chamber of Deputies, Congress of the Union
Federal government of the United Mexican States
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Seal of the Government
Federal government of the United Mexican States
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Senate
25.
Mayo people
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The Mayo or Yoreme are an indigenous group in Mexico, living in the states of Southern Sonora, Northern Sinaloa and small settlements in Durango. Mayo people originally lived near the Mayo River and Fuerte River valleys, the Mayo sustain themselves mainly by agriculture and fishing, but also create artwork and crafts. In their own language they call themselves Yoreme, the term Mayo means the people of the river bank and comes from the Mayo River. The Mayo language belongs to the a Cahita branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family and it is closely related to Yaqui and it is spoken by approximately 40,000 people. They own traditional authorities, who are elected by vote and their hierarchy is respected on par with the Mexican civil laws, the earliest inhabitants of this region hunted, fished, and gathered plants. They gradually developed a technique that allowed them to settle in various communities. On arrival of the Spaniards in the states of Sonora and Sinaloa, the Mayos were part of an Indian confederacy with the Apaches, Pima. Their purpose was the joint defense of the invasion of other groups, mutual respect for their territory, currently, most Mayo farm, often with advanced techniques. They fish and make handicrafts intended for use by the community and they build their adobe or wood houses, depending on the climate and location. The first traces of settlements in the Mayo region date from 180 CE in the present municipality of Huatabampo, after the conquest of Mexico by the Spanish military campaigns were organized to subdue the Mayo region to the Spanish crown in 1531. However it was not achieved until 1599, through the mediation of Jesuit missionaries, the Jesuit Pedro Méndez tried evangelizing the Mayo. However, Mayos did not cease to resist the Spaniards, in 1740 marked an armed uprising, which ended with the victory again for the Spanish, after which a period of peace lasted almost a century. For 1867 the Mayo returned to take up arms with the Yaquis against the government of Mexico and they achieve a peace agreement after the Mexican Revolution with the distribution of land as communal property. The Mayo fought with Alvaro Obregóns constitutionalist fighter during the revolution, the main Mayo festival takes place during Easter and portrays the passion of Christ. Other festivals celebrated St. Juan Bautista, St. Francis of Assisi, the Mayo Flag was designed by a young Sonoran individual, whose name is not known. A deer surrounded by stars, called masochoquim or Deer of the stars in Cahita culture, stands on an orange field, fernando Valenzuela, professional baseball player Joel Huiqui, professional association football player David Yetman, Thomas Van Devender. Mayo Ethnobotany, Land, History, and Traditional Knowledge in Northwest Mexico, apuntes históricos Sonorenses, La conquista temporal y espiritual del Yaqui y del Mayo. Crumrine, Lynne S. Ceremonial Exchange as a Mechanism in Tribal Integration Among the Mayos of Northwest Mexico, anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 14,1969
Mayo people
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Traditional Mayo Deer Dance
Mayo people
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Approximation of the extension of the Mayo habitat
Mayo people
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Traditional everyday dress worn by Mayo women, displayed at the
Museo de Arte Popular in Mexico City.
26.
Mexican Army
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The Mexican Army is the combined land and air branch and largest of the Mexican Armed Forces, it is also known as the National Defense Army. It was the first army to adopt and use a self-loading rifle, the Mexican Army has an active duty force of 766,750. Mexico has no major foreign nation-state adversaries and it officially repudiates the use of force to settle disputes and rejects interference by one nation in the affairs of another. Although it has not suffered a major international terrorist incident in recent decades, in the prehispanic era, there were many indigenous tribes and highly developed city-states in what is now known as central Mexico. In Aztec society, it was compulsory for all males, nobles as well as commoners. Itzcoatl Obsidian Serpent, fourth king of Tenochtitlán, organized the army defeated the Tepanec of Atzcapotzalco. His reign began with the rise of what would become the largest empire in Mesoamerica, then Moctezuma Ilhuicamina The arrow to the sky came to extend the domain and the influence of the monarchy of Tenochtitlán. He began to trade to the outside regions of the Valley of Mexico. This was the Mexica ruler who organized the alliance with the lordships of Texcoco, the Aztec established the Flower Wars as a form of worship, these, unlike the wars of conquest, were aimed at obtaining prisoners for sacrifice to the sun. Combat orders were given by kings using drums or blowing into a sea shell that gave off a sound like a horn. Giving out signals using coats of arms was very common, for combat outside of cities, they would organize several groups, only one of which would be involved in action, while the others remained on the alert. In the early morning of September 16,1810, the Army of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the independence movement, Hidalgo was followed by his loyal companions, among them Mariano Abasolo, and a small army equipped with swords, spears, slingshots and sticks. Captain General Ignacio Allende was the brains of the insurgent army in the first phase of the War of Independence. The Spaniards saw that it was important to defend the Alhóndiga de Granaditas public granary in Guanajuato, the insurgents entered Guanajuato and proceeded to lay siege to the Alhóndiga. With this stunt, the managed to bring down the door and enter the building. Hidalgo headed to Valladolid, which was captured with little opposition, on November 29,1810, Hidalgo entered Guadalajara, the capital of Nueva Galicia, where he organized his government and the Insurgent Army, he also issued a decree abolishing slavery. At Calderon Bridge near the city of Guadalajara Jalisco, insurgents held a battle with the royalists. During the fierce fighting, one of the ammunition wagons exploded
Mexican Army
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Aztec warriors as shown in the 16th century
Florentine Codex. Note that each warrior is brandishing a
Maquahuitl.
Mexican Army
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Mexican infantry
Mexican Army
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This page from the
Codex Mendoza shows the gradual improvements to equipment and tlahuiztli as a warrior progresses through the ranks from commoner to porter to warrior to captor, and later as a noble progressing in the warrior societies from the noble warrior to "Eagle warrior" to "Jaguar Warrior" to "Otomitl" to "Shorn One" and finally as "Tlacateccatl".
Mexican Army
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Guanajuato. At center: the Alhóndiga de Granaditas
27.
Yaqui
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The Yaqui or Yoeme are Native Americans who inhabit the valley of the Río Yaqui in the Mexican state of Sonora and the Southwestern United States. They also have small settlements in Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and Durango, the Pascua Yaqui Tribe is based in Tucson, Arizona. Yaqui people also live elsewhere in the southwestern United States, especially Nevada, the Yaqui territory comprises three distinct areas, a mountainous area, a fishing area and cropland. Today the population is about 32,000, having been reduced because of the wars they fought for their survival for more than 50 years. At the end of the 19th century, under the government of Porfirio Diaz, they were confronted and many were deported to plantations in Yucatan and Quintana Roo. Many of them returned to their homeland on foot, and others immigrated to Arizona in order to escape the repression of the Mexican government, the Yaqui population in Arizona is currently about 8,000 and the Tribe is recognized by the United States government. Today, in addition to the inhabitants of the traditional Yaqui area, since they did not return to their villages, they form their own colonies inside of various prominent cities. In the capital of Sonora, the city of Hermosillo, colonies such as La Matanza, El Coloso and these are places in which the inhabitants make an effort to conserve the traditions and culture of the Yaqui Nation. The patio is used for raising animals and, in the remote areas, is where the latrine is installed. The Yaqui language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family, Yaqui speak a Cahitan language, a group of about 10 mutually-intelligible languages formerly spoken in much of the states of Sonora and Sinaloa. Most of the Cahitan languages are extinct, only the Yaqui and Mayo still speak their language. About 15,000 Yaqui speakers live in Mexico and 1,000 in the U. S. A, the Yaqui call themselves Hiaki or Yoeme, the Yaqui word for person. The Yaqui call their homeland Hiakim, from which some say the name Yaqui is derived and they may also describe themselves as Hiaki Nation or Pascua Hiaki, meaning The Easter People, as most had converted to Catholicism under Jesuit influence in colonial Mexico. Many folk etymologies account for how the Yoeme came to be known as the Yaqui, when the Spanish first came into contact with the Yaqui in 1533, they occupied a territory along the lower course of the Yaqui River. They were estimated to number 30,000 people living in 80 rancherias in an area about 60 miles long and 15 miles wide, some Yaqui lived near the mouth of the river and were dependent upon the sea for subsistence. Most lived in communities, growing beans, maize. A few lived an existence in the deserts and mountains. Captain Diego de Guzmán, leader of an expedition to lands north of the Spanish settlements
Yaqui
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Yaqui Indians
Yaqui
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Gen.
Obregón and staff of Yaqui, c. 1910
Yaqui
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Traditional everyday dress worn by Yaqui women at the
Museo de Arte Popular in Mexico City.
